People of Ancient Mesopotamia. Ancient Mesopotamia: natural conditions population, main sources, periodization of the history of Southern and Middle Mesopotamia Sumer: a brief historical background

Ancient Mesopotamia: natural conditions, population, main sources, periodization of the history of Southern and Middle Mesopotamia

natural conditions.

The climate of Mesopotamia was not the same in the north and south. In the north, in the zone of dry subtropics, sometimes in winter

snow fell, in spring and autumn there were rains. The south has an exceptionally hot and dry climate.

Clay and natural asphalt were abundant in Mesopotamia. In the northern part of the country

there were deposits of metals (lead, tin, iron), mountainous areas gave a lot of stone.

Population of ancient Mesopotamia

The settlement of Mesopotamia began from ancient times due to the migration of the inhabitants of the surrounding mountains and foothills to the river valley and noticeably accelerated in the Neolithic era. More favorable natural and climatic conditions of northern Mesopotamia were developed. The ethnicity of the bearers of the most ancient cultures (Khassun, Khalaf, etc.) is unknown. After the advent of writing, the Sumerian population appeared in the extreme south of Mesopotamia, at the turn of the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e., but the exact time of the appearance of the Sumerians in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates is still difficult to establish. The question of their origin and family ties of the Sumerian language remains highly controversial.

In the northern part of Mesopotamia from the beginning of the III millennium BC. e., and possibly earlier, lived

East Semitic pastoral tribes. Their language is called Akkadian. For several centuries, the Semites coexisted with the Sumerians, but then they began to move south and by the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. occupied all of Mesopotamia. As a result, Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian. The displacement of the Sumerian language did not at all mean the physical destruction of its speakers. The Sumerians merged with the Semites, but retained their religion and culture, which the Akkadians borrowed from them with only minor changes.

At the end of the III millennium BC. e. from the west, from the Syrian steppe, began to penetrate into Mesopotamia

West Semitic pastoral tribes of the Sutii. The Akkadians called them Amorites. Among these nomads there were many tribes who spoke different, but close to each other, dialects.

At the end of the III - the first half of the II millennium, the Amorites managed to settle in Mesopotamia and found a number of royal dynasties.

From ancient times in Northern Mesopotamia, Northern Syria and the Armenian Highlands lived

subarean tribes. The Sumerians and Akkadians called their country Subartu. Subsequently, the Subareas were assimilated by the Hurrians who settled in their territories, after which the term "Subareas" was transferred to them.

To the northeast of Mesopotamia, from the headwaters of the Diyala to the Urmian region and further north lived the mountain tribes of the Kuti. At the end of the XXIII century. The Gutians invaded Mesopotamia and established their rule there for a whole century. Their power was overthrown, and they themselves were thrown back to the upper reaches of the Diyala, where they continued to live as early as the 1st millennium BC. e.

From the end of the 2nd millennium, in the foothills of the Zagros, next to the Gutians, there lived the Lullube tribes that often invaded Mesopotamia, and nothing can be said about their origin and linguistic affiliation. It is possible that they were related to the Kassite tribes. The Kassites have lived since ancient times in northwestern Iran, north of the Elamites. In the second quarter of the II millennium BC. e. part of the Kassite tribes managed to establish themselves in the valley of the Diyala River and from there to raid into the depths of Mesopotamia. At the beginning of the XVI century. they captured the largest of the Mesopotamian states - Babylon - and founded their dynasty there. Part of the Kassites who settled in Babylonia were completely assimilated by the local population. While the Kassite tribes that remained in their homeland retained their native language, different from the Sumerian, Semitic, Hurrian and Indo-European languages.

In the second half of the II millennium BC. e. from northern Arabia to the Syrian steppe and further to northern Mesopotamia, an extensive group of West Semitic Aramean tribes moved. At the end of the XIII century. BC e. they created many small principalities in Western Syria and Southwestern Mesopotamia. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. they almost completely assimilated the Hurrian and Amorite populations of Syria and Northern Mesopotamia. The Aramaic language began to spread widely and firmly in this territory.

Starting from the IX century. BC e. Chaldean tribes related to the Aramaeans began to invade and settle in southern Mesopotamia. After the conquest of Babylonia by the Persians in the VI century. BC e. Aramaic became the official language of the State Chancellery of the entire Persian state.

periodization

On the territory of Mesopotamia from the 7th to the 4th millennium BC. e. there was a decomposition of the primitive communal system. The prerequisites for a class society were created.

At the beginning of the III millennium BC. e. the first small states were formed in the southern part of the country, in the historical region of Sumer.

The period covering the XXVIII-XXIV centuries. BC e., is called the Early Dynastic (the last third of the III millennium BC) is characterized by the creation of extensive, so-called despotic monarchies. In the XXIV-XXIII centuries. the political center moves to the central part of Mesopotamia, where the state of Akkad arises, uniting Sumer and the northern regions of Mesopotamia under its rule. From the Akkadian kingdom, which collapsed under the onslaught of the Gutians, the hegemony in Mesopotamia soon passes to the Sumero-Akkadian kingdom.

