Aggregate states of substances. The transition of a substance from one state of aggregation to another
Transition from one state to another. Improvement, change, modification, transformation.
The transformation discussed here concerns essence, being person. Here are some examples of transformation: a person of a pronounced possessive nature and a prisoner of his own fears becomes a free person, transforming his concepts and beliefs about what it means to live and let live. A man who rejected himself and saw only flaws in himself began to love himself when he better came to know and accept his essence. A person who considered himself a victim, that is, endured his life, transformed his internal attitudes and comprehended universal laws, thanks to which he became master my life and learned to build my own happiness according to my needs.
Such extraordinary transformations are not miracles; they are available to anyone who is truly willing to make the necessary effort to realize their right to live a happy life. Why is it so difficult for some people to transform themselves? First of all, because the word “transformation” often means “the unknown,” and everything unknown threatens instability and danger.
It is known that people generally prefer stability, even when their life in general is difficult and sometimes unbearable. It is easier for them to remain in a joyless but stable state than to take on a risky transformation that does not know how it will end. That is why it often happens that a person needs to go through a difficult situation, a crisis, before he is convinced that it is time to move forward, it is time to change himself. Subsequently, despite certain difficulties experienced during the period of transformation, rarely does anyone say that they would like to go back. It can be said that it is natural for a person to go through the various stages of transformation sequentially.
Transformation is not destruction. The current situation on our planet (GAIA", may frighten some people, because everything changes at such a speed that they get the impression of the collapse of everything they have built for so long; everything seems unstable and short-lived to them. This is nothing more than fear, an illusion of the ego. The reality is completely different. You just have to watch nature. A great example of transformation is the butterfly. She completely changes her appearance in order to fly to new horizons and experience new experiences. We, of course, are not butterflies, but nature shows us that transformation is an integral part of our lives and is a transition to something new - a different state.
Therefore, transformation is completely natural, even necessary for the continuation of our spiritual evolution. You just need to take a closer look at how much transformation has happened around us over the past years. Some people have the feeling that ohi-
They lived more than one life - so many wonderful transformations occurred during their existence.
There is a wonderful way to achieve lasting and beneficial transformation that does not require control and does not cause suffering: give yourself the right to be who you really are, don’t judge or criticize yourself, show yourself compassion.
When someone, for example, does not accept himself because he is experiencing anger, addiction, fear or some kind of belief, or if he rejects himself because his physical body does not correspond to his ideas, such an attitude of rejection makes him a prisoner own behavior. His EGO believes that it is possible to achieve change in anything only if you reject and discard everything undesirable. The ego does not know that the more persistently we reject something, the more forcefully it returns. This explains the fact that a person who does not accept his body (for example, finding it too fat) is not able to transform it at will; and those who do not accept their own behavior, considering it unacceptable, continue to behave in the same way against their will.
Therefore, before you strive for transformation, you first need to accept yourself as you are. That is, give your actions and situations the right to take their rightful place - after all, you yourself created them, albeit unconsciously. Every situation brings you something important for your development. Give thanks for the USEFULNESS of what seems undesirable to you: this way you will open the way to transformation, since the experience of what you do not want and what entails unpleasant consequences for you will help you determine what you want.
Meanwhile, and this should not be forgotten, your INNER GOD knows exactly what your need is. It may happen that the result of your transformation will be something opposite to what you wanted. You must show TRUST and LET GO OF THE SITUATION. As a result of the miraculous effect of unconditional ACCEPTANCE, transformation occurs gradually. Thus, by giving yourself permission to have limits, weaknesses and fears in various areas of your life, you can begin the process of true transformation. It is preferable, in the meantime, to take specific actions at the level of our internal attitudes and behaviors in order to direct this process in the desired direction. You need to be vigilant and have a sincere desire to transform yourself in order to radically improve the quality of your life.
MOURNING
Loss, death of a loved one. Pain, sadness caused by someone's death.
A period of mourning is necessary to adapt to the departure, disappearance of a loved one or material wealth. When we talk about mourning, we usually mean someone's DEATH or LOSS. If this is someone close and very loved, then our painful reaction, internal emotional devastation, is completely normal and human. Those who find it too difficult to survive this period do not know that they have the necessary
REQUIREMENT 359
strength to face grief with a clear mind. Moreover, they need time during which life will fill the void that has arisen.
If the period of mourning and regret for the deceased is prolonged, regardless of his age, there is nothing good about it. Dying is part of the life cycle of human beings, and we must accept that the death of a person, even a very young one, means that he has lived what he was meant to live in this body and in this environment, and that this forms part of his LIFE PLAN. If the PAIN does not subside, this should be considered as a message that you are too attached to earthly goods and people. You need to learn to REMOVE.
