3.3. Sectoral and territorial structure of the economy.

When analyzing different types of territorial production systems (economy of the world, region, country, district, etc.), one usually has to deal with two types of structures - sectoral and territorial. Both show the ratio of various elements of the economic system - real non-territorial (industries, enterprises, production), and then we are talking about its sectoral (component) structure, and territorial (region, economic zone, district, etc.), and then its territorial (regional) structure is considered.

The sectoral structure of the economy is a set of its branches, characterized by certain quantitative ratios (the composition and proportions of the development of branches) and interrelations.

The sectoral structure of the economy is represented by branches of material and non-material production (industries of the production and non-production sphere),

The manufacturing sector is formed by the following industries:

Directly creating a material product (industry and construction, agriculture and forestry);

Delivering a material product to the consumer (transport and communications);

Associated with the continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation (trade, public catering, logistics, marketing, procurement).

Non-manufacturing sphere includes service industries (housing and communal services and public services, transport and communications for public services) and social services (education, health care, culture and art, science and scientific services, lending, financing and insurance, management apparatus, etc.).

The presented main sectors of the economy - industry, agriculture, the construction industry, transport are divided into the so-called enlarged industries, and those, in turn, into homogeneous (specialized) industries and types of production (for example, agriculture is divided into agriculture and animal husbandry; agriculture - for grain farming, production of industrial crops, vegetable growing, melon growing, horticulture and viticulture, etc.; animal husbandry - for cattle breeding, sheep breeding, pig breeding, poultry farming, beekeeping, etc.).

In the sectoral structure of the economy, intersectoral combinations (complexes) are also distinguished, represented as a set of homogeneous industries within one industry (for example, fuel and energy, metallurgical, machine-building, transport complexes), and technologically related different industries (for example, construction, military-industrial , agro-industrial complexes).

The most complex structure among them is the agro-industrial complex (AIC), which includes three areas of activity:

Industry producing means of production for agriculture (agricultural engineering, fertilizer production, etc.);

Agriculture proper (sectors of agriculture and animal husbandry);

Industries for the procurement and processing of agricultural products, bringing them to the consumer (food industry and primary branches of light industry, procurement system and elevator and storage facilities, trade in fruit products and public catering).

An important component of the economy is infrastructure, which is a set of material resources for servicing production and the population.

Depending on the functions performed, production, social and market infrastructure are distinguished.

The production infrastructure continues the process of production in the sphere of circulation and includes transport, communications, warehousing, logistics, engineering structures and devices, communications and networks (power lines, oil pipelines, gas pipelines, heating mains, water supply, telephone networks, etc.) .

The social infrastructure is mainly formed by the sectors of housing and communal services and household services of settlements (passenger transport, water and energy supply networks, sewerage, telephone networks, cultural and entertainment facilities, institutions of public education, healthcare, catering, etc.).

The market infrastructure includes commercial banks, commodity and stock exchanges (transactions with monetary resources and securities).

The sectoral structure of the economy is determined by:

By the share of industries in the total volume of production;

By the number of employees and the value of fixed production assets (machines, equipment, tools, industrial buildings and structures, etc., used in material production).

Among the above, the main one is the indicator of the volume of manufactured products, which makes it possible to most objectively judge the ratio of industries and their interrelations.

In the course of historical development, changes are taking place in the sectoral structure of the world economy. As a general trend, first "primary industries" (agriculture and mining) give way to "secondary industries" (manufacturing and construction), then "secondary" - "tertiary" (services).

In the modern structure of the world economy, the share of the service sector and other sectors of the non-productive sphere (tertiary sectors) has increased significantly and the share of the manufacturing sector (primary and secondary sectors) has decreased. On average, more than 1/3 of the active population in the world is already employed in the non-productive sector, and in some developed countries of the world this indicator (employment) reaches 50% and more. In the structure of the GDP of some developed countries, the share of the service sector is even higher (60% in Germany and Japan, 70% in the USA).

Big changes are currently taking place in the structure of material production. They are connected, first of all, with a change in the proportions between industry and agriculture in favor of industry, the development of which determines the growth of labor productivity in all sectors of the economy. The share of industry in the GDP of the most developed countries of the world (USA, Japan, Germany, France, etc.) is at the level of 25-35%, while agriculture is only 2-3%. In the newly industrialized and post-socialist countries, the share of agriculture has also steadily declined, although it is still relatively high (6-10% of GDP) 14 .

And only in developing countries agriculture (its share in GDP is 30-40%) still significantly outstrips industry (10-20%).

In the composition of industry, the share of extractive industries continues to decline and the share of manufacturing industries continues to grow. In the latter, the latest science-intensive branches of mechanical engineering and the chemical industry (microelectronics, robotics, organic synthesis, etc.) stand out with particularly high growth rates.

