Linguist's opinion: Language must change when the world changes. School encyclopedia Changes in the Russian language over time

Recently, during excavations in Rome, archaeologists found a well-preserved body of a girl that had lain in the ground for more than 2 thousand years. If this girl miraculously woke up in our day, she would not understand the speech of those around her. The Latin language spoken in her family, her teachers, friends and acquaintances has changed beyond recognition during this time. True, even today divine services are held on it in the Catholic Church, linguists study the Latin language, physicians, biologists and other scientists use its terminology. But on our girl's native street, no one will turn to a passerby in Latin; its place was taken by Italian, a descendant of Latin. In other parts of the former Roman Empire, Latin was replaced by French, Spanish, Romanian, and Portuguese.

Languages ​​change, develop and enrich, although this is not so obvious at first glance. The eighty-year-old elder opens his four-year-old great-grandson's eyes to the world, as if with the same words that he heard in childhood from his grandmother.

In modern Russian, this passage from The Tale of Igor's Campaign reads as follows: “It is better to be killed than to be captive. Let's sit down, brothers, on our greyhound horses and see the blue Don.

(Translated by S. Shambinago and V. Rzhiga.)

And yet something new distinguishes the speech of each generation from the previous and the next. For several centuries, so many changes have been accumulating in the language that, for example, we have to translate “The Tale of Igor's Campaign” from Old Russian into modern Russian.

What makes a language change? This question cannot be answered in one sentence. The formation of new words and phrases is understandable to everyone. They discovered an electron, a chromosome or a new star, they invented a TV, a lavsan or a laser, state farms, a Komsomol appeared, they built Pioneer Palaces - and every time there was a need to somehow name new objects and phenomena. Our today's language is immeasurably richer in words and terms than the language of the time of Alexander Nevsky or even Pushkin's time. But is this the only difference?

Of course not. The meaning of long-existing words and expressions is changing, the sound and grammatical structure of the language is gradually changing. In 1917, they painlessly removed from

our alphabet letter (“yat”), because

long before that, the sound corresponding to it disappeared from the Russian language. One of the oldest Russian manuscripts - "Izbornik Svyatoslav"

We can still understand the general meaning of what was written: “Where am I, a scribe, wrong, read correcting; forgive my mistakes, but do not curse me." But over nine centuries, almost every word of this text has undergone some kind of change: in external form, or in meaning, or in both.

Changes over time and the picture of the spread of the language and its role in society. Before the creation of writing, language was used only in sound form. Writing allows for a long time to store information recorded with the help of language. The most important social events: the invention of printing, the emergence of nation-states, revolutionary upheavals and wars, the spread of literacy, the emergence of new technical means of communication (radio, cinema, television, magnetic recording, etc.) - all this, to one degree or another, affects the language, pace and direction of its development.

We are talking about the Old Russian language as something unified. In fact, there were many close to each other dialects and dialects of the Old Russian language. In our writing and literature for many centuries the so-called Old Slavonic, or Church Slavonic, language was used. By origin, it is the ancient Bulgarian language of the first liturgical books translated from Greek at the end of the 9th century, after the creation of Slavic writing.

The scribes of the texts were obliged to strictly follow the rules of spelling. But, rewriting church books, each scribe involuntarily made mistakes, since the Church Slavonic language differed significantly

With the help of this poem, high school students memorized words with the letter "yat".

from his native, Old Russian. Therefore, the same gospel text, copied in the 12th century, say, in Novgorod and in Kyiv, contained its own misprints, caused by the peculiarities of the native dialect of the scribe.

When creating local historical chronicles, the scribes used their native Old Russian language and felt more at ease. It is clear that there are even more errors in chronicles, charters and private charters (for example, in numerous Novgorod birch bark charters of the 11th - 15th centuries, discovered during recent excavations). These misspellings - deviations from the usual spelling, developed originally for the Old Slavonic, and not for the Old Russian language - now allow linguists to judge the living, colloquial speech of our ancestors.

The unified Russian state also needed a single language.

Meanwhile, back in the 17th century. foreigners who visited Rus' noted that “in Muscovy they speak Russian, but they write in Slavonic” (that is, in the Old Slavonic language). The long interaction of these two languages ​​in the history of our culture left its mark on the structure of the national Russian language of later times.

All-Russian language norms were formed on the basis of the Moscow dialect. Muscovites akali, i.e., pronounced the word water as “v [a] yes”, the ambassador as “p [a] sol”, therefore, over time, akanye became an exemplary, literary pronunciation. But our spelling remains ok so far: there was no akanya in the Old Slavonic language. The rounding nature of our traditional spelling made it possible to create a spelling rule for unstressed vowels that you know: “It is written o (water), and not a (“vada”), if o (water) sounds under stress.”