In addition, the word “mourning” is used in a figurative sense to designate a period of refusal, renunciation of anything - property, ideas, activities, etc. In fact, a person ACCEPTS the fact of the final separation, turns the page of life and strives for something to another. In general, he realizes that the time has come to leave one thing and take on another and that life goes on. In any case, the main thing here is the moment of ACCEPTANCE. After this, it is easier to ADJUST, ADAPT to the new phase of life.
The most common knowledge is about three states of aggregation: liquid, solid, gaseous; sometimes they remember plasma, less often liquid crystalline. Recently, a list of 17 phases of matter, taken from the famous () Stephen Fry, has spread on the Internet. Therefore, we will tell you about them in more detail, because... you should know a little more about matter, if only in order to better understand the processes occurring in the Universe.
The list of aggregate states of matter given below increases from the coldest states to the hottest, etc. may be continued. At the same time, it should be understood that from the gaseous state (No. 11), the most “uncompressed”, to both sides of the list, the degree of compression of the substance and its pressure (with some reservations for such unstudied hypothetical states as quantum, beam or weakly symmetric) increase. After the text a visual graph of phase transitions of matter is shown.
1. Quantum- a state of aggregation of matter, achieved when the temperature drops to absolute zero, as a result of which internal bonds disappear and matter crumbles into free quarks.
2. Bose-Einstein condensate- a state of aggregation of matter, the basis of which is bosons, cooled to temperatures close to absolute zero (less than a millionth of a degree above absolute zero). In such a strongly cooled state, a sufficiently large number of atoms find themselves in their minimum possible quantum states and quantum effects begin to manifest themselves at the macroscopic level. A Bose-Einstein condensate (often called a Bose condensate, or simply "beck") occurs when you cool a chemical element to extremely low temperatures (usually just above absolute zero, minus 273 degrees Celsius). , is the theoretical temperature at which everything stops moving).
This is where completely strange things begin to happen to the substance. Processes usually observed only at the atomic level now occur on scales large enough to be observed with the naked eye. For example, if you place “back” in a laboratory beaker and provide the desired temperature, the substance will begin to creep up the wall and eventually come out on its own.
Apparently, here we are dealing with a futile attempt by a substance to lower its own energy (which is already at the lowest of all possible levels).
Slowing down atoms using cooling equipment produces a singular quantum state known as a Bose, or Bose-Einstein, condensate. This phenomenon was predicted in 1925 by A. Einstein, as a result of a generalization of the work of S. Bose, where statistical mechanics was built for particles ranging from massless photons to mass-bearing atoms (Einstein's manuscript, considered lost, was discovered in the library of Leiden University in 2005 ). The efforts of Bose and Einstein resulted in Bose's concept of a gas subject to Bose–Einstein statistics, which describes the statistical distribution of identical particles with integer spin called bosons. Bosons, which are, for example, individual elementary particles - photons, and entire atoms, can be in the same quantum states with each other. Einstein proposed that cooling boson atoms to very low temperatures would cause them to transform (or, in other words, condense) into the lowest possible quantum state. The result of such condensation will be the emergence of a new form of matter.
This transition occurs below the critical temperature, which is for a homogeneous three-dimensional gas consisting of non-interacting particles without any internal degrees of freedom.
3. Fermion condensate- a state of aggregation of a substance, similar to backing, but different in structure. As they approach absolute zero, atoms behave differently depending on the magnitude of their own angular momentum (spin). Bosons have integer spins, while fermions have spins that are multiples of 1/2 (1/2, 3/2, 5/2). Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two fermions can have the same quantum state. There is no such prohibition for bosons, and therefore they have the opportunity to exist in one quantum state and thereby form the so-called Bose-Einstein condensate. The process of formation of this condensate is responsible for the transition to the superconducting state.
Electrons have spin 1/2 and are therefore classified as fermions. They combine into pairs (called Cooper pairs), which then form a Bose condensate.
American scientists have attempted to obtain a kind of molecules from fermion atoms by deep cooling. The difference from real molecules was that there was no chemical bond between the atoms - they simply moved together in a correlated manner. The bond between atoms turned out to be even stronger than between electrons in Cooper pairs. The resulting pairs of fermions have a total spin that is no longer a multiple of 1/2, therefore, they already behave like bosons and can form a Bose condensate with a single quantum state. During the experiment, a gas of potassium-40 atoms was cooled to 300 nanokelvins, while the gas was enclosed in a so-called optical trap. Then an external magnetic field was applied, with the help of which it was possible to change the nature of interactions between atoms - instead of strong repulsion, strong attraction began to be observed. When analyzing the influence of the magnetic field, it was possible to find a value at which the atoms began to behave like Cooper pairs of electrons. At the next stage of the experiment, scientists expect to obtain superconductivity effects for the fermion condensate.