There have also been changes in transport. In the cargo turnover, the first place is occupied by sea transport (more than 60%), and in the passenger turnover - by road transport (about 80%). In both types of transportation, the second is rail transport (15 and 10.2%, respectively). Comparatively new modes of transport are developing rapidly: air and pipeline.

In passenger traffic, air transport has already approached rail transport (9.2%), and in cargo traffic, pipeline transport (11.8%) is also catching up with rail transport.

In the commodity structure of world trade, the share of finished goods, machinery and equipment increased, while the share of raw materials and foodstuffs decreased. Trade in technologies (patents, licenses, etc.) has increased.

The territorial structure of the economy is understood as its division into territorial entities (taxons). Such territorial formations of different levels and types (regions, economic zones and districts, industrial groupings and complexes, centers and nodes, etc.), as mentioned above, are specific forms of territorial organization of production (economy).

In the territorial structure of the modern world economy, several hierarchical levels and the corresponding types of territorial entities can be distinguished.

This is, first of all, the regional (international) level, covering the largest, most extensive territorial parts of the world economy - continents, their individual parts and countries. This level of territorial organization of the economy corresponds to such territorial formations as a region, subregion, country.

The principles underlying the allocation of such links of the world economy as a region and a subregion can be very different (historical-geographical, ethnic, political, economic and even religious), and therefore the very division of the world economy into regions and subregions is conditional, in a certain least subjective.

The position in the territorial structure of the economy of the countries of the world is due to their participation in the international division of labor. Actually, for this reason, both regions and subregions, as combinations, groupings of different countries, also participate in the international division of labor and exist quite objectively.

Region - the largest territorial entity in the economy of the world, made up of several (from groups) of countries located on the same common territory and united by a number of other features. There are seven main or main regions in the world economy: North America, Latin America, Africa, Australia and Oceania, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Foreign (in relation to the CIS countries) Europe and Asia.

A sub-region is a large part of the region, which differs from its other constituent parts in the originality of historical, natural and economic conditions for the development of productive forces, socialization and features of the location of the economy. Within Europe, two large parts are distinguished - Eastern (Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia, Yugoslavia) and Western. Western Europe, covering the territory of twenty-four states, is in turn subdivided into Northern (Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden), Middle (Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, the Netherlands, France, Switzerland ) and Southern (Andorra, Vatican, Greece, Spain, Italy, Malta, Portugal, San Marino) Europe. Thus, Europe is divided into four sub-regions.

Sub-regions of Asia: Central and East Asia (China, Republic of Korea, North Korea, Mongolia, Japan), Southeast Asia (Brunei, Vietnam, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines), South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives), Western Asia (Afghanistan, Bahrain, Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Yemen, Qatar, Cyprus, Kuwait, Lebanon, UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey).

Africa is divided into North (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, Western Sahara), East (Djibouti, Kenya, Comoros, Mauritius, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Reunion, Seychelles, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Eritrea, Ethiopia), Central (Angola, Burundi, Gabon, Zaire, or Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea), Western (Benin, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea , Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo) and South Africa (Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Namibia , Swaziland, South Africa).

Sub-regions of Latin America: Middle America (Mexico and the countries of Central America and the West Indies - Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Grenada, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Cuba, Panama, El Salvador, Saint -Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica), Andean countries (Bolivia, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Ecuador), countries of the Amazon basin and La Plata (Argentina, Brazil, Guyana, Paraguay, Suriname, Uruguay).

As part of the region, Australia and Oceania distinguish: Australia, Melanesia (Vanutatu, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Fiji, Western Samoa), Polynesia (New Zealand, Tonga, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Marshall Islands) and Micronesia (Micronesia , Nauru, Palau).

The North America region consists of two states - Canada and the USA, and the CIS - of twelve (Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine).

Country - a territory (locality), the boundaries and integrity of which are determined by the sovereignty of the state, with characteristic conditions for development, specialization and structure of the economy.

Another level of territorial structure (organization) of the economy of the world - regional, connected with the territory of each individual (concrete) country.

The economic region is a geographically integral territorial part of the country's economy, which has its own production specialization, strong internal economic ties and is inextricably linked with other parts of the social territorial division of labor.

The formation of economic regions is an objective process due to the development of the territorial division of labor within the country. Due to the fact that its level in different countries may be different, there are differences in the territorial structure and organization of the economy in each country.

Differences are also observed in the principles of economic zoning, determining the boundaries of regions, etc.

In Russia, the following principles serve as fundamental:

Economic, considering the region as a specialized territorial part of a single whole national economy of the country with a certain set of auxiliary and service industries. According to this principle, the specialization of districts should be determined by industries in which the labor and funds spent on the production of products and their delivery to the consumer will be the smallest in comparison with other districts. The main contours of the boundaries of the regions are determined by the area where specialized industries are located;

National and administrative, providing for the full compliance of the allocated areas with the formed national and administrative associations (republics, territories, regions, etc.) in the interests of strengthening their unity as integral territorial and economic entities.