At the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, there were several states, among which the Babylonian kingdom prevailed, uniting a vast country under its rule. Its history is divided into several periods: the Old Babylonian, or Amorite (XIX-XVI centuries BC), the Middle Babylonian, or Kassite (XVI-XII centuries), the period of the political weakening of Babylonia and the struggle for independence (XII-VII centuries BC). ) and, finally, the Neo-Babylonian short-term period of rise and revival (VII-VI centuries), which ended with the conquest of the country by Persia. From the 16th to the 13th century BC e. in the western part of Northern Mesopotamia, the state of Mitanni played a significant role. In its eastern part, as early as the III millennium BC. e. the Assyrian state arose with the center in the city of Ashur, whose history is further divided into periods: Old Assyrian (XX-XVI centuries BC), Middle Assyrian (XV-XI centuries BC) and New Assyrian (X-VII centuries BC). In this last period, the state of Assyria, through conquests, grows into a huge one, covering almost all countries.

Some information about social relations, family, psychology of the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia can be gleaned from the works of the "small" genre: proverbs and sayings. For example, "A strong man lives with his own hands, and a weak one lives at the cost of his children." Historical information can be gleaned from the literary monuments of Sumer, Babylonia and Assyria. A real treasure trove of them is the Epic of Gilgamesh, the text of which was discovered in the royal library of Nineveh and dates back to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. And also in the Sumerian poem "Gilgamesh and Aga"

Ancient authors left vivid descriptions of the nature of Mesopotamia, the peculiarities of its climate, the customs of the population, religious beliefs, cultural achievements, as well as historical legends. The most detailed information is contained in the work of the Greek historian Herodotus (V century BC), who traveled through Mesopotamia. Ctesias of Cnidus left work

"Persian History" in 23 books, in which a significant place was given to Mesopotamia.

Main sources.

The main sources on the history of ancient Mesopotamia are monuments of material culture,

written documents and literary works, works of ancient authors.

Material monuments of culture. As a result of excavations in the ruins of Mesopotamian cities, the remains of stepped towers - ziggurats, royal palaces, grandiose temples, residential and outbuildings, schools, fortifications and irrigation facilities, as well as necropolises, works of art, household items, etc.

Of great importance for history are even small and at first glance not primary material monuments, for example, cylinder seals and their impressions, which are found in abundance in Mesopotamia. The finds of such seals in Egypt, the Bahrain Islands, India and other countries allow us to speak about the existence of their trade relations with the cities of Mesopotamia.

Ancient household archives (end of the 4th millennium BC) were also found, containing about 1000 clay tablets, which came from Uruk and Jemdet-Nasr. They were written in the earliest form of writing: pictographic signs, or proto-cuneiform, not yet fully deciphered. In terms of content, they are documents of economic reporting: accounting for the issuance and receipt of products, the number of slaves or workers, etc. By the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. includes the archive of Assyrian and Amorite merchants (more than 10,000 tablets of accounts, transactions, loans, receipts, court records, etc.) trade association. The most important source for the history of Mesopotamia are legal monuments, and above all the codes of laws. The oldest of them - the laws of Shulgi - date back to the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The laws are poorly preserved, only the introduction and a few articles have survived from them. By the 20th century BC e. include laws from Eshnuna (a peripheral kingdom located in the Diyala River basin), from which the introduction and 59 articles have been preserved. The largest collection of laws, Mesopotamia, other legal documents have also been preserved: court records, investigation materials, sentences in various cases. The most detailed information is contained in the work of the Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BC), who traveled around Mesopotamia. He spent many years in Persia, Ctesias of Cnidus left the work "Persian History" in 23 books. The richest source of information about Mesopotamia is Strabo's "Geography" (1st century BC - 1st century AD). Especially the 16th book of his work specially dedicated to it.

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Similar information.

The settlement of Mesopotamia began from ancient times due to the migration of the inhabitants of the surrounding mountains and foothills to the river valley and noticeably accelerated in the Neolithic era. First of all, northern Mesopotamia, more favorable in terms of natural and climatic conditions, was mastered. The ethnicity of the bearers of the most ancient (pre-literate) archaeological cultures (Khassun, Khalaf, etc.) is unknown.

Somewhat later, the first settlers appeared in southern Mesopotamia. The most striking archaeological culture of the last third of the 5th - the first half of the 4th millennium BC. e. represented by excavations at El Ubeid. Some researchers believe that it was created by the Sumerians, others attribute it to pre-Sumerian (proto-Sumerian) tribes.

It is safe to state the presence of the Sumerian population in the extreme south of Mesopotamia after the appearance of writing at the turn of the 4th - 3rd millennium BC. e., but the exact time of the appearance of the Sumerians in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates is still difficult to establish. Gradually, the Sumerians occupied a significant territory of Mesopotamia, from the Persian Gulf in the south to the point of closest convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates in the north.

The question of their origin and family ties of the Sumerian language remains highly controversial. At present, there are no sufficient grounds for attributing the Sumerian language to one or another known language family.

The Sumerians made contact with the local population, borrowing from it a number of toponymic names, achievements in the field of economy, some religious beliefs,

In the northern part of Mesopotamia, starting from the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. e., and possibly even earlier, lived East Semitic pastoral tribes. Their language is called Akkadian. It had several dialects: in southern Mesopotamia, Babylonian was widespread, and to the north, in the middle part of the Tigris Valley, the Assyrian dialect.

For several centuries, the Semites coexisted with the Sumerians, but then they began to move south and by the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. occupied all of Mesopotamia. As a result, Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian. By the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. Sumerian was already a dead language. However, as the language of religion and literature, it continued to exist and be studied in schools until the 1st century BC. BC e. The displacement of the Sumerian language did not at all mean the physical destruction of its speakers. The Sumerians merged with the Semites, but retained their religion and culture, which the Akkadians borrowed from them with only minor changes.