4. Superfluid substance- a state in which a substance has virtually no viscosity, and during flow it does not experience friction with a solid surface. The consequence of this is, for example, such an interesting effect as the complete spontaneous “creeping out” of superfluid helium from the vessel along its walls against the force of gravity. Of course, there is no violation of the law of conservation of energy here. In the absence of frictional forces, helium is acted only by gravity forces, the forces of interatomic interaction between helium and the walls of the vessel and between helium atoms. So, the forces of interatomic interaction exceed all other forces combined. As a result, helium tends to spread as much as possible over all possible surfaces, and therefore “travels” along the walls of the vessel. In 1938, Soviet scientist Pyotr Kapitsa proved that helium can exist in a superfluid state.
It is worth noting that many of the unusual properties of helium have been known for quite some time. However, in recent years, this chemical element has been pampering us with interesting and unexpected effects. So, in 2004, Moses Chan and Eun-Syong Kim from the University of Pennsylvania intrigued the scientific world with the announcement that they had succeeded in obtaining a completely new state of helium - a superfluid solid. In this state, some helium atoms in the crystal lattice can flow around others, and helium can thus flow through itself. The “superhardness” effect was theoretically predicted back in 1969. And then in 2004 there seemed to be experimental confirmation. However, later and very interesting experiments showed that not everything is so simple, and perhaps this interpretation of the phenomenon, which was previously accepted as the superfluidity of solid helium, is incorrect.
The experiment of scientists led by Humphrey Maris from Brown University in the USA was simple and elegant. Scientists placed an upside-down test tube in a closed tank containing liquid helium. They froze part of the helium in the test tube and in the reservoir in such a way that the boundary between liquid and solid inside the test tube was higher than in the reservoir. In other words, in the upper part of the test tube there was liquid helium, in the lower part there was solid helium, it smoothly passed into the solid phase of the reservoir, above which a little liquid helium was poured - lower than the liquid level in the test tube. If liquid helium began to leak through solid helium, then the difference in levels would decrease, and then we can talk about solid superfluid helium. And in principle, in three of the 13 experiments, the difference in levels actually decreased.
5. Superhard substance- a state of aggregation in which matter is transparent and can “flow” like a liquid, but in fact it is devoid of viscosity. Such liquids have been known for many years; they are called superfluids. The fact is that if a superfluid is stirred, it will circulate almost forever, whereas a normal fluid will eventually calm down. The first two superfluids were created by researchers using helium-4 and helium-3. They were cooled to almost absolute zero - minus 273 degrees Celsius. And from helium-4, American scientists managed to obtain a supersolid body. They compressed frozen helium with more than 60 times the pressure, and then placed the glass filled with the substance on a rotating disk. At a temperature of 0.175 degrees Celsius, the disk suddenly began to spin more freely, which scientists say indicates that helium has become a superbody.
6. Solid- a state of aggregation of a substance, characterized by stability of shape and the nature of the thermal movement of atoms, which perform small vibrations around equilibrium positions. The stable state of solids is crystalline. There are solids with ionic, covalent, metallic and other types of bonds between atoms, which determines the diversity of their physical properties. The electrical and some other properties of solids are mainly determined by the nature of the movement of the outer electrons of its atoms. Based on their electrical properties, solids are divided into dielectrics, semiconductors, and metals; based on their magnetic properties, solids are divided into diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and bodies with an ordered magnetic structure. Studies of the properties of solids have merged into a large field - solid state physics, the development of which is stimulated by the needs of technology.
7. Amorphous solid- a condensed state of aggregation of a substance, characterized by isotropy of physical properties due to the disordered arrangement of atoms and molecules. In amorphous solids, atoms vibrate around randomly located points. Unlike the crystalline state, the transition from solid amorphous to liquid occurs gradually. Various substances are in an amorphous state: glass, resins, plastics, etc.
8. Liquid crystal is a specific state of aggregation of a substance in which it simultaneously exhibits the properties of a crystal and a liquid. It should be noted right away that not all substances can be in a liquid crystalline state. However, some organic substances with complex molecules can form a specific state of aggregation - liquid crystalline. This state occurs when crystals of certain substances melt. When they melt, a liquid crystalline phase is formed, which differs from ordinary liquids. This phase exists in the range from the melting temperature of the crystal to some higher temperature, when heated to which the liquid crystal turns into an ordinary liquid.