Old Slavic in origin and primordially Russian words and forms changed in the process of the development of our language. Many Old Church Slavonic words are preserved in the modern Russian literary language, enriching it in semantic and stylistic terms. As a rule, they convey more abstract, abstract concepts. Compare such words as milk (soup) and Milky (Way), (in) the head and (in) the head, hot and burning, watchman and guard, drag out and extract, transfer and betray, (be) healthy and hello, etc. P.

This is not some exceptional feature of the language of only our people: in modern English there is a huge number of French words, many Slavic words in Romanian, Chinese in Japanese and Korean. To a greater or lesser extent, each language was overgrown with borrowings from those languages ​​with the speakers of which this people came into contact. The more intense and varied these connections were, the faster and more significantly the language changed, as a rule. On the contrary, isolated language islands slow down the pace of their development.

At the beginning of the 18th century, after the uprising led by Kondraty Bulavin was defeated, some Cossacks fled to Turkey. For more than two hundred years, their descendants (the so-called Nekrasovites) lived there, not mixing with the local population, but cut off from their own people. Recently they managed to return to the land of their fathers. And it turned out that their language had changed very little during this time: forced isolation retained the features of their native dialect. This means that the history of a people directly influences the development of its language.

The borrowed words of the modern Russian language, as in a kind of mirror, reflect certain aspects of the development of our culture. So, for example, during the XVII-XX centuries. many scientific and technical terms, words related to art and trade, military and naval affairs, sports, etc., entered the Russian language from Western European ones.

Here are some of the mastered Russian

a bunch of words borrowed in the 17th-18th centuries:

from French: lampshade, applaud, ticket, glass, brunet, broth, buffet, veil, nonsense, dozen, jasmine, gesture, magazine, chest of drawers, compliment, compote, envelope, suit, cutlet, lemonade, liter, box, marinate, furniture, medal, salad, sauce, soup, theatre, shawl, overcoat;

from German: bath, cotton wool, fan, workbench, tie, gloss, lead, group, corporal, volley, buckshot, potatoes, send, office, corridor, varnish, lamp, curl, march, material, metal, moment, hairdresser, passport, strap, sample, cork, planer, napkin, secretary, locksmith, soldier, student, dance, scarf, closet, boots;

from Dutch: pennant, harbor, inch, umbrella, receipt, bodice, sailor, number, shoe, hatch, oyster, mop, mooring, darn.

Borrowings from the English language mainly fall on the 19th-20th centuries: blooming, boycott, browning, budget, station, gangster, goal, grog, jazz, jumper, jungle, import, cupcake, clown, harvester, comfort, conveyor, leader, lockout, match, knockout, jacket, pony, pudding, radar, round, rugby, record, rail, ring, roast beef, square, spleen, standard, start, tank, cake, tractor, tram, coach, tunnel, film, finish, football, hockey, hall, champion, etc. In modern scientific and technical terminology, there are thousands of borrowings from the English language.

With borrowed words wandering from language to language, sometimes strange stories happen. Consider, for example, the word bus. What is a car is clear: it is a Greek root, translated into Russian as “self”. And the beads? There was no such word in any ancient language. The fact is that when the first public transport appeared, they came up with

Brothers of one word

The old Russian word “kolo” meant “circle, wheel”. When declining, the suffix -es- appeared in it, as, for example, when declining in the plural of the words miracle, sky. Later, the word kolo and in the nominative singular acquired the suffix -es- and began to sound like a wheel. The word kolo has long since disappeared from the language, but some formations from it have survived: knees (a trace of wheels on the road), an executioner (formerly it sounded like nolach and meant “round bread”), a ring (formed from kolo with the help of a diminutive suffix - c- and means "small circle, circle").

With the help of the prefix o- from kolo, they formed the adverb about, meaning "around". It is easy to see that the word omnibus, which literally translated from Latin means "for everyone." But then there was a need to somehow distinguish between modes of transport. And so they took the “tail” from the word omnibus and began to attach various beginnings to it: bus, trolleybus. It turned out some kind of language monsters, but they took root and spread throughout the world. The most interesting thing happened when, to save time in the word bus, the English dropped the beginning, and this word turned into nothing: bus (pronounced "bass").

It also happens that the same word is simultaneously borrowed from two closely related languages. For example, the word mattress came to us from German, and the parallel form mattress came from Dutch.

There are relatively few foreign words in the modern Icelandic language (this was facilitated by the isolated, island living conditions of the Icelanders), in Hungarian (the languages ​​of the surrounding peoples were very different from it), in Chinese (until the 19th-20th centuries, international, common for many languages, words and terms of Greek-Latin origin).