At the end of the III millennium BC. e. from the west, from the Syrian steppe, West Semitic pastoral tribes began to penetrate into Mesopotamia. The Akkadians called them Amorites. In Akkadian, Amurru meant "Syria" and also "west" in general. Among these nomads there were many tribes who spoke different, but close to each other, dialects. At the end of the III - the first half of the II millennium, the Amorites managed to settle in Mesopotamia and found a number of royal dynasties.

Since ancient times, Hurrian tribes have lived in Northern Mesopotamia, Northern Syria and the Armenian Highlands. The Sumerians and Akkadians called the country and the tribes of the Hurrians Subartu (hence the ethnic name Subarei). By language and origin, the Hurrians were close relatives of the Urartian tribes that lived in the Armenian Highlands at the end of the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. In some areas of the Armenian Highlands, the Hurrians lived as early as the 6th-5th centuries. BC e.

Since the 3rd millennium, in North-Eastern Mesopotamia, from the upper reaches of the Diyala River to Lake Urmia, semi-nomadic tribes of Gutians (Gutians) lived, whose ethnic origin is still a mystery, and whose language differs from Sumerian, Semitic or Indo-European languages. It may have been related to Hurrian. At the end of the XXIII century. The Kutni invaded Mesopotamia and established their rule there for a whole century. Only at the end of the XXII century. their power was overthrown, and they themselves were thrown back to the upper reaches of the Diyala, where they continued to live as early as the 1st millennium BC. e.

From the end of the 3rd millennium, in the foothills of the Zagros, next to the Gutians, there lived the Lullube tribes that often invaded Mesopotamia, and nothing definite can be said about their origin and linguistic affiliation. It is possible that they were related to the Kassite tribes.

The Kasites have lived since ancient times in northwestern Iran, north of the Elamites. In the second quarter of the II millennium BC. e. part of the Kassite tribes managed to establish themselves in the valley of the Diyala River and from there to raid into the depths of Mesopotamia. At the beginning of the XVI century. they captured the largest of the Mesopotamian states - Babylonian and founded their dynasty there. The Kassites who settled in Babylonia were completely assimilated by the local population and adopted their language and culture, while the Kassite tribes who remained in their homeland retained their native language, different from the Sumerian, Semitic, Hurrian and Indo-European languages.

In the second half of the II millennium BC. e. from northern Arabia to the Syrian steppe and further to northern Mesopotamia, an extensive group of West Semitic Aramean tribes moved. At the end of the XIII century. BC e. they created many small principalities in Western Syria and Southwestern Mesopotamia. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. they almost completely assimilated the Khurti and Amorite populations of Syria and ancient Mesopotamia. The Aramaic language began to spread widely and firmly over this territory.

After the conquest of Babylonia by the Persians, Aramaic became the official language of the state chancellery of the entire Persian state. Akkaden was preserved only in large Mesopotamian cities, but even there it was gradually supplanted by Aramaic, and by the beginning of the 1st century. BC h. was completely forgotten. The Babylonians gradually merged with the Chaldeans and Arameans. The population of ancient Mesopotamia was heterogeneous, due to the policy of forced migration of peoples, which was carried out in the 1st millennium BC. e. in the Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian powers, and the strong ethnic circulation that took place in the Persian state, which included Mesopotamia.

Nature of Ancient Mesopotamia .

Geographical position . north - the mountains of Armenia, south - the Persian Gulf, east - the mountainous regions of Iran, west - the Syrian-Mesopotamian steppe. This territory was called Mesopotamia by the ancient Greek geographers, which means “Mesopotamia” in Russian, “Mesopotamia” is more often used in Russian (from two rivers - the Euphrates and the Tigris). Now it is mainly the territory of the Iraqi Republic. The rivers have a number of tributaries: near the Euphrates, the largest are Balikh and Khabur, near the Tigris, the Upper and Lower Zab, Diyala. The Tigris was much fuller than the Euphrates and had a faster current. The floods of the Tigris and Euphrates depend on the melting of snow in the Armenian Highlands. Usually they spill in March - April. However, its timing, unlike the regime of the Nile River, was not exact, because the Tigris and Euphrates crossed different climatic zones on their way, the melting of mountain snows did not always occur at the same time.

The soil . The waters of the rivers carried silt, which contained plant residues and dissolved salts of mountain minerals, and during floods remained on the fields, fertilizing them. The lands of Mesopotamia were distinguished by exceptional fertility, as Herodotus and other ancient authors unanimously speak about in their works.

Conditions for farming . In order to be able to engage in agriculture in the valley of Mesopotamia, a whole range of reclamation work was needed, carried out all year round. The inhabitants of Mesopotamia dug canals, constantly monitored their condition, built dams, dams, locks, wells. Soil salinity from river and underground waters saturated with mineral salts used for irrigation, as well as from a lack of rainwater that washes the soil, had to be dealt with. The threat to the fertility of the Mesopotamian lands was represented by strong winds from the desert region, which brought clouds of sand. And the winds that blew the Persian Gulf, driving large waves ashore and raising the water level in the Tigris and Euphrates, could lead to severe floods, it was not without reason that the famous legend of the Flood was born in Mesopotamia. Only in the north of Mesopotamia could one count on natural irrigation (rain, snowmelt), but even there wells, pools and small canals were built, this guaranteed the supply of water to the fields.