How does a liquid crystal differ from a liquid and an ordinary crystal and how is it similar to them? Like an ordinary liquid, a liquid crystal has fluidity and takes the shape of the container in which it is placed. This is how it differs from the crystals known to everyone. However, despite this property, which unites it with a liquid, it has a property characteristic of crystals. This is the ordering in space of the molecules that form the crystal. True, this ordering is not as complete as in ordinary crystals, but, nevertheless, it significantly affects the properties of liquid crystals, which distinguishes them from ordinary liquids. Incomplete spatial ordering of the molecules forming a liquid crystal is manifested in the fact that in liquid crystals there is no complete order in the spatial arrangement of the centers of gravity of the molecules, although there may be partial order. This means that they do not have a rigid crystal lattice. Therefore, liquid crystals, like ordinary liquids, have the property of fluidity.
A mandatory property of liquid crystals, which brings them closer to ordinary crystals, is the presence of an order of spatial orientation of the molecules. This order in orientation can manifest itself, for example, in the fact that all the long axes of molecules in a liquid crystal sample are oriented in the same way. These molecules must have an elongated shape. In addition to the simplest named ordering of molecular axes, a more complex orientational order of molecules can occur in a liquid crystal.
Depending on the type of ordering of the molecular axes, liquid crystals are divided into three types: nematic, smectic and cholesteric.
Research on the physics of liquid crystals and their applications is currently being carried out on a wide front in all the most developed countries of the world. Domestic research is concentrated in both academic and industrial research institutions and has a long tradition. The works of V.K., completed back in the thirties in Leningrad, became widely known and recognized. Fredericks to V.N. Tsvetkova. In recent years, the rapid study of liquid crystals has seen domestic researchers also make a significant contribution to the development of the study of liquid crystals in general and, in particular, the optics of liquid crystals. Thus, the works of I.G. Chistyakova, A.P. Kapustina, S.A. Brazovsky, S.A. Pikina, L.M. Blinov and many other Soviet researchers are widely known to the scientific community and serve as the foundation for a number of effective technical applications of liquid crystals.
The existence of liquid crystals was established a long time ago, namely in 1888, that is, almost a century ago. Although scientists encountered this state of matter before 1888, it was officially discovered later.
The first to discover liquid crystals was the Austrian botanist Reinitzer. While studying the new substance cholesteryl benzoate he synthesized, he discovered that at a temperature of 145°C the crystals of this substance melt, forming a cloudy liquid that strongly scatters light. As heating continues, upon reaching a temperature of 179°C, the liquid becomes clear, i.e., it begins to behave optically like an ordinary liquid, for example water. Cholesteryl benzoate showed unexpected properties in the turbid phase. Examining this phase under a polarizing microscope, Reinitzer discovered that it exhibits birefringence. This means that the refractive index of light, i.e. the speed of light in this phase, depends on the polarization.
9. Liquid- the state of aggregation of a substance, combining the features of a solid state (conservation of volume, a certain tensile strength) and a gaseous state (shape variability). Liquids are characterized by short-range order in the arrangement of particles (molecules, atoms) and a small difference in the kinetic energy of thermal motion of molecules and their potential interaction energy. The thermal motion of liquid molecules consists of oscillations around equilibrium positions and relatively rare jumps from one equilibrium position to another; the fluidity of the liquid is associated with this.
10. Supercritical fluid(SCF) is a state of aggregation of a substance in which the difference between the liquid and gas phases disappears. Any substance at a temperature and pressure above its critical point is a supercritical fluid. The properties of a substance in the supercritical state are intermediate between its properties in the gas and liquid phases. Thus, SCF has a high density, close to a liquid, and low viscosity, like gases. The diffusion coefficient in this case has a value intermediate between liquid and gas. Substances in a supercritical state can be used as substitutes for organic solvents in laboratory and industrial processes. Supercritical water and supercritical carbon dioxide have received the greatest interest and distribution due to certain properties.
One of the most important properties of the supercritical state is the ability to dissolve substances. By changing the temperature or pressure of the fluid, you can change its properties over a wide range. Thus, it is possible to obtain a fluid whose properties are close to either a liquid or a gas. Thus, the dissolving ability of a fluid increases with increasing density (at a constant temperature). Since density increases with increasing pressure, changing the pressure can influence the dissolving ability of the fluid (at a constant temperature). In the case of temperature, the dependence of the properties of the fluid is somewhat more complex - at a constant density, the dissolving ability of the fluid also increases, but near the critical point, a slight increase in temperature can lead to a sharp drop in density, and, accordingly, the dissolving ability. Supercritical fluids mix with each other without limit, so when the critical point of the mixture is reached, the system will always be single-phase. The approximate critical temperature of a binary mixture can be calculated as the arithmetic mean of the critical parameters of the substances Tc(mix) = (mole fraction A) x TcA + (mole fraction B) x TcB.