In certain periods, the influx of foreign words threatened the national foundations of a particular language.

In these cases, society opposed borrowed words, sought to create words for new phenomena and concepts only from the roots of the native language.

So it was, for example, in the history of the Czech language. We will not find in it the word theater, known to most related European languages. Speaking about the theater, the Czechs use their word divadlo (cf. Russian to marvel). But later international words: aluminium, communism, telephone, telegraph, Soviet, television and many others also entered the Czech language (komunismus, sovetsky, aluminum, telefon, telegraf, televisor).

The movement for the national identity of the language often took ugly forms. In the 30s of the XX century. the Nazis diligently expelled many international words from the German language, replacing them with "racially pure" German ones (for example, Fernsprecher - "telephone").

Today, the story of Admiral Shishkov’s attempts at the beginning of the last century to introduce into the language “wet shoes”, “stompers” and “ball balls” invented by him instead of the words galoshes, pavement and billiards sounds like a historical anecdote today. Such "zealots" of the purity of the language were called purists (from the Latin purus - pure).

“The good place is coming along the amusement park from the lists” - this is how Admiral Shishkov’s phrase sounded: “The dandy is walking along the boulevard from the theater.”

The struggle around this or that word usually flares up when it comes to the literary language. In separate dialects, in the pre-literate era and later, borrowings penetrated more freely, and now it is no longer easy to find that, say, the words bed, master, sail, beetroot and vinegar are Greek in origin, diamond, ataman, bazaar, cap and cast iron are Turkic, the prince and bread are Old German, the whip is Old Norse, the hoodie is Persian, etc.

A few decades ago, the main illiterate or semi-literate mass of Russian people spoke various dialects, and a few educated people spoke literary Russian. After 1917, education became available to everyone in our country, the circulation of books and newspapers increased colossally, and the radio now carries oral literary speech to the most remote corners of the country. And it is natural that dialects quickly retreat under the onslaught of the literary language.

Rail, cupcake, boot

The word rail came to Russian from English. But in English it sounds rail (rail), and -c appears in it only as a plural ending: rails (rails). When borrowing, the plural form was taken for the singular form, and the final -с became part of the root of the word in Russian. A similar thing happened with the words cake (English, cake, plural cakes), boots - boots (English boot - “boot”, boots - “boots”; in our country this word means football boots).

Linguists who study Russian folk dialects find it difficult to find elderly people in the modern village who still keep all the ancient features of local, dialectal speech clean. Over time, Russian dialects that have survived the centuries will disappear, but the contribution that they made to the development of a common literary language for all and to the language of fiction will remain.

Undoubtedly, the very history of the people speaking it makes the language change. But if the vocabulary of the language reflects the history of the people directly, then the development of the sound and grammatical structure is connected with the history of the people only indirectly. It is impossible, for example, to say that the disappearance of the aorist, a special form of the past tense of the verb (we find its remnants in the expression “in one fell swoop of seven beatings”, in the particle by, in the interjection chu), was caused by some specific event in the history of the Russian people. In the same way, hardly anyone will be able to explain the appearance of fluent vowels in the first centuries of our millennium with direct economic, political or cultural-historical reasons.

In the XI century. modern words nose and sleep were written differently: nose, son. The letter ъ denoted a special vowel sound, which in modern Russian, depending on the stress, either disappeared or turned into o. Compare the spelling in Old Russian:

them. pad. nose - son,

genus. pad. nose - son - and modern (with fluent vowels in place ъ):

them. pad. nose - dream,

genus. pad. nose - sleep.

"Opens" or "honey mushrooms"?

Mushroom fungus is so named because it usually grows near stumps. The composition of this word is as follows: o- - prefix, -pen - root, -ok - suffix. It would seem that the plural of it should be honey agarics. So it was. However, now a new form - mushrooms. - firmly entered our colloquial speech. It arose under the influence of such words as foal - foals, kitten - kittens, where the suffix -enok in the singular changes to -yata in the plural. And although the word honey agaric, neither in meaning nor in origin, has anything in common with these words, its sound similarity with them in the singular led to the formation of a similar form in the plural. As a result, the composition of the word honey agaric also changed: the suffix in it increased to -enok, and the root decreased. As linguists say, there was a re-decomposition of the word.

Isn't it more like mathematical proportions and formulas that reflect the relationship between the members of the system of signs? But in this case, this is not a certain system of numbers or symbols once and for all, but a system of language sounds that develops over time.