Climate. The climate of Mesopotamia was not the same in the north and south. North: in the zone of dry subtropics, in winter it sometimes snowed, in spring and autumn there were rains. The south has an exceptionally hot and dry climate.

Minerals . Clay and natural asphalt were abundant. In the door part of the country there were deposits of metals (lead, tin, iron), mountainous regions gave a lot of stone.

Flora . It was pretty scarce. Only in the north, in the mountainous region, various tree species grew. Willows grew along the banks of the rivers. There were many, especially in the swampy south, different types of reeds.

Vegetation . The date palm was of particular importance in the life of the country. They grew grapes and fruit trees, apple, fig, cereals (barley, spelt, millet), technical (sesame, ten), garden (onions, garlic, cucumbers, eggplant, pumpkin), as well as legumes (lentils, beans, peas).

Fauna . In ancient times, she was rich. The rivers abounded with fish. There were many birds in the reed thickets, in the swamps, along the banks of the rivers. Wild bulls, donkeys, pigs, gazelles, hares, ostriches, lions and other vests lived in the surrounding steppes and riverside thickets.

Trade. Mesopotamia is located in open space and in the center of the Middle East, which has provided it with a leading role since ancient times: international trade, because many land roads passed through it from west to east and from north to south. Trade also went along the rivers (although navigation along them was fraught with great difficulties) and along the Persian Gulf (from Western Asia to Arabia and India).

People of Ancient Mesopotamia. The settlement of Mesopotamia began from ancient times due to the resettlement of the inhabitants of the surrounding mountains and foothills to the river valley. Northern Mesopotamia, more favorable in terms of natural and climatic conditions, was mastered. A little later, the first settlers appeared in the territory of Southern Mesopotamia. The most striking archaeological culture of the last third of the 5th - the first half of the 4th millennium BC. e. represented by excavations at El Ubeid. Some researchers believe that it was created by the Sumerians, others attribute it to pre-Sumerian (proto-Sumerian) tribes. Gradually, the Sumerians occupied a significant territory of Mesopotamia, from the Persian Gulf in the south to the point of closest convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates in the north. The Sumerians came into contact with the local population, borrowing from it a number of toponymic names, achievements in the field of economy, and some religious beliefs.

In the northern part of Mesopotamia, starting from the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. e., and possibly even earlier, lived East Semitic pastoral tribes. For several centuries, the Semites coexisted with the Sumerians, but then they began to move south and by the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. occupied all of Mesopotamia. As a result, Akkadian (the language of the Semites) gradually supplanted Sumerian.

At the end of the III millennium BC. e. From the west, from the Syrian steppe, West Semitic pastoral tribes of the Sutii began to penetrate into Mesopotamia. The Akkadians called them Amorites.

Since ancient times, Hurrian tribes have lived in Northern Mesopotamia, Northern Syria and the Armenian Highlands. The Sumerians and Akkadians called the country and the tribes of the Hurrians Subartu (hence the ethnic name Subarei). Since the 3rd millennium, in North-Eastern Mesopotamia, from the upper reaches of the Diyala River to Lake Urmia, semi-nomadic tribes of Gutians (Gutians) lived, whose ethnic origin is still a mystery, and whose language differs from Sumerian, Semitic or Indo-European languages.

From the end of the 3rd millennium, in the foothills of the Zagros, in the neighborhood of the Gutians, the Lullube tribes, who often invaded Mesopotamia, lived, about whose origin and linguistic affiliation nothing definite can yet be said.

The diversity of the ethnic composition of Mesopotamia was also due to the implementation of the policy of forced migration of peoples, which was carried out in the 1st millennium BC. e. in the Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian powers, and the strong ethnic circulation that took place in the Persian state, which included Mesopotamia.

Sources. The main sources on the history of Ancient Mesopotamia are monuments of material culture, written documents and literary works, works of ancient authors. Monuments of material culture. The tools found during excavations of the most ancient settlements, the remains of dwellings, burials, grains and bones of animals, ornaments, figurines contain a lot of informative material about the early history of Mesopotamia. Monuments of material culture III-I millennia BC. e. known from the excavations of the ancient cities of Mesopotamia: Eredu, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nigshura, Larsa, Eshnuny, Mari, Ashur, Nineveh, Babylon, etc. Remains of stepped towers were found in the ruins of Mesopotamian cities. Of great importance for history are even small and at first glance not primary material monuments, such as cylinder seals and their impressions, found in abundance in Mesopotamia. Written sources appear at the turn of IV-III millennia BC. e. They are divided into several types: economic, legal, diplomatic documents, chronicle records.

A huge role in the reconstruction of the economy and social relations of antiquity is played by economic documents found in abundance during excavations of Mesopotamian cities. The most important source for the history of Mesopotamia are legal monuments, and above all the codes of laws. The oldest of them - the laws of Shulgi - date back to the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. They were used in the Sumero-Akkadian kingdom, during the III dynasty of Ur. The laws are poorly preserved, they survived. Quiet introduction and several articles. By the middle of the II millennium BC. h. refers to the judicial code from Ashur - the ancient capital of the Assyrian state with the text of the so-called Middle Assyrian laws.