The territorial structure (organization) of the Russian economy is divided into:

macro level - economic zone, economic region;

mesolevel - region, region, republic;

micro level- administrative district, industrial hub, industrial center, industrial center.

Economic zones - vast territorial formations, composed of several (groups) of regions, with characteristic natural and economic conditions for the development of productive forces.

On the territory of the Russian Federation, the Western economic zone is distinguished, which includes the regions of the European part of the country with the Urals, and the Eastern one, which includes the regions of Siberia and the Far East.

The Western economic zone is characterized by a shortage of fuel, energy and water resources, a high degree of concentration of the population and economic development of the territory (about 80% of the population and the main production assets of the country), and the predominance of manufacturing industries in the composition of industry. The Eastern Economic Zone is characterized by the presence of large reserves of fuel and energy, mineral raw materials and forest resources, low population and economic development of the territory, and the predominance of extractive industries in the composition of industry.

Economic regions are also large territorial formations, made up of regions, territories and republics with relatively homogeneous conditions, with a characteristic direction of development (specialization) of the economy, with labor and natural resources sufficient for a relatively independent integrated development of productive forces.

In the system of the Russian economy, 11 large, or main economic, regions are distinguished, differing in terms of economic development, specialization and structure of the economy: Central, Northwestern, Northern, Central Black Earth, North Caucasian, Volga-Vyatka, Volga, Ural, West -Siberian, East Siberian and Far East. Large districts are divided into 89 political and administrative units, which are subjects of the Russian Federation. The latter, in turn, - to the lower administrative and economic regions. Both those and others are economically specialized units of large economic regions.

Industrial hub (promuzel) - a group of technologically and economically related industries, compactly located in a small area (several industrial centers).

Industrial center (industrial center) - a group of unrelated heterogeneous industries (enterprises) located in one center (large city).

An industrial point (industrial point) is a territory (small town or urban-type settlement) where one or more related enterprises (of the same industry) are located.

Widespread in the world forms of territorial organization of the economy are special economic zones (SEZ) - territories with the most favorable regime for the financial and economic activities of domestic and foreign investors. Depending on the direction of economic activity, the set economic tasks or other goals, SEZs can be created as free trade zones (free customs zones), where warehousing and processing operations (packaging, labeling, quality control, simple refinement, etc.) of goods are carried out foreign trade, as industrial and production zones, where industrial companies produce export or import-substituting products, as trade and production, service, complex, technical and innovative (for the development and implementation of new technologies) or technopolises, transit, insurance, banking, environmental and economic zones, tourist centers, etc.

The selection of zonal territories is based on different principles: an advantageous geographical position, a high level of development or low cost of infrastructure development, the presence of a significant resource (raw materials, labor) potential for further growth, etc.

In Russia, SEZs have received little development. Initially (1990-1992) the creation of 12-13 zones was announced. However, at present, many of these zones exist formally and some of them have actually already disintegrated. FEZs are developing relatively actively only in Nakhodka, the Kaliningrad region and St. Petersburg.

All of the above territorial entities - regions, districts, etc., form the basis of the territorial structure (organization) of the world economy. It is with the need to study them that the emergence (origin) of such disciplines as economic geography, and later - regional geography, regional studies, regional studies, regional studies, etc., is connected, which, with all the variety of interpretations of the content, studies the same object - the territorial organization of social production.

The sectoral structure of the national economy is a differentiated composition of the economy of one or another territorial object - a country, region, city, etc., divided according to the forms of production and non-production activities. It expresses the relationship between its main subdivisions, i.e. national economic proportions, and the state of the social division of labor.

Relatively recently, in Russian statistics, in accordance with international standards, information is given not by branches of the national economy, but by types of economic activity. The list of these types is given in the All-Russian Classifier of Higher Economic Activity (OKVED). Types of activity do not always coincide with the division into industries.

The foundation of the national economy is sphere of material production, which is a combination of all types of production activities:

• directly creating material wealth in material form - in the form of products and energy (industry, agriculture, construction);
• increasing their value due to movement - as a result of the delivery of the created material goods to the consumer (transport, as well as communications for servicing material production);
• increasing the value of material goods due to their storage, sorting, packaging and other functions that serve as a continuation of production in the sphere of circulation (harvesting, storage, material and technical supply, trade, public catering).

Other activities that do not create material wealth are non-manufacturing area, which includes:

• service industries (housing and communal services and consumer services, transport and communications for public services, etc.);
• branches of social service (enlightenment, health care, culture and art, science and scientific service);
• branches of government and defense.