The phonetic and grammatical system of each language develops as if by itself. At every moment in the history of a language, there are many opportunities for the further development of its phonetics and grammar. And yet, if the ancestors of the Slavs continued to live on a common territory, in a single state, then, probably, we would not observe such a variety of modern Slavic languages. And it was the disunity of the Slavic peoples that led to the fact that individual Slavic languages ​​and dialects developed more or less independently in the future, experienced various influences from other languages ​​and dialects. So it turns out that the history of the people ultimately determines not only the vocabulary, but also the sound and grammatical structure of its language.

From all that has been said, the conclusion follows that language is a social phenomenon and there is no rigid predetermination in changing the language system.

A hundred years ago, a spelling reform was carried out in Russia, as a result of which the letters Ѣ (yat), Ѳ (fita), I (“And decimal”), as well as a solid sign (b), placed at the end of some words, were canceled

Many people think that the authors of the innovation are the Bolsheviks, because the reform took place in 1917-1918. But it's not. In fact, changes in the Russian language have been prepared for a long time - since the end of the 19th century. A special commission was set up at the Imperial Academy of Sciences, in which the leading linguists took part, and which presented the first draft of the spelling reform in 1912.

Linguists have done serious work by studying the existing Russian language and proposing to remove, in addition to the already indicated letters, some others: for example, not only a hard, but also a soft sign at the end of words. If their proposal had been accepted, today we would have to write not “night”, but “night”.

Bolshevik-style

By the time the final draft of the reform was ready, power had changed in the country: all decisions were made by the Provisional Government. It was this government that approved the spelling reform in May 1917. And having approved, the new government took up the introduction of new rules to the masses with a truly Bolshevik scope and uncompromisingness.

Detachments of revolutionary sailors were sent to all printing houses. Without thinking twice, the red sailors seized what they were ordered to, namely, the canceled letters. Illiteracy and unwillingness to listen to experienced printers led to the fact that the letter "b" was also destroyed, despite the fact that, according to the new rules, it continued to exist as a separating letter in the middle of words.

As a result, the typesetters had to somehow get out of the situation, and they began to use an apostrophe instead of a solid separating sign - to write “congress”.

Joy of schoolchildren

I must say that schoolchildren were most happy about getting rid of unnecessary letters. After all, before they had to memorize whole lists of words in which it was necessary to write yati, izhitsa and fits.

The gymnasium students, exhausted by endless cramming, cursed her in sayings: “Fita and Izhitsa, things are moving towards the rods”, “From fita let down their bellies” (for poor knowledge of grammar, gymnasium students could be left without lunch).

Precision has been sacrificed

True, the new rules had their shortcomings. So, the abolition of letters led to the fact that many words in the Russian language became homonyms (same spelling, different meaning). For example, the word “est” meant “eat”, and “eat” - “to be”, “flying” meant “flying”, and “flying” - “curing”, “once” was used in the meaning of “once”, and “once” meant “no time”, “news” - “news”, and “news” - “to see off” ... But we have long gotten used to this and do not even notice any difficulties.

A hare was equated to a fighter

The following changes were made to the Russian language in 1956, however, they should not be called a reform, since there were few innovations: in the words “barber”, “mat”, “scurvy”, “shell”, the letter “s” was replaced with “and ”, they began to write “damn” instead of “devil”, “come” - instead of “come”, “go” - instead of “itti”, and even a hyphen was added in the words “still” and “apparently” (before these words had to be written together).

But in 1964, it was planned to carry out a large-scale spelling reform. The fact is that in the Russian language there were, according to linguists, too many exceptions, which made it very difficult to master literacy. School teachers complained that it was extremely difficult for students to master a large amount of material in the Russian language. However, the reform did not involve simplifying the language to please the semi-literate, but bringing the grammar into an even more harmonious and logical form.

For example, it was proposed to write “hare” instead of “hare” - we write “fighter”, “fighter”, which means it is more logical to equate “hare” with him. Perhaps the innovations would have taken root quite quickly - who would refuse simpler rules? But then he lost his power Nikita Khrushchev at which the reform project was approved. And his followers, who suffered from a strong "allergy" to all the innovations of Nikita Sergeevich, quickly curtailed the undertakings of their predecessor.

In the early 1990s, they again started talking about linguistic reform. This time, the need for changes was due to the fact that many new words appeared in the Russian language - such as "internet", "web", "media", "business", and it was necessary to determine their only correct spelling.

At the same time, it was proposed to replace the letter “u” with “y” in the words “parachute”, “jury”, “brochure”, again, in order to simplify the rules so that there are fewer exceptions in the language that need to be memorized. But linguists still abandoned this idea.