One of the oldest diplomatic documents has come down to us recorded on two clay cylinders. It describes the border conflicts between the cities of Lagash and Umma that took place in the 24th century. BC e. XXIII century BC. e. dates back to an agreement concluded between the Akkadian king Na-ram-Suen and one of the kings of Elam after long-term military conflicts. By the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. refers to the diplomatic archive found during excavations of the "palace of King Mari Zimrilim. The archive contains extensive correspondence between the rulers and statesmen of Babylon, Mari, the Syrian and Phoenician principalities, etc. It appears from it that ambassadors and messengers traveled between the states, negotiations were held on the maintenance of embassies , their safety was ensured, letters and gifts were exchanged, contracts were concluded, etc. An important role in the palace correspondence was occupied by intelligence reports and secret information, especially about the movement of troops and the conclusion of military-political treaties, which the interested parties immediately inquired about.

The inscriptions of the Assyrian kings have come down to us in large numbers. The most ancient of them are characterized by brevity, brevity of presentation of mainly military events or construction. The later ones, belonging, for example, to the kings of the Sargonid dynasty (VIII-VII centuries BC), are, in essence, literary and historical works with dynamism in depicting events, originality in their coverage, and undeniable creative individuality.

More than 140 inscriptions of the Neo-Babylonian kings are known, most of which belong to Nebuchadnezzar II and Nabonidus (VI century BC). They tell about palace, temple, city construction, gifts and sacrifices to temples. Important historical information can be gleaned from the inscriptions of Nabonidus, who mentioned in them not only the events of his reign, but also much more ancient times, was engaged in the restoration of the chronology, genealogy and deeds of the kings.

In the states of Mesopotamia there were royal lists. "Sumerian King List", compiled in the XXI century. BC e., began with fantastic "antediluvian" kings and was later brought to the 18th century. BC e. The Assyrian lists of supreme officials - "limmu" (from 911 to 648), according to which dating was carried out, and the royal lists (from the beginning of the 2nd millennium to the end of the 7th century BC) are the most valuable for establishing the chronology of Assyrian history, the moreover, they contain a real ~ date of a solar eclipse - July 15, 763 BC. e., thanks to which the chronology becomes on a solid basis. Lists of the Babylonian kings have also come down in chronological order. The "Synchronistic History" has been preserved, outlining the history of Assyro-Babylonian relations from the 16th to the 9th centuries. BC e.; "The Chronicle of the Fall of Nineveh", which reflected the events of the death and collapse of the Assyrian state (VII century BC); "Babylonian Chronicle", which tells about the conquest of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom by the Persian king Cyrus (VI century BC). Together with the royal inscriptions, these chronicles form a solid basis for reconstructing the history of ancient Mesopotamia.

Some information about social relations, family, psychology of the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia can be gleaned from the works of the "small" genre: proverbs and sayings. Historical information can be gleaned from the literary monuments of Sumer, Babylonia and Assyria. A real treasure trove of them is the Epic of Gilgamesh, the full text of which was discovered in the royal library of Nineveh and dates back to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e.

Among the important foreign sources on the history of Mesopotamia is the Bible. It contains stories about the campaigns in the Eastern Mediterranean of the Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian kings, about the relationship between the states of Palestine and Mesopotamia. Using the Bible as a source, it is necessary to take into account its political and religious bias.

The most detailed information is contained in the work of the Greek historian Herodotus (VB. BC), who traveled through Mesopotamia. The most valuable is his information about the country itself.

In the work of Josephus Flavius “Antiquities of the Jews” (1st century AD), which highlights the relationship of Assyria and Babylon with the states of Palestine, a vivid picture of the division of the “Assyrian inheritance” between Babylonia and Media and the clash of their interests with Egypt is given. However, it must be borne in mind that Josephus proceeded from the biblical concept of world history.

A number of information on the history of Mesopotamia is contained in the work of the Roman historian of the 1st century BC. n. e. Pompey Trog. He gives the traditional outline of Babylonian and Assyrian history as a chain of events revolving around legendary kings and queens, but his explanation of the reasons for the aggressive policy of Assyria, the conditions for the emergence of the great empires of antiquity, the methods of governing the conquered territories and the reasons for the collapse of the power of state associations of this kind is of interest.

Periodization.

On the territory of Mesopotamia from the 7th to the 4th millennium BC. e. there was a decomposition of the primitive communal system, and the prerequisites for the emergence of a class society were created. At the beginning of the III millennium BC. e. the first small states were formed in the southern part of the country, in the historical region of Sumer. The period covering the XXVIII-XXIV centuries. BC e., is called the Early Dynastic. The next period (the last third of the 3rd millennium BC) is characterized by the creation of extensive, so-called despotic monarchies. In the XXIV-XXIII centuries. the political center moves to the central part of Mesopotamia, where the state of Akkad arises, uniting Sumer and the northern regions of Mesopotamia under its rule. From the Akkadian kingdom, which collapsed under the onslaught of the Gutians, the hegemony in Mesopotamia soon passes to the Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom.

From the 16th to the 13th century BC e. in the western part of Northern Mesopotamia, the state of Mitanni played a significant role. In its eastern part, as early as the III millennium BC. e. the Assyrian state arose with the center in the city of Ashur, whose history is further divided into periods: Old Assyrian (XX-XVI centuries BC), Middle Assyrian (XV "-XI centuries BC) and New Assyrian (X -VII centuries BC.) In this last period, the state of Assyria, through conquests, grows into a huge, engulfing almost all the countries of the Middle East, a great power.