It is necessary to take into account the "number of floors" of production - the division along the vertical ("bottom to top") of the entire production process into the following main stages ("floors"): the extraction of natural materials (or their cultivation, production in agriculture) - their improvement - the manufacture of structural materials - release of final products (fixed assets, consumer goods).

The sectoral structure of the country's national economy is characterized by intersectoral proportions and intersectoral production ties. The latter are constantly being strengthened and expanded. As a result of integration, the complication of relations between individual industries, industries, areas of both material production and non-production, inter-industry complexes have formed - complex combinations of interrelated industries that have a common development goal. They arise within the industry (for example, as part of the industry there are machine-building and fuel and energy complexes) or as a result of the interaction of different sectors of the economy (agro-industrial complex).

In countries with industrial economies, industry, primarily manufacturing, occupied a leading role and only in the transition to a post-industrial economy gave way to the structure in the service sector. We present the data of 2005 on the share of the manufacturing industry in GDP for the 12 leading countries of the world, ranked by their share in conditionally net production (NPP) (Table 10.1).

Table 10.1

The main economic indicators of the importance of the manufacturing industry in the leading countries of the world

The United States, France and the United Kingdom, with a very modest share of manufacturing in GDP, rank among the top seven countries in terms of PPE in the manufacturing industry. The countries of the first seven, except for China, are characterized by a high volume of manufacturing products per capita. The leader here is Japan - $ 11,588, Germany is in second place - $ 7,120, while in China - only $ 479, and in Russia - $ 989. If you go beyond the seven, then Switzerland takes the second place in this indicator , the third - Ireland, the fourth - Sweden, the fifth - Finland. Russia is only in 49th place, and China is in 66th. As we can see, the relatively low share of the manufacturing industry in the country's GDP does not mean its weak development.

Has a complex structure agro-industrial complex. The agro-industrial complex is the result of a technological, economic and organizational connection of interrelated stages of production, storage, processing and bringing to the population of food products and other commodities from agricultural raw materials, i.e. result of agro-industrial integration. This complex consists of three areas: 1) industries that provide the agro-industrial complex with the means of production (tractor and agricultural engineering, repair of agricultural machinery, the production of mineral fertilizers and chemical plant protection products, the microbiological industry, etc.), and capital construction in the agro-industrial complex; 2) agriculture proper (including personal subsidiary plots of the population) and forestry; 3) industries engaged in the procurement, processing of agricultural products and bringing it to the consumer (food industry, including the fish and feed industries, light industry enterprises for the primary processing of agricultural raw materials; procurement system; elevator and storage facilities; food products trade and public catering).

Domestic economic geographers distinguish intersectoral building complex, which includes industries that meet the basic needs of all stages of construction production - from projects to completed buildings and structures. This complex has three main areas: 1) the construction industry (the core of the entire complex); 2) the industry of building materials and the industry of building structures and parts; 3) construction and road engineering, production of machinery and equipment for the building materials industry. It has a significant impact on the development and territorial organization of the country's productive forces.

In the economies of some countries, a prominent place was occupied by complexes formed on the basis of individual large industries. Thus, in the United States, an important role is played by the automotive complex - a set of industries associated with the production and operation of automobiles and creating, according to some estimates, about 1/5 of the gross national product.

In a number of countries where the militarization of the economy has manifested itself on a large scale, there have been military industrial complexes (VPK). In the narrow sense of the word, it is a set of enterprises and institutions of various sectors of the economy, primarily industry, science and technology, providing the country's armed forces with everything necessary (Fig. 10.1). The military-industrial complex in the broad sense of the word includes, along with them, the leadership of the armed forces, the part of the state-administrative apparatus and the socio-political forces associated with the armed forces. The military-industrial complex influences the process of the economic development of the state, the territorial and sectoral structure of its economy, and the specialization of individual regions and centers.

The military-industrial complex reached a particularly large scale in the USA and the USSR. In the United States, it consists of three main components: economic (military industry and major banks), military (Pentagon) and political (representatives of the administration, part of the congressional bodies in charge of military and financial affairs). The core of the military-industrial complex is formed by the leading military-industrial companies - the main contractors of the Pentagon, which monopolized the production of weapons.

In the Soviet Union, military production turned out to be almost the only competitive sector of the economy that supplied a significant amount of products for export. According to some estimates, up to 80% of the country's industry was involved in the production of weapons. Half of the enterprises in Moscow and about 3/4 in Leningrad produced products for defense needs. The boundaries of the military-industrial complex are largely conditional. Clothing, footwear and the fabrics, leather, food for the army necessary for the needs of defense are produced outside the military-industrial complex. This also applies to the construction of housing for the needs of the military department. All these enterprises are more correctly attributed to the sphere of production of consumer goods. During the Great Patriotic War, under the slogan "Everything for the front, everything for victory!" products for the needs of the front were produced by almost all industrial enterprises of the country, but many of them worked simultaneously for civilian consumers. In the postwar years, military-industrial complex enterprises in the USSR also produced products for non-military purposes.