"Eat coffee"

In Russian, something is constantly changing. Many zealots of the “purity” of Russian speech roll their eyes in pain when they hear someone stressing the word “ringing” on “o”. But this is no more a violation of the rules than “turns on” instead of “turns on” or “drills” instead of “drills”, but in the second and third cases, almost no one winces.

And in general, most likely, very soon the rules will allow you to move the stress from the suffix to the root and say “rings” and “turns on”. In any case, in colloquial language, this is already considered acceptable.

The evolution of the word “coffee” is also interesting, which one would like to perceive in the middle gender, but strict rules prescribe to treat it as a purely masculine one.

Why - "want"? It's very simple: because the whole system of the Russian language opposes the masculine gender of the word "coffee". In theory, this word is the same as, for example, “metro”: inanimate, borrowed, common noun, indeclinable, ending in a vowel. So why is the subway - it, and coffee - it? Illogical! And the thing is that before it was pronounced and written differently - “coffee”, “coffee”, and declined in the same way as “tea” - “drink coffee”, “got drunk with coffee”. Hence - and the masculine gender, which, however, today it is already permissible to replace the middle one: the rules have been softened.

Our language is not something frozen forever, it is constantly changing, it is alive and reflects our daily life, making it more convenient and understandable. In fact, one can not be called literate who has thoroughly learned all the rules in textbooks and dictionaries, but one who fully and accurately understands everything that he reads or hears and is himself able to accurately and clearly express his thoughts and feelings.

Since we know that language is impossible outside of society, it becomes obvious that it is society that forces language to change.

More precisely, the changes taking place in society also affect the language, forcing it to change.
And if you think in more generalized categories, then you can say what makes the language change time.

Language is an evolving phenomenon

“Language is the history of a people. Language is the way of civilization and culture...
Therefore, the study and preservation of the Russian language is not an idle occupation with nothing to do, but an urgent need..
(Alexander Ivanovich Kuprin)

N.V. Gogol said about language that it is "alive, like life." He said this about the Russian language, but what he said can be attributed to any language. Except, of course, dead languages. About why they became dead - a little later.
The language changes are obvious. It is enough to read the works of writers of the 18th century, and we will see how much our language has changed in the past.
Russian writing, which was developed in the middle of the 9th century. brothers-educators Cyril and Methodius, began with the Cyrillic alphabet.
And only in the XVIII century. she has undergone a profound change.

Petrine language reform

“To handle language somehow means to think somehow: approximately, inaccurately, incorrectly.”
(Alexey Nikolaevich Tolstoy)

Paul Delaroche "Portrait of Peter I"

Peter I began transformations in the state, the purpose of which was not only the creation of a new army, navy, state administration, industry, but also the creation of a new culture. In 1710, Peter I approved a new alphabet with a simplified lettering, and the Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature. "Xi" and "psi" and other letters were abolished. These purely Greek letters did not even stand in their original place; when creating the alphabet, they were moved to the end, because were not typical for the Russian language.
The division of the alphabet into ecclesiastical and civil indicated that from now on the secular and spiritual are opposed in society: the Church Slavonic language and the church script serve the old culture, while the Russian language and civil script serve the new secular culture.
The initiative to introduce a civil font belonged to Peter, and all preparations for the language reform took place under his direct supervision. On the first edition of the ABC on January 29, 1710, Peter wrote: “These letters are used to print historical and manufactory books. And which are underlined [Cyrillic letters crossed out by Peter], those [in] the above books should not be used.
Rejecting Greek forms in the language, Peter I focused on the Latin script, as well as on Western culture in general.
At this time, 4.5 thousand new words, borrowed from European languages, entered the Russian language.

Civic font

“The Slavic-Russian language, according to the testimonies of the foreign aesthetes themselves, is not inferior to Latin either in courage, Greek or in fluency, surpasses all European languages: Italian, Spanish and French, not to mention German.”
(Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin)

So, civil type was introduced in Russia by Peter I in 1708 for printing secular publications.
“... Peter instructed someone to compile a sample of the civil alphabet and send it to Amsterdam to pour a new font there. In 1707, Anton Demey, a typewriter who arrived from Holland, brought with him "newly invented Russian letters of the 8th alphabet with punches, matrices and forms ...". The font introduced by Peter the Great differed from the Slavic one in that letters were completely excluded from it. raised signs are thrown away.

Superscript signs - in the Church Slavonic language, special signs borrowed from Greek, which were placed above the line to indicate different types of stress ́ ̀ ̑ and ​​aspiration ̛, as well as the title ҃ - a sign above an abbreviated written word or letter used in numerical value.