Babylonian society and state in the Amorite and Kassite periods of its history.

general characteristics .Babylon is not located on the Euphrates and not in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, on a separate large channel that goes into the steppe along the western right bank of the Euphrates. This is a special agricultural world, a chain of oases, entirely artificial. The world of Babylon was created artificially in a dry waterless steppe at the expense of a huge main canal. But if in the historical Mesopotamia on one channel, like a barbecue, 6-8 small Sumerian states sat, then here is a large agricultural region, isolated from the rest, with one large super-city Babylon. This is both the Sumerian and non-Sumerian world. Here there is not that plurality of solutions that distinguishes the Sumerian world, and such an Egyptian craving for unity of command, unity of faith, autocracy, which it was not possible to plant in Mesopotamia. Even when Babylon seized these lands, the traditions of diversity, the traditions remained here for another thousand years. The once flourishing technogenic region, the southern part of Mesopotamia, the Sumerian Mesopotamia, are turning into a secondary region: rich, with highly educated specialists, who is envied by everyone and who supplied ideas and social technologies over a huge area. However, politically the area is dead forever. Socially, he has lost potential. Everything is now decided by larger nests located to the north. There was only one way to unite them: when all of them were covered with sand and a flat steppe-desert was obtained, where the Arabs loitered.

How not to perish if the two rivers on which your life depends are stormy and unpredictable, and of all earthly riches there is only clay in abundance? The peoples of the Ancient Mesopotamia did not die, moreover, they managed to create one of the most developed civilizations of their time.

background

Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) is another name for Mesopotamia (from other Greek Mesopotamia - "two rivers"). So the ancient geographers called the territory located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In the III millennium BC. Sumerian city-states, such as Ur, Uruk, Lagash, etc., formed on this territory. The emergence of an agricultural civilization became possible due to the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates, after which fertile silt settled along the banks.

Events

III millennium BC- the emergence of the first city-states in Mesopotamia (5 thousand years ago). The largest cities are Ur and Uruk. Their houses were built of clay.

About III millennium BC.- the emergence of cuneiform (more about cuneiform). Cuneiform arose in Mesopotamia, initially as an ideographic-rebus, and later as a verbal-syllabic script. They wrote on clay tablets with a pointed stick.

Gods of Sumerian-Akkadian mythology:

Shamash - sun god
Ea - god of water
Sin is the god of the moon,
Ishtar is the goddess of love and fertility.

A ziggurat is a pyramid-shaped temple.

Myths and legends:

The myth of the flood (about how Utnapishti built a ship and was able to escape during the global flood).
The story of Gilgamesh.

Members

To the northeast of Egypt, between two large rivers - the Euphrates and the Tigris - is the Mesopotamia, or Mesopotamia, also known as Mesopotamia (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Ancient Mesopotamia

Soils in the Southern Mesopotamia are surprisingly fertile. Just like the Nile in Egypt, the rivers gave life and prosperity to this warm country. But the floods of the rivers were stormy: sometimes the streams of water fell on the villages and pastures, demolishing dwellings and pens for livestock. It was necessary to build embankments along the banks so that the flood would not wash away the crops in the fields. Canals were dug to irrigate fields and gardens.

The state arose here at about the same time as in the Nile Valley - more than 5,000 years ago.

Many settlements of farmers, growing up, turned into centers of small city-states, the population of which was no more than 30-40 thousand people. The largest were Ur and Uruk, located in the south of Mesopotamia. Scientists have found ancient burials, the objects found in them testify to the high development of the craft.

There were no mountains or forests in the Southern Mesopotamia, the only building material was clay. The houses were built from clay bricks, dried due to lack of fuel in the sun. To protect buildings from destruction, the walls were made very thick, for example, the city wall was so wide that a wagon could drive along it.

Towering in the center of the city ziggurat- a high stepped tower, at the top of which there was a temple of the god - the patron of the city (Fig. 2). In one city it was, for example, the sun god Shamash, in another it was the moon god Sin. Everyone revered the water god Ea, people turned to the goddess of fertility Ishtar with requests for rich grain harvests and the birth of children. Only the priests were allowed to climb to the top of the tower - to the sanctuary. The priests observed the movement of the heavenly gods - the Sun and the Moon. They made a calendar, predicted the fate of people by the stars. The learned priests were also involved in mathematics. The number 60 they considered sacred. Under the influence of the inhabitants of the Ancient Mesopotamia, we divide an hour into 60 minutes, and a circle into 360 degrees.

Rice. 2. Ziggurat in Ur ()

During excavations of ancient cities in Mesopotamia, archaeologists found clay tablets covered with wedge-shaped icons. Badges were squeezed out on wet clay with a pointed stick. To give hardness, the tablets were fired in a kiln. Cuneiform badges are a special letter of Mesopotamia - cuneiform. Icons denoted words, syllables, combinations of letters. Scientists have counted several hundred characters used in cuneiform writing (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cuneiform ()

Learning to read and write in Ancient Mesopotamia was no less difficult than in Egypt. Schools, or "Houses of tablets", which appeared in the III millennium BC. e., only children from wealthy families could attend, since education was paid. For many years it was necessary to attend the school of scribes in order to master the complex system of writing.

Bibliography

Vigasin A. A., Goder G. I., Sventsitskaya I. S. History of the Ancient World. Grade 5 - M .: Education, 2006.
Nemirovsky A. I. A book for reading on the history of the Ancient World. - M .: Education, 1991.