Rice. 10.1.

Defense spending, even in peacetime, reduces the production of commodities for the population. However, there is no way to get rid of such expenses if the country intends to pursue an independent policy. For the production of armaments, the national economy is forced to consume a large amount of mineral raw materials and energy, which explains the high unit costs of the economy as a whole per unit of output.

According to the nature of participation in the territorial division of labor, all sectors of the economy are divided into two main groups: the first group - industries of inter-district significance, or branches of specialization whose products are intended mainly to meet the needs of other regions of the country (for example, the oil industry of Western Siberia and the Volga region, the metallurgy of the Urals, etc.); the second group - industries of intra-district significance, or service industries, among which stand out: a) industries and industries that meet the needs of the region as a whole (local fuels, building materials, etc.); b) industries and industries that meet the needs of the population of the region (flour-grinding, dairy, baking and other industries); c) service industries.

The areas of specialization are divided into profiling (city- and district-forming) and non-core (serving).

In our country, the city-forming industries (institutions, organizations) usually include: 1) all industrial enterprises, as well as warehouses of inter-territorial significance; 2) all types of transport of interregional importance (railway, river, sea, air, pipeline); 3) administrative, public, financial and banking institutions of non-urban and non-village significance; 4) research, higher and secondary specialized educational institutions; 5) construction and installation and design and survey organizations; 6) all types of resort and health-improving system of non-urban and non-village significance.

When studying the sectoral structure of the national economy of the country, three sectors (spheres) of the economy are often distinguished: primary - agriculture and forestry (in a number of countries also marine fishing, water supply and energy); secondary – industry and construction; tertiary – branches of the non-manufacturing sphere, transport, communications and trade. In recent decades, in developed countries, the place of the tertiary sector in the structure of the gross domestic product and the economically active (employed) population has significantly increased. At the same time, the importance of the manufacturing sectors has decreased. At present, the tertiary sphere firmly occupies the lead in the sectoral structure of the economy of developed countries, in which, moreover, another one, the so-called quaternary (information), sector of the economy.

The development of the tertiary sector is due to the emergence of new needs and value orientations of society, as well as an increase in the income of the population. As a result, the ratio between material production and the non-productive sphere has changed significantly in the economies of industrialized countries; the volume of transactions carried out by the service sector now significantly exceeds the volume of manufacturing products - the basis of the economy. The role of the tertiary sector in the economy of advanced and backward countries (the share of services in GDP is above 70 and 75%) is presented in Table. 10.2.

Table 10.2

The role of the tertiary sector in the economies of advanced and backward countries, 2009

It is clear that the real level of development of the service sector in the United States, which are inferior to Djibouti and Palau in this indicator, actually has a more extensive and powerful network of service sector institutions.

The tertiary sector is in the process of constant development and complication. It is usually customary to distinguish five sub-sectors in it: trade, transport and communications, finance and credit, public administration and other services (health, education, cultural and recreational institutions, consumer services, etc.).

The leading role in the tertiary sector is played by financial and credit sphere, which accounts for a little less than half of the share of this sector in the gross national product of the leading Western countries. It is this area that has a huge, in fact, decisive influence on macroeconomic processes in all regions and countries of the world. Credit and financial activity is a relatively young, but rapidly developing form of global economic relations. It is characteristic that at present the export and import of capital are growing faster than the trade in goods. In the last decades of the XX century. the volume of foreign investments of developed countries doubled every five to six years. Financial flows have a great influence not only on the sectoral, but also on the territorial structure of the economy.

One of the most dynamic forms of service provision, tourism, deserves great attention of economic geographers. Suffice it to say that the number of people involved in international tourism, despite the effects of the financial crisis and ongoing economic difficulties, continues to grow. In 2013, the number of travelers reached 1 billion 87 million people. for 2014, international arrivals are projected to increase by 4-4.5%, again exceeding its long-term forecast (+3.8% annually over 2010-2020).

Infrastructure is an important part of the national economy. Infrastructure is defined as a combination of existing structures, buildings, networks and systems not directly related to the production of material goods, but necessary as for the production process itself. (industrial infrastructure - transport, communications, power supply networks, water supply, etc.), and to ensure the daily life of the population ( social infrastructure - enterprises of health care, education, culture, consumer services). In addition, stand out institutional infrastructure providing the management process (administrative, economic, financial and other institutions and organizations); information infrastructure (new interacting communication systems, television, computer technology and informatics, other communication systems).

The allocation of infrastructure types is largely conditional, since many infrastructure systems serve both production and the life of the population (for example, engineering infrastructure - urban transport, communications, power supply networks, etc.).