Title spelling of the word "Lord"

And this is what the Cyrillic numeral "one" looked like

The rest of the letters received the outline that they have now, with the following exceptions: the letter d at first resembled the Latin g, while the capital retained its former form; instead, the Latin s was introduced; instead - one letter I without any sign at the top; - like Latin m, n; the letters c, f, b and b, as well as p, sh and s, had some differences in outline from the current ones. Three books were printed in this font in 1708 in Moscow: “Geometry of Slavic land surveying and given by new typographic embossing”, “Applications of how complements are written” and “A book on the methods of creating free water flow of rivers”. But, probably, experience convinced me that this typeface was not entirely convenient, and therefore in “The Victorious Fortress to the happy congratulations of the glorious victory over Azov and to the happy entry into Moscow” (op. by engineer Borgsdorf), printed in the same 1708, made already concessions reminiscent of the old alphabet: in the book there are Slavic over ï there are dots everywhere - the mark, which was preserved in our press almost until the beginning of this century, was then introduced over the words of power (stress). Further changes followed in 1709. E and I appeared, restored; And it was used in three cases: in a combination of two and (ïi), at the beginning of Russian words and at the end of words. Then z (earth) began to be used in all cases, instead of the canceled ѕ (green); e received a modern style; b, c, f, t, n received outlines more suitable to the current ones. There were other changes as well.

“When converting the Cyrillic alphabet, attention was paid only to the shape of the letters. The transformation of the church alphabet for the civil press was limited almost exclusively to the simplification and rounding of the lettering, bringing them closer to the Latin letters. But the sound features of the language to which they were applied were completely overlooked. As a consequence, our spelling has taken on a predominantly historical or etymological character.
The cultural significance of the civil alphabet is extremely great: its introduction was the first step towards the creation of a folk Russian written language ”(from the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron).

M.V. Lomonosov: Reforms of the Russian literary language

"In the attitude of each person to his language, one can absolutely accurately judge not only his cultural level, but also his civic value."
(Konstantin Georgievich Paustovsky)

The most important reforms of the Russian literary language and the system of versification of the 18th century. were made by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. In 1739, he wrote a Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry, in which he formulated the principles of a new versification in Russian. He argued that instead of cultivating poems written according to schemes borrowed from other languages, it is necessary to use the possibilities of the Russian language. Lomonosov believed that it was possible to write poetry with many types of feet: two-syllable (iambic and trochee) and three-syllable (dactyl, anapaest and amphibrach). Lomonosov's innovation caused a discussion in which Trediakovsky and Sumarokov actively participated. In 1744, three transcriptions of the 143rd psalm, made by these authors, were published, and readers were asked to express which of the texts they considered the best.
And although V. Belinsky called Lomonosov "Peter the Great of our literature", the attitude towards Lomonosov's reforms was not unambiguous. Pushkin did not approve of them either.
But, in addition to his contribution to the poetic language, Lomonosov was also the author of scientific Russian grammar. In this book, he described the riches and possibilities of the Russian language: “Charles the fifth, the Roman emperor, used to say that it was decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with the female sex. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would add to that that it was decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would find in it the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, richness and strength in images brevity of Greek and Latin. You can get acquainted with the doctrine of the three calms of Lomonosov in more detail. On the contribution of Lomonosov to Russian literature -.

The creator of the modern literary language is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, whose works are the pinnacle of Russian literature, although more than 200 years have passed since the creation of his largest works. The language has undergone many significant changes during this time. If we compare the language of Pushkin and the language of modern writers, then here we will see many stylistic and other differences. Pushkin himself believed that N.M. played a paramount role in the formation of the Russian literary language. Karamzin: he "liberated the language from an alien yoke and returned its freedom, turning it to the living sources of the people's word."

Do the reforms follow the language or does the language follow the reforms?

“There is nothing sedimentary or crystalline in the Russian language; everything excites, breathes, lives.
(Alexey Stepanovich Khomyakov)

This question can be confidently answered: reforms follow the language. A linguistic situation is created when it becomes obvious that something needs to be changed legislatively. Most often, reforms are late and do not keep pace with the language.
For example, before the beginning of the XIII century. the letters b and b denoted sounds: [b] was pronounced like [E], and [b] - like [O]. Then these sounds disappeared, and the letters do not represent sounds, but play only a grammatical role.