11. Gaseous- (French gaz, from Greek chaos - chaos), a state of aggregation of a substance in which the kinetic energy of the thermal motion of its particles (molecules, atoms, ions) significantly exceeds the potential energy of interactions between them, and therefore the particles move freely, uniformly filling in the absence of external fields the entire volume provided to it.
12. Plasma- (from the Greek plasma - sculpted, shaped), a state of matter that is an ionized gas in which the concentrations of positive and negative charges are equal (quasi-neutrality). The vast majority of matter in the Universe is in the plasma state: stars, galactic nebulae and the interstellar medium. Near Earth, plasma exists in the form of the solar wind, magnetosphere and ionosphere. High-temperature plasma (T ~ 106 - 108K) from a mixture of deuterium and tritium is being studied with the aim of implementing controlled thermonuclear fusion. Low-temperature plasma (T Ј 105K) is used in various gas-discharge devices (gas lasers, ion devices, MHD generators, plasmatrons, plasma engines, etc.), as well as in technology (see Plasma metallurgy, Plasma drilling, Plasma technology) .
13. Degenerate matter— is an intermediate stage between plasma and neutronium. It is observed in white dwarfs and plays an important role in the evolution of stars. When atoms are subjected to extremely high temperatures and pressures, they lose their electrons (they become electron gas). In other words, they are completely ionized (plasma). The pressure of such a gas (plasma) is determined by the pressure of the electrons. If the density is very high, all particles are forced closer to each other. Electrons can exist in states with specific energies, and no two electrons can have the same energy (unless their spins are opposite). Thus, in a dense gas, all lower energy levels are filled with electrons. Such a gas is called degenerate. In this state, electrons exhibit degenerate electron pressure, which counteracts the forces of gravity.
14. Neutronium- a state of aggregation into which matter passes at ultra-high pressure, which is still unattainable in the laboratory, but exists inside neutron stars. During the transition to the neutron state, the electrons of the substance interact with protons and turn into neutrons. As a result, matter in the neutron state consists entirely of neutrons and has a density on the order of nuclear. The temperature of the substance should not be too high (in energy equivalent, no more than a hundred MeV).
With a strong increase in temperature (hundreds of MeV and above), various mesons begin to be born and annihilate in the neutron state. With a further increase in temperature, deconfinement occurs, and the substance passes into the state of quark-gluon plasma. It no longer consists of hadrons, but of constantly being born and disappearing quarks and gluons.
15. Quark-gluon plasma(chromoplasm) - a state of aggregation of matter in high-energy physics and elementary particle physics, in which hadronic matter passes into a state similar to the state in which electrons and ions are found in ordinary plasma.
Typically, the matter in hadrons is in the so-called colorless (“white”) state. That is, quarks of different colors cancel each other out. A similar state exists in ordinary matter - when all atoms are electrically neutral, that is,
positive charges in them are compensated by negative ones. At high temperatures, ionization of atoms can occur, during which the charges are separated, and the substance becomes, as they say, “quasi-neutral.” That is, the entire cloud of matter as a whole remains neutral, but its individual particles cease to be neutral. The same thing, apparently, can happen with hadronic matter - at very high energies, color is released and makes the substance “quasi-colorless.”
Presumably, the matter of the Universe was in a state of quark-gluon plasma in the first moments after the Big Bang. Now quark-gluon plasma can be formed for a short time during collisions of particles of very high energies.
Quark-gluon plasma was produced experimentally at the RHIC accelerator at Brookhaven National Laboratory in 2005. The maximum plasma temperature of 4 trillion degrees Celsius was obtained there in February 2010.
16. Strange substance- a state of aggregation in which matter is compressed to maximum density values; it can exist in the form of “quark soup”. A cubic centimeter of matter in this state will weigh billions of tons; in addition, it will transform any normal substance it comes into contact with into the same “strange” form with the release of a significant amount of energy.
The energy that can be released when the star's core turns into "strange matter" will lead to a super-powerful explosion of a "quark nova" - and, according to Leahy and Uyed, this is exactly what astronomers observed in September 2006.
The process of formation of this substance began with an ordinary supernova, into which a massive star turned. As a result of the first explosion, a neutron star was formed. But, according to Leahy and Uyed, it did not last very long - as its rotation seemed to be slowed down by its own magnetic field, it began to shrink even more, forming a clump of “strange matter”, which led to an even more powerful during an ordinary supernova explosion, the release of energy - and the outer layers of matter of the former neutron star, flying into the surrounding space at a speed close to the speed of light.