Additional precommended links to Internet resources

STOP SYSTEM() project.
Culturologist.ru ().

Homework

Where is Ancient Mesopotamia located?
What is common in the natural conditions of Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt?
Describe the cities of Ancient Mesopotamia.
Why are there ten times more characters in cuneiform than in the modern alphabet?

The most ancient slave-owning society and states take shape in the southern part of the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers at about the same time as in Egypt. Here arises the second most important center of civilization, which had a great influence on the political, economic and cultural history of the entire ancient world.

Decomposition of the primitive communal system in Mesopotamia.

Natural conditions and population of Mesopotamia.

The flat part of the country, located between the Tigris and Euphrates in their lower and middle reaches, is usually called the Greek word Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia). The natural conditions and historical destinies of the northern and southern parts of Mesopotamia are different. Therefore, its southern part, where the course of both rivers converged (mainly to the south of the region of the capital of modern Iraq - Baghdad), we single out under the name "Mesopotamia".

This part of the Mesopotamian Plain is filled with deposits of rivers, periodically overflowing in the spring-blooming period due to snowmelt in the mountainous regions of the upper reaches. The oldest settlements, which were the centers of the formation of the first states, were located on both banks along the lower reaches of both rivers, mainly the Euphrates, whose waters are easier to use for agriculture without special water-lifting devices. For use in the autumn cultivation of the land, the flood waters had to be collected in special reservoirs. The Euphrates and Tigris, in addition to their huge role as sources of irrigation, are the main transport arteries of the country.

The climate in Mesopotamia is hot and dry. The amount of precipitation is small, and they fall mainly in winter. As a result, agriculture is possible mainly on soils naturally irrigated by river floods or artificially irrigated. On such soils, a wide variety of crops can be grown and high and stable yields can be obtained.

The Mesopotamian plain is bordered from the north and east by the outlying mountains of the Armenian and Iranian highlands, in the west it borders on the Syrian steppe and the deserts of Arabia. From the south, the plain is bounded by the Persian Gulf, where the Tigris and Euphrates flow. At present, both of these rivers, 110 km before flowing into the sea, merge into a single river flow - the Shatt al-Arab, but in ancient times the sea wedged much deeper to the northwest and both rivers flowed into it separately. The center of the origin of the most ancient civilization was located here, in the southern part of Mesopotamia.

Natural wealth, of those that could be used by the ancient population of the plain, is small - reeds, clay, and in rivers and swampy lakes - fish. Of the tree species, the date palm can be noted, which gives nutritious and tasty fruits, but wood of low quality. There were no stone and metal ores necessary for the development of the economy.

The most ancient population of the country, who laid the foundations of civilization in Mesopotamia, were the Sumerians; It can be argued that already in the IV millennium BC. e. Sumerians were the main population of Mesopotamia. The Sumerians spoke a language whose relationship with other languages has not yet been established. For the physical type of the Sumerians, according to the surviving statues and reliefs, usually quite crudely conveying the appearance of a person, a round face with a large straight nose was characteristic.

From the III millennium BC. e. pastoral Semitic tribes begin to penetrate into Mesopotamia from the Syrian steppe. The language of this group of Semitic tribes is called Akkadian or Babylonian-Assyrian, according to those later names that this group of Semites acquired already in Mesopotamia. At first they settled in the northern part of the country, turning to agriculture. Then their language spread to the southern part of Mesopotamia; by the end of the 3rd millennium, the final mixing of the Semitic and Sumerian populations took place.

Various Semitic tribes at that time made up the bulk of the pastoral population of Western Asia; the territory of their settlement covered the Syrian steppe, Palestine and Arabia.

Northern Mesopotamia and the outlying highlands of Iran, fringing the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates from the east, were inhabited by numerous tribes who spoke languages whose family ties have not yet been established; some of them may have been close to individual modern Caucasian languages. In the northern part of Mesopotamia and on the tributaries of the Tigris, settlements of the Hurrian tribes were early attested by monuments; further to the east, in the mountains, lived Lullubei and Gutei (Kutii). The river valleys of southwestern Iran adjacent to Mesopotamia were occupied by the Elamites.

For the most part, these and close to them tribes in the IV-III millennium BC. e. were sedentary mountain farmers and semi-sedentary pastoralists who still lived in the conditions of a primitive communal system. It was they who created the Eneolithic "culture of painted ceramics" in Western Asia; their settlements. - Tell-Khalaf, Tell-Brak, Arnachia, Tepe-Gaura, Samarra, and deeper into the highlands of Iran Tepe-Giyan, Tepe-Sialk, Tepe-Hissar, Tureng-Tepe - allow us to judge the nature of the development of the tribes involved in mining stream farming during the Neolithic and Eneolithic periods. Most of them at first were still ahead in their development of the tribes that inhabited Mesopotamia, and only from the second half of the 4th millennium did the population of Mesopotamia quickly overtake their neighbors.

Only among the Elamites in the lower reaches of the Karuna and Kerkhe rivers does a class society arise. Only a little later than in Sumer.

Monuments of the III millennium testify that by sea, which went along the Persian Gulf. Sumer was connected with other countries. Cuneiform texts mention the island of Dilmun and the countries of Magan and Meluhha, famous for gold and ebony. Only Dilmun is indisputably identified with the current Bahrain Islands off the coast of Eastern Arabia, so we cannot definitely say how far the sea connections of Mesopotamia extended. However, epic songs about the journeys of the Sumerian heroes to the east, “beyond the seven mountains”, and about friendly relations with the local population, as well as seals with images of Indian elephants and signs of Indian writing, which were found in the settlements of Mesopotamia of the III millennium BC. e., lead to think that there were connections with the Indus Valley.