Spelling reform of the language of 1918

"As the material of literature, the Slavic-Russian language has an undeniable superiority over all European ones."
(Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin)

By the beginning of the XX century. a new reform of the language is ripe - spelling. It was discussed and prepared for a long time under the chairmanship of A. A. Shakhmatov. Its main task was to simplify spelling.
According to the reform:
letters Ѣ (yat), Ѳ (fita), І (“and decimal”); instead of them should be used, respectively, E, F, I;
the solid sign (Ъ) at the end of words and parts of compound words was excluded, but remained as a separating sign (rise, adjutant);
the rule for writing prefixes to z / s changed: now all of them (except for the s- proper) ended with s before any voiceless consonant and z before voiced consonants and before vowels (break, break, part → break, break, but part);
in the genitive and accusative cases of adjectives and participles, the ending -ago after hissing was replaced by -ego (better → best), in all other cases -ago was replaced by -th, and -yago by -ego (for example, new → new, early → early) , in the nominative and accusative plurals of the feminine and neuter genders -yya, -іya - on -th, -th (new (books, editions) → new);
plural feminine word forms onѣ, one, one, one, one, one were replaced by oni, one, one, one, one;
the word form of the genitive case of the singular еа (neya) - on her (her) (from Wikipedia).
In the last paragraphs, the reform affected not only spelling, but also orthoepy and grammar. In the documents of the orthographic reform of 1917-1918. nothing was said about the fate of the letter V (Izhitsa), which was rare and out of practical use even before 1917; in practice, after the reform, it finally disappeared from the alphabet.
The reform reduced the number of spelling rules, led to some savings in writing and typographical typing, excluding Ъ at the end of words, eliminated pairs of completely homophonic graphemes from the Russian alphabet (Ѣ and E; Ѳ and F; І, V and I), bringing the alphabet closer to the real phonological system of the Russian language.
But as time went on, and new problems of discrepancy between the problems of graphics and writing appeared. And the reform of 1918 did not completely eliminate the problems that already existed.
Periodically, the life of the language was invaded and changed something in it. For example:
in 1918, along with "ъ", they began to use the apostrophe ("). In practice, the use of the apostrophe was ubiquitous.

In 1932-1933. dots at the end of headings have been removed.

In 1934, the use of the hyphen in the union "that is" was abolished.
In 1935, dots were canceled in the spelling of abbreviations from capital letters.
In 1938, the use of the apostrophe was abolished.
In 1942, the mandatory use of the letter "ё" was introduced.
In 1956, the use of the letter "ё" (already under the new rules) became optional, to clarify the correct pronunciation ("bucket").
But still, the biggest changes affect the vocabulary of the language.

Vocabulary changes

“You marvel at the preciousness of our language: every sound is a gift: everything is grainy, large, like pearls themselves, and, really, there is another name even more precious than the thing itself.”
(Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol)

The reasons for changing the vocabulary of any language are the same as the reasons for changing a language in general.
The composition of the language is replenished due to new words. In each historical period, new words come. At first they are neologisms, but gradually become commonplace, and then they can become obsolete - everything flows, everything changes. For example, once the word "power plant" was a neologism, but several decades have passed - and the word has become common.
Neologisms (newly formed and borrowed) are both general language and author's.
Here is an example of the author's neologisms: M. V. Lomonosov enriched the Russian literary language with the words "atmosphere", "substance", "thermometer", "balance", "diameter", "fire-breathing" (mountains), "specific" (weight), etc. .
And the words “industry”, “touching”, “entertaining” were introduced into the Russian language by N. M. Karamzin. “Bungling, bungling” - neologisms of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, etc.
Other words, on the contrary, become obsolete. And here, too, there are different reasons: the phenomenon disappears - the word disappears from everyday use. And although it exists in the dictionary, it becomes historicism. For example, the word "caftan". It happens in another way: the object or phenomenon has not disappeared by itself, but its name has become outdated - this is archaism: hand (palm), evening (yesterday), lepota (beauty), etc.
Sometimes a word that has already disappeared from everyday life suddenly floats to the surface and becomes common again, for example, the word “lords”.
And sometimes an old word takes on a new meaning, as, for example, the word "perestroika".

Borrowings

“I do not consider foreign words good and suitable, if only they can be replaced by purely Russian or more Russified ones. We must protect our rich and beautiful language from damage.
(Nikolai Semenovich Leskov)

At different periods of our history, borrowings came from different languages: in the era of Napoleon, the entire secular Russian society preferred to communicate in French.
There is a lot of talk and debate about now unjustified borrowings from the English language. However, the same was said about borrowings from French.
Here we read from Pushkin:

She seemed like a sure shot
Du comme il faut ... Shishkov, forgive me:
I don't know how to translate.