Isolate infrastructure industries (transport, communications), and at the same time, there are such elements of infrastructure that are not formalized in independent industries (for example, treatment facilities). The role of infrastructure in the national economy of the country is great: it serves as a connecting element of all its constituent parts and ensures its integrity and complexity at various levels - sectoral and territorial, influences the formation of cities and entire regions. Infrastructure plays a special role in the development of new territories, in particular, the eastern and northern regions of Russia.

I am neither a specialist nor a scientist, but I understand economic geography. The economy has many branches, since it is a full-fledged structured system. I imagine it as a web in which all industries are intertwined, as they are more or less dependent on each other.

People's sectoral structure of the economy

The economy is divided into certain branches, which together create a structure. It is characterized by certain indicators and relationships. This system includes industries that are aimed at non-material and material production, or belong to the non-production and production sphere.

The production sphere is aimed at the manufacture of a material product. It delivers the product to its consumer. The non-manufacturing sector is a service industry. Each sphere has its own structure, which consists of many components.

In economics, this is called the national economy. Material production is:

• industry;
• transport and communication;
• Agriculture;
• catering;
• construction;
• forest industry.

Intangible production is:

• healthcare;
• education;
• culture;
• science and so on.

Classification of the sectoral structure of the economy

The fuel and energy complex is a key one for any country. It includes the coal, oil and gas industries. The main tasks of each of the branches of the complex is the search, extraction and processing of natural resources.

Energy is part of the fuel and energy complex. Its main purpose is the production and distribution of electricity. For its production, fuel, water and nuclear power plants are used. Alternative energy sources are also being developed.

The branches of the economy include metallurgy. It includes the manufacture of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Steel production in Russia is the world leader.

It should also be noted mechanical engineering, enterprises for the chemical and forestry industries, as well as agriculture.

The sectoral structure of the economy is a set of qualitatively homogeneous groups of economic units with special similar conditions of production in the system of social division of labor, which play their own specific role in the reproduction process.

In international practice, the basis of structuring is:

International Standard Industrial Classification of Economic Activities and International Standard Classification of Occupations SNA (System of National Accounts).

Characteristics of the economy in terms of sectoral structure allows you to see the contribution of each industry to the creation of GDP, trace inter-sectoral relations, analyze the distribution and redistribution of income and investment.

Each enlarged industry consists of industries, sub-sectors and types of production. When assigning an enterprise to a particular industry, the purpose of the goods, the type of the main raw material, and the nature of the technological process are taken into account.

The end of the XX - the beginning of the XXI centuries. - the time of noticeable sectoral shifts in the structure of the world economy.

In industrialized countries, the stage of post-industrial development begins, the share of the service sector increases significantly and the share of the primary and secondary sectors decreases.

In the structure of GDP, a decrease in the share of agriculture is clearly noticeable. At the same time, agriculture, industry, and trade are being integrated into the agro-industrial complex, which today represents a qualitatively new type of production relations. The share of the manufacturing industry in GDP has stabilized and remained constant since the late 1960s and early 1970s. 20th century (prior to that, there was an increase), and the share of the service sector is constantly increasing. The number of people employed in education, healthcare, and tourism is increasing.

In the services sector, the most dynamically developing segment is the sector of credit and financial services, while transport has already experienced a “boom” of its development.

When analyzing different types of territorial production systems (economy of the world, region, country, district, etc.), one usually has to deal with two types of structures - sectoral and territorial. Both show the ratio of various elements of the economic system - real non-territorial (industries, enterprises, production), and then we are talking about its sectoral (component) structure, and territorial (region, economic zone, district, etc.), and then its territorial (regional) structure is considered.

The sectoral structure of the economy is a set of its branches, characterized by certain quantitative ratios (the composition and proportions of the development of branches) and interrelations. The sectoral structure of the economy is represented by branches of material and non-material production (industries of the production and non-production sphere).

The manufacturing sector is formed by the following industries:

Directly creating a material product (industry and construction, agriculture and forestry);

Delivering a material product to the consumer (transport and communications);

Associated with the continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation (trade, public catering, logistics, marketing, procurement).

The non-productive sphere includes the service industries (housing and communal services and public services, transport and communications for public services) and social services (education, health care, culture and art, science and scientific services, lending, financing and insurance, management apparatus, etc.). ).

The presented main sectors of the economy - industry, agriculture, the construction industry, transport are divided into the so-called integrated industries, and those, in turn, into homogeneous (specialized - geoglobus.ru) industries and types of production (for example, agriculture breaks up into agriculture and animal husbandry, agriculture - for grain farming, production of industrial crops, vegetable growing, melon growing, horticulture and viticulture, etc., animal husbandry - for cattle breeding, sheep breeding, pig breeding, poultry farming, beekeeping, etc.).