The data on the most ancient connections with Egypt are less definite; however, some features of the earliest Eneolithic culture of Egypt make a number of researchers assume the existence of such connections, and some historians suggest that in the last third of the III millennium BC. e. there were military clashes between Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Ancient settlements in Mesopotamia.

The example of the history of the peoples of Mesopotamia clearly shows how the influence of the conditions of the geographical environment on the course of historical development is relative. The geographical conditions of Mesopotamia have hardly changed over the past 6-7 millennia. However, if at present Iraq is a backward, semi-colonial state, then in the Middle Ages, before the devastating Mongol invasion in the 13th century, as well as in antiquity, Mesopotamia was one of the richest and most populated countries in the world. The flowering of the culture of Mesopotamia, therefore, cannot be explained only by the favorable natural conditions of the country for agriculture. If you look even further back into the depths of centuries, it turns out that the same country in the 5th and even partly in the 4th millennium BC. e. was a country of swamps and lakes overgrown with reeds, where a rare population huddled along the banks and on the islands, pushed into these dead places from the foothills and steppes by stronger tribes.

Only with the further development of Neolithic technology and with the transition to the age of metal, the most ancient population of Mesopotamia was able to use those features of the geographical environment that were previously unfavorable. With the strengthening of the technical equipment of man, these geographical conditions turned out to be a factor that accelerated the historical development of the tribes that settled here.

The oldest settlements discovered in Mesopotamia date back to the beginning of the 4th millennium BC. e., to the period of transition from the Neolithic to the Eneolithic. One of these settlements has been excavated under the El Obeid Hill. Such hills (tells) were formed on the plain of Mesopotamia on the site of ancient settlements by the gradual accumulation of building remains, clay from mud bricks, etc. The population that lived here was already settled, knew the simplest agriculture and cattle breeding, but hunting and fishing still played big role. The culture was similar to that of the foothills, but poorer. Weaving and pottery were known. Stone tools predominated, but copper items have already begun to appear.

Around the middle of the IV millennium BC. e. include the lower layers of the excavations of Uruk. At that time, the inhabitants of Mesopotamia knew the barley and emmer cultures, among domestic animals there were bulls, sheep, goats, pigs and donkeys. If the dwellings of El Obeid were predominantly thatched huts, then during the excavations of Uruk, relatively large buildings made of raw bricks were found. This period, the second half of the 4th millennium, includes the first pictographic (pictorial) inscriptions on clay tiles ("tablets") - the oldest written monuments of Mesopotamia. The most ancient written monument of Mesopotamia - a small stone tablet - is kept in the Soviet Union in the State Hermitage Museum (Leningrad).

By the end of the IV and the very beginning of the III millennium BC. include layers of the excavations of the Dzhemdet-Nasr hill, not far from another ancient city of Mesopotamia - Kish, as well as later layers of Uruk. Excavations show that pottery production has reached significant development here. Copper tools are found in increasing numbers, although stone and bone tools are still widely used. The wheel was already known and the transportation of goods was carried out not only in packs, but on marshy soil on sledges, but also by wheeled vehicles. There were public buildings and temples already built of raw brick, significant in size and artistic design (the first temple buildings appeared at the beginning of the previous period).

The development of agriculture.

Those Sumerian tribes who settled in Mesopotamia were able already in ancient times to begin in various places in the valley to drain the marshy soil and use the waters of the Euphrates, and then the Lower Tigris, creating the basis for irrigation agriculture. The alluvial (alluvial) soil of the valley was soft and loose, and the banks were low; therefore it was possible even with imperfect tools to build canals and dams-reservoirs, dams and dams. Carrying out all these works required a large number of workers, so it was beyond the power of either a single family, or a primitive community, or even a small association of such communities. It became possible at a different, higher level of social development, when many communities were united.

Work on the creation of an irrigation economy was possible only with a certain level of development of technology, but they, in turn, inevitably had to contribute to the further development of agricultural technology, as well as the improvement of those tools that were used in digging. In drainage and irrigation works, tools with metal parts are beginning to be used. In connection with the growth of the irrigation economy, the more intensive use of the metal was to lead to very important social results.

The growth of labor productivity led to the possibility of producing a surplus product, which not only created the necessary prerequisites for the emergence of exploitation, but also led to the emergence of strong families in communities that initially led a collective economy, interested in organizing separate independent farms and striving to seize the best lands. These families eventually constituted a tribal aristocracy that took control of tribal affairs in their own hands. Since the tribal aristocracy possessed better weapons than ordinary community members, it began to seize most of the military booty, which in turn contributed to increased property inequality.

The rise of slavery.

Already in the period of the decomposition of the primitive communal system, the Sumerian tribes used slave labor (references to slaves, and then slaves, are found in documents from the period of the Jemdet-Nasr culture), but they used it in a very limited amount. The first irrigation canals were dug by free members of the communities, but the development of an irrigation economy on a large scale required a significant amount of labor. The creation of an irrigation network was further worked in the order of duty by free representatives of society, but the labor of slaves was increasingly used in digging work.

The victorious cities also attracted the population of conquered communities to work on artificial irrigation. This is evidenced by the reflecting conditions of the beginning )