17. Strongly symmetrical substance- this is a substance compressed to such an extent that the microparticles inside it are layered on top of each other, and the body itself collapses into a black hole. The term “symmetry” is explained as follows: Let’s take the aggregative states of matter known to everyone from school - solid, liquid, gaseous. For definiteness, let us consider an ideal infinite crystal as a solid. There is a certain, so-called discrete symmetry with respect to transfer. This means that if you move the crystal lattice by a distance equal to the interval between two atoms, nothing will change in it - the crystal will coincide with itself. If the crystal is melted, then the symmetry of the resulting liquid will be different: it will increase. In a crystal, only points remote from each other at certain distances, the so-called nodes of the crystal lattice, in which identical atoms were located, were equivalent.
The liquid is homogeneous throughout its entire volume, all its points are indistinguishable from one another. This means that liquids can be displaced by any arbitrary distances (and not just some discrete ones, as in a crystal) or rotated by any arbitrary angles (which cannot be done in crystals at all) and it will coincide with itself. Its degree of symmetry is higher. Gas is even more symmetrical: the liquid occupies a certain volume in the vessel and there is an asymmetry inside the vessel where there is liquid and points where it is not. Gas occupies the entire volume provided to it, and in this sense, all its points are indistinguishable from one another. Still, here it would be more correct to talk not about points, but about small, but macroscopic elements, because at the microscopic level there are still differences. At some points at a given moment in time there are atoms or molecules, while at others there are not. Symmetry is observed only on average, either over some macroscopic volume parameters or over time.
But there is still no instant symmetry at the microscopic level. If a substance is compressed very strongly, to pressures that are unacceptable in everyday life, compressed so that the atoms are crushed, their shells penetrate each other, and the nuclei begin to touch, symmetry arises at the microscopic level. All nuclei are identical and pressed against each other, there are not only interatomic, but also internuclear distances, and the substance becomes homogeneous (strange substance).
But there is also a submicroscopic level. Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons that move around inside the nucleus. There is also some space between them. If you continue to compress so that the nuclei are crushed, the nucleons will press tightly against each other. Then, at the submicroscopic level, symmetry will appear, which does not exist even inside ordinary nuclei.
From what has been said, one can discern a very definite trend: the higher the temperature and the greater the pressure, the more symmetrical the substance becomes. Based on these considerations, a substance compressed to its maximum is called highly symmetrical.
18. Weakly symmetrical matter- a state opposite to strongly symmetrical matter in its properties, present in the very early Universe at a temperature close to Planck's, perhaps 10-12 seconds after the Big Bang, when the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces represented a single superforce. In this state, the substance is compressed to such an extent that its mass turns into energy, which begins to inflate, that is, expand indefinitely. It is not yet possible to achieve the energies for experimentally obtaining superpower and transferring matter into this phase under terrestrial conditions, although such attempts were made at the Large Hadron Collider to study the early universe. Due to the absence of gravitational interaction in the superforce that forms this substance, the superforce is not sufficiently symmetrical in comparison with the supersymmetric force containing all 4 types of interactions. Therefore, this state of aggregation received such a name.
19. Ray substance- this, in fact, is no longer matter at all, but energy in its pure form. However, it is precisely this hypothetical state of aggregation that a body that has reached the speed of light will take. It can also be obtained by heating the body to the Planck temperature (1032K), that is, accelerating the molecules of the substance to the speed of light. As follows from the theory of relativity, when a speed reaches more than 0.99 s, the mass of the body begins to grow much faster than with “normal” acceleration; in addition, the body elongates, heats up, that is, it begins to radiate in the infrared spectrum. When crossing the threshold of 0.999 s, the body changes radically and begins a rapid phase transition up to the ray state. As follows from Einstein’s formula, taken in its entirety, the growing mass of the final substance consists of masses separated from the body in the form of thermal, x-ray, optical and other radiation, the energy of each of which is described by the next term in the formula. Thus, a body that approaches the speed of light will begin to emit in all spectra, grow in length and slow down in time, thinning to the Planck length, that is, upon reaching speed c, the body will turn into an infinitely long and thin beam, moving at the speed of light and consisting of photons that have no length, and its infinite mass will be completely converted into energy. Therefore, such a substance is called ray.
>>Physics: Aggregate states of matter
In winter, water on the surface of lakes and rivers freezes, turning into ice. Under the ice, the water remains liquid. There are two different things that exist here at the same time. state of aggregation water - solid (ice) and liquid (water). There is a third state of water - gaseous: invisible water vapor is found in the air around us.
Different states of aggregation exist for each substance. These states differ from each other not by molecules, but by how these molecules are located and how they move. The features of the arrangement of molecules in different states of aggregation of the same substance - water - are illustrated in Figure 76.