In the sectoral structure of the economy, intersectoral combinations (complexes) are also distinguished, represented as a set of homogeneous industries within one industry (for example, fuel and energy, metallurgical, machine-building, transport complexes), and technologically related different industries (for example, construction, military-industrial , agro-industrial complexes).

The most complex structure among them is the agro-industrial complex (AIC), which includes three areas of activity:

Industry producing means of production for agriculture (agricultural engineering, fertilizer production, etc.);

Agriculture proper (sectors of agriculture and animal husbandry);

Industries for the procurement and processing of agricultural products, bringing them to the consumer (food industry and primary branches of light industry, procurement system and elevator and storage facilities, trade in fruit products and public catering).

An important component of the economy is infrastructure, which is a set of material resources for servicing production and the population. Depending on the functions performed, production, social and market infrastructure are distinguished.

The production infrastructure continues the process of production in the sphere of circulation and includes transport, communications, warehousing, logistics, engineering structures and devices, communications and networks (power lines, oil pipelines, gas pipelines, heating mains, water supply, telephone networks, etc.) . The social infrastructure is mainly formed by the sectors of housing and communal services and household services of settlements (passenger transport, water and energy supply networks, sewerage, telephone networks, cultural and entertainment facilities, institutions of public education, healthcare, catering, etc.). The market infrastructure includes commercial banks, commodity and stock exchanges (transactions with monetary resources and securities).

The sectoral structure of the economy is determined by:

By the share of industries in the total volume of production; by the number of employees and the cost of fixed production assets (machines, equipment, tools, industrial buildings and structures, etc. used in material production).

Among the above, the main one is the indicator of the volume of manufactured products, which makes it possible to most objectively judge the ratio of industries and their interrelations.

In the course of historical development, changes are taking place in the sectoral structure of the world economy. As a general trend, first "primary industries" (agriculture and mining) give way to "secondary industries" (manufacturing and construction), then "secondary" - "tertiary" (services). In the modern structure of the world economy, the share of the service sector and other sectors of the non-productive sphere (tertiary sectors) has increased significantly and the share of the manufacturing sector (primary and secondary sectors) has decreased. On average, more than 1/3 of the active population is already employed in the non-productive sector in the world, and in some developed countries of the world this figure (employment) reaches 50% or more. In the structure of the GDP of some developed countries, the share of the service sector is even higher (60% in Germany and Japan, 70% in the USA).

Big changes are currently taking place in the structure of material production. They are connected, first of all, with a change in the proportions between industry and agriculture in favor of industry, the development of which determines the growth of labor productivity in all sectors of the economy - geoglobus.ru. The share of industry in the GDP of the most developed countries of the world (USA, Japan, Germany, France, etc.) is at the level of 25-35%, while agriculture is only 2-3%. In the newly industrialized and post-socialist countries, the share of agriculture has also steadily declined, although it is still relatively high (6-10% of GDP). And only in developing countries agriculture (its share in GDP is 30-40%) still significantly outstrips industry (10-20%).

In the composition of industry, the share of extractive industries continues to decline and the share of manufacturing industries continues to grow. In the latter, the latest science-intensive branches of mechanical engineering and the chemical industry (microelectronics, robotics, organic synthesis, etc.) stand out with particularly high growth rates.

There have also been changes in transport. In the cargo turnover, the first place is occupied by sea transport (more than 60%), and in the passenger turnover - by road transport (about 80%). In both types of transportation, the second is rail transport (15 and 10.2%, respectively). Comparatively new modes of transport are developing rapidly: air and pipeline. In passenger traffic, air transport has already approached rail transport (9.2%), and in cargo traffic, pipeline transport (11.8%) is also catching up with rail transport.

In the commodity structure of world trade, the share of finished goods, machinery and equipment increased, while the share of raw materials and foodstuffs decreased. Trade in technologies (patents, licenses, etc.) has increased.

Agglomeration- a set of neighboring cities and settlements, closely connected by various forms of relations. A set of neighboring agglomerations in a certain territory is called megalopolis. The largest agglomerations of the world according to 2005 data are: Tokyo, Mexico City, Seoul, New York, Sao Paulo, Mumbai (Bombay), Delhi, Los Angeles, Shanghai, Jakarta, Osaka, Calcutta, Cairo, Manila, Karachi.

Gross domestic product (GDP)- the total value of all goods and services produced during the year in the territory of the country. The gap in the main indicators of the level and quality of life between developed countries and developing countries is quite large. This indicator is also significantly affected by the population of countries. Thus, if in developed countries GDP per capita averages $25,000 (according to 2004 data), for example, in Luxembourg - $54,000, in the USA - $38,000, etc., then in developing countries - only only 1,500 dollars (in Russia this figure is 9,000 dollars), the minimum figures are typical for underdeveloped countries (Tanzania, Malawi, the Republic of the Congo).