Under certain conditions, substances can change from one state to another. All possible transformations in this case are displayed in Figure 77. The letters T, F and G indicate, respectively, the solid, liquid and gaseous states of the substance; arrows indicate the direction in which a particular process occurs.
In total, there are six processes in which aggregate transformations of matter occur. 
The transition of a substance from a solid (crystalline) state to a liquid is called melting crystallization or hardening. An example of melting is the melting of ice; the reverse process occurs when water freezes.
The transition of a substance from a liquid to a gaseous state is called vaporization, the reverse process is called condensation(from the Latin word "condensation" - compaction, thickening). An example of vaporization is the evaporation of water; condensation can be observed during the formation of dew.
The transition of a substance from a solid to a gaseous state (bypassing the liquid) is called sublimation(from the Latin word “sublimo” - I lift up) or sublimation, the reverse process is called desublimation. For example, graphite can be heated to a thousand, two thousand and even three thousand degrees, and yet it will not turn into a liquid: it will sublimate, that is, it will immediately go from a solid state to a gaseous state. The so-called “dry ice” (solid carbon monoxide CO 2), which can be seen in containers for storing and transporting ice cream, also immediately turns into a gaseous state (bypassing the liquid one). All odors possessed by solids (for example, naphthalene) are also caused by sublimation: when molecules fly out of a solid, they form a gas (or vapor) above it, which causes the sensation of smell.
An example of desublimation is the formation of patterns of ice crystals on windows in winter. These beautiful patterns are the result of desublimation of water vapor in the air.
Transitions of matter from one state of aggregation to another play an important role not only in nature, but also in technology. For example, by turning water into steam, we can then use it in steam turbines in power plants. By melting metals in factories, we get the opportunity to make various alloys from them: steel, cast iron, brass, etc. To understand all these processes, you need to know what happens to a substance when its state of aggregation changes and under what conditions this change is possible. This will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
1. Name the three states of matter of matter. 2. List all possible processes in which a substance passes from one state of aggregation to another. 3. Give examples of sublimation and desublimation. 4. What practical applications of aggregate transformations do you know? 5. Which letter (a, b or c) in Figure 76 indicates the solid state of water, liquid and gaseous?
Submitted by readers from Internet sites
A complete list of topics by grade, answers to tests, calendar plan according to the school physics curriculum, physics courses and assignments for grade 8, ready-made homework and solutions, all physics online
Lesson content lesson notes and supporting frame lesson presentation interactive technologies accelerator teaching methods Practice tests, testing online tasks and exercises homework workshops and trainings questions for class discussions Illustrations video and audio materials photographs, pictures, graphs, tables, diagrams, comics, parables, sayings, crosswords, anecdotes, jokes, quotes Add-ons abstracts cheat sheets tips for the curious articles (MAN) literature basic and additional dictionary of terms Improving textbooks and lessons correcting errors in the textbook, replacing outdated knowledge with new ones Only for teachers calendar plans training programs methodological recommendationsAny body can be in different states of aggregation at a certain temperature and pressure - in solid, liquid, gaseous and plasma states.
For a transition from one state of aggregation to another, it occurs under the condition that the heating of the body from the outside occurs faster than its cooling. And vice versa, if the cooling of the body from the outside occurs faster than the heating of the body due to its internal energy.
When transitioning to another state of aggregation, the substance remains the same, the same molecules will remain, only their relative arrangement, speed of movement and forces of interaction with each other will change.
Those. a change in the internal energy of the particles of a body transfers it from one phase of the state to another. Moreover, this state can be maintained in a wide temperature range of the external environment.
When changing the state of aggregation, a certain amount of energy is needed. And during the transition process, energy is spent not on changing the body temperature, but on changing the internal energy of the body.
Let us display on the graph the dependence of body temperature T (at constant pressure) on the amount of heat Q supplied to the body during the transition from one state of aggregation to another.
Consider a body with mass m, which is in a solid state at a temperature T 1.
The body does not immediately transition from one state to another. First, energy is needed to change internal energy, and this takes time. The rate of transition depends on the mass of the body and its heat capacity.
Let's start heating the body. Using formulas you can write it like this:
Q = c⋅m⋅(T 2 -T 1)
The body must absorb so much heat in order to heat up from temperature T1 to T2.
Transition from solid to liquid
Further, at the critical temperature T2, which is different for each body, intermolecular bonds begin to break down and the body passes into another state of aggregation - liquid, i.e. intermolecular bonds weaken, molecules begin to move with greater amplitude, greater speed and greater kinetic energy. Therefore, the temperature of the same body in a liquid state is higher than in a solid state.
In order for the entire body to pass from a solid to a liquid state, it takes time to accumulate internal energy. At this time, all the energy goes not to heating the body, but to the destruction of old intermolecular bonds and the creation of new ones. Amount of energy needed:
λ - specific heat of melting and crystallization of a substance in J/kg, different for each substance.