Age structure- the ratio between individual age categories of people, among which there are persons in childhood, working age and old age. The age structure of the population depends on the reproduction of the population. In countries with the first type population reproduction, the proportion of older people may be even higher than the proportion of children - population aging is observed. In countries with the second type reproduction, where high birth rates are recorded, the proportion of older people is minimal.

Reproduction (natural movement) of the population- is a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase, ensuring the renewal and change of human generations. Birth, death and natural increase indicators are expressed per 1,000 inhabitants, i.e. per mille (‰). The classification of types of reproduction based on the historical approach is presented in Table 1.

Another classification takes into account the ratio of birth and death rates. First type characteristic of economically developed countries (low birth and death rates), natural increase does not exceed 10 people per thousand inhabitants, and sometimes negative (natural population decline is observed). Second type characteristic of developing countries (high birth rate and natural increase, declining mortality). The highest rates of natural increase are characteristic of the least developed African countries, as well as the Arab countries of Southwest Asia.

Demography- this is the science of the laws of reproduction of the population, its size and natural increase, sex and age composition. It studies territorial groups of the population, systems of populated areas, the features of their development and formation in different socio-economic and other conditions.

Demographic policy- a set of measures aimed at regulating the birth rate in order to increase or reduce the natural population growth.

Population explosion- the rapid growth of the world population. The term was introduced in the 60s. of the 20th century, when the highest population growth rates in world history were observed.

Demographic transition- a theory according to which the level of births and deaths is determined not by biological laws, but by social conditions. These are successive changes in fertility, mortality and natural increase as the socio-economic development of countries changes.

natural growth- the difference between fertility and mortality, can be positive and negative.

Population migrations (mechanical population movement)- the movement of the population from one territory to another for the purpose of permanent or temporary residence there. Emigration population - leaving the country, immigration population - entry into the country.

Density- the degree of population of the territory, expressed in the number of permanent population per 1 km 2 of the territory. The average land population density is about 45 people per km2. Historically, there have been five most densely populated regions: East Asia, the Indo-Gangetic lowlands, Southeast Asia, northwest Europe, and the Atlantic coast of the northeast United States and southeast Canada.

Sex structure- the ratio between men and women, most often expressed in relative terms. In the whole world, the ratio is approximately equal. A record high proportion of men is characteristic of Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Oman, where high birth rates and a youthful age structure (men predominate in childhood in all countries) are accompanied by a massive influx of immigrants, among which men predominate.

Urbanization- the process of increasing the proportion of the urban population, outstripping the growth of the largest cities and the spread of the urban lifestyle. Half of the world's population currently lives in cities. Economically developed countries stand out with the highest level of urbanization, where the share of city dwellers often exceeds 70%; in developing countries, the level of urbanization is about 30%. However, developing countries with a high level of urbanization (more than 80%) stand out, for example, Argentina, Chile, Venezuela, Uruguay, Lebanon, Bahrain. These countries are called pseudo-urbanized, because the growth of the urban population and low-quality buildings are ahead of the possibilities of the city's industrial base. The modern process of urbanization is accompanied by such phenomena as suburbanization (increased growth of the suburbs as opposed to the central part of the city) and rurbanization (the spread of suburban areas to the countryside).

Ethnos- a historically formed group of people, characterized by a common territory, language, culture, way of life, traditions, economic activity, consciousness of belonging to a given people.

Types of population reproduction (according to Kuznetsov A.P.)

Countries of the world with the largest area and population

Religions of the world

Classification of countries by population density

Major language families and groups

The twenty "youngest" and "oldest" countries in the world (2005)

world economy

Basic concepts, processes, patterns and their consequences

International Geographical Division of Labor (IGDT)- this is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products and services intended for their export to the world market.

world economy- a historically established set of national economies of all countries of the world, interconnected by world economic relations based on the international division of labor.

Non-manufacturing sphere- this is a set of industries that serve the needs of the population (housing and communal services, education, healthcare, etc.).

Sectoral structure of the economy- the composition of the economy of the country, region or territory according to the forms of production activity, by types of products manufactured, services provided, etc., the ratio between the main divisions of the economy - industries.

Manufacturing- this is a set of industries that directly create a material product (industry, agriculture and forestry, construction) or deliver this product to the consumer (transport, communications, trade, etc.).

Economic integration I am an economic association of states, the highest degree of MGRT, a form of internationalization of productive forces, the process of interweaving national economies and the implementation of a coordinated interstate policy both between the countries themselves and in relation to third countries.

The main integration associations, the beginning of the XXI century.

GDP structure for some countries of the world

Leading countries in industry

Leading countries in agriculture

Leading countries in electricity generation at different types of power plants

Leading countries in some indicators of the development of world transport

The largest hydroelectric power plants in the world