After the entire body has passed into a liquid state, this liquid again begins to heat up according to the formula: Q = c⋅m⋅(T-T 2); [J].
Transition of a body from liquid to gaseous state
When a new critical temperature T 3 is reached, a new process of transition from liquid to vapor begins. To move further from liquid to vapor, you need to expend energy:
r is the specific heat of gas formation and condensation of a substance in J/kg, different for each substance.
Note that a transition from the solid state to the gaseous state is possible, bypassing the liquid phase. This process is called sublimation, and its inverse process is desublimation.
Transition of a body from a gaseous state to a plasma state
Plasma- a partially or fully ionized gas in which the densities of positive and negative charges are almost equal.
Plasma usually occurs at high temperatures, from several thousand °C and above. Based on the method of formation, two types of plasma are distinguished: thermal, which occurs when gas is heated to high temperatures, and gaseous, which is formed during electrical discharges in a gaseous environment.
This process is very complex and has a simple description, and it is not achievable for us in everyday conditions. Therefore, we will not dwell on this issue in detail.
natural objects and systems) - qualitative and quantitative characteristics of many of their functional and integrative real and potential capabilities, many of their features, parameters in space and time (see, for example, stationary state).
Excellent definition
Incomplete definition ↓
STATE
a set of basic parameters and characteristics of an object, phenomenon or process at a certain moment (or interval) of time. The existence of this object, phenomenon or process appears as an unfolding, a consistent change of its states. The concept of state has extremely wide application. Thus, they talk about the gaseous state of a substance, the state of body movement, the sick state of a person, the state of morality in society, etc.
The concept is especially important for characterizing dynamic systems. It appears as the implementation at some point in time of parameters (properties) that determine the behavior and development of the system. The laws of system dynamics are the laws of interrelation of states in time. The connection of states is usually characterized as an expression of the principle of causality: some initial state of the system, in combination with external influences that the system experiences in the period of time under consideration, is the cause of its subsequent states. The concept of state is central to the study of changes, movement and development of objects and systems. The solution to specific research problems is based, on the one hand, on the knowledge and application of relevant laws, and on the other, on setting the initial conditions. “The world is very complex,” noted E. Wigner, “and the human mind is clearly not able to fully comprehend it. That is why man came up with an artificial technique - to blame the complex nature of the world on what is usually called random - and so on. was able to identify an area that can be described using simple patterns. The complexities are called initial conditions, and what is abstracted from the random is called the laws of nature. No matter how artificial such a division of the world may seem in the most impartial approach, and even despite the fact that the possibility of its implementation has its limits, the abstraction underlying such a division is one of the most fruitful ideas put forward by the human mind. It was she who made it possible to create natural sciences” (Wigner E. Etudes on symmetry. M., 1971, p. 9). Setting the initial conditions is essentially setting a certain initial state of the system under study, which is necessary for its further analysis.
When determining the initial (initial) state, it is necessary to take into account the laws of interrelations of system parameters, the presence of which leads to the fact that to describe the initial state it is necessary to set the values of only independent parameters. It should, however, be taken into account that there are also subordination, hierarchical dependencies between the parameters of the systems. To describe the states of especially complex, multi-level systems, it is necessary to specify the structure and structural characteristics. Thus, in statistical systems, states are determined not by specifying the characteristics of individual elements or individual states of each element, but in the language of probability distributions - through a characteristic of the type, type of distributions. In complex systems, states are defined on the basis of more general characteristics that relate to higher levels of system organization. Thus, ideas about states are correlated with the analysis of the deep properties of the systems under study.
The concept of state is one of the key ones for characterizing nonlinear systems and interactions. The properties of nonlinear systems depend on their state. Their most important feature is their violation of the principle of superposition: the result of one of the influences in the presence of another is not the same as it would have been if this other influence had been absent. In other words, the additivity of causes leads to the additivity of effects. In nonlinear systems, the overall result of a number of impacts on the system (its final state) is determined not by a simple summation of the available impacts, but also by their mutual influence. Almost all physical systems are nonlinear; This is even more characteristic of chemical, biological and social systems, which are characterized by qualitative transformations. The behavior of systems as their complexity increases is increasingly determined by their internal dynamics, which gives rise to processes of self-organization. The states of systems change under the influence not only of external influences, but also for internal reasons. The emphasis on these internal foundations is reflected in the fact that primary attention begins to be paid to such concepts and ideas as instability, nonequilibrium, irreversibility, self-reinforcing processes, bifurcations, multivariate paths of change and development.
Excellent definition
Incomplete definition ↓
Loading...