The point, of course, is not in translation, but in the fact that the French language became much dearer to the aristocrats of that time than their native language.
Supporters of English borrowings believe that our language is enriched by these same borrowings. In a sense, yes, but there are also negative aspects of borrowing, especially thoughtless ones. Indeed, often a person uses a new word for him simply because everyone around him says so. And what does it mean - does not understand completely or does not understand at all. Lots of “office” borrowings: manager, marketing, merchandiser, cleaning, etc.
Sometimes these "enrichments" simply disfigure our language, they do not correspond to the internal laws of the Russian language.
Yes, language is a living thing. All living things change and develop. Inevitably, language also changes. But in everything you need to know the measure. And if in the Russian language there are synonyms for a foreign word, then it is better to use the native word, and not someone else's, to discard all the linguistic "garbage". For example, why do we need this incomprehensible word "cleaning"? Indeed, in translation from English, this word means “cleaning”. Only! Why do we need such words in our language? If only for pretentiousness or to flaunt a foreign word ...
Our language is so rich and flexible that everything has its own name.
“Whatever you say, the native language will always remain native. When you want to speak to your heart's content, not a single French word comes into your head, but if you want to shine, then it's another matter.
(Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy)

Dead language. Why does he become like this?

A dead language is a language that does not exist in living use. Often it is known only from written monuments.
Why does the language become dead? For different reasons. For example, one language is replaced by another or replaced by another as a result of the conquest of the country by the colonialists. For example, the most popular foreign language in Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco is French, while in Egypt and the Gulf countries (UAE, Kuwait, Oman) it is English. Many native American languages ​​have been superseded by English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese.
Sometimes dead languages, having ceased to serve as a means of live communication, are preserved in written form and used for the needs of science, culture, and religion. For example, the Latin language is dead, but it is he who is considered the ancestor of modern Romance languages. And it is currently used by science (medicine, etc.) and the Catholic Church.
The Old Russian language is also a dead language, but modern East Slavic languages ​​have developed from it.
Sometimes a dead language suddenly comes to life. This happened, for example, with Hebrew. It was revived and adapted as the colloquial and official language of the State of Israel in the 20th century.

Sometimes representatives of a few peoples themselves refuse to study national languages, preferring the state language of the country in which they live. According to some sources, about half of the small national languages ​​in Russia are on the verge of extinction. And in Nepal, the majority of the population learns and uses not their native language, but English.

R The Russian language belongs to the eastern group of the Indo-European family of languages, the formation of which dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. It is believed that first Slavic alphabet - created a verb Kirill, Bulgarian philosopher over 10 centuries ago. Subsequently, with the participation of his brother Methodius Cyril the Cyrillic alphabet was created, with the help of this alphabet the first Orthodox Bible was translated and written down for the Slavic people, who converted to Christianity.

AND exactly Church Slavonic becomes the main language for several centuries, with the help of which both church rites and legislative acts, as well as trade documents are recorded, and although the main letters are still similar to Glagolitic, they nevertheless contain Slavic sounds and denote native Russian speech . But by the 16th century, many are already beginning to understand that the Church Slavonic language is increasingly moving away from the Slavic language, with which people communicate in everyday life.

AND It was Peter I who decided to carry out the first reform of the language and the Church Slavonic alphabet was replaced by the civil alphabet, while five letters were excluded from the alphabet. The next reform is Lomonosov in the 18th century, in his opinion, the Russian language is very rich and provides many opportunities for creating new expressions, therefore, it needs to change the grammatical rules of writing. And the last reform takes place in 1918, where not only changes are made to spelling and grammar, but some letters are also excluded.

And, nevertheless, many ancient words in a modified form continue to exist in the modern language, although their roots go back to the Church Slavonic language. For example, the word " power"refers to the Church Slavonic period, then is transformed into the word" parish"and in the modern sense, this word already sounds like" region».

IN Due to the fact that Rus' was constantly attacked and influenced by other nationalities, many words were introduced into the Russian language that are currently considered Russian. For example, the word " God"roots back to the ancient Indo-European language and means" get a share", subsequently by meaning this word is transformed into" wealth", and then in the common Slavic language in literal translation this word means" giver of blessings».

Modern Russian is considered one of the most widespread, beautiful and difficult to learn. This is due to the fact that the modification of the language occurs constantly, under the influence of the development of technology, science and, of course, computerization. There are new professions, new scientific terms, new Russian words. And if, over the past half century, the English language has almost doubled and the number of words in this language is approaching a million. That Russian language cannot be counted until now, because from one word it is possible to make a derivative of at least six words, therefore, even with the help of computer technology, no one can accurately assess the richness of our language.

Text 1

Foreigners studying Russian (n ..) how (n ..) can understand why (in) Russian you need to speakto see whom (what), to look - at whom (at what), and to admire whom (what).(N ..) what explanations .. explanations here (n ..) will help - pr .. you just have to learn by heart which form of the noun "loves" each of these verbs that are close in meaning. A syntactic connection in which the main word requires .. t depends on .. some one particular form is called management . When managing how (would) (n ..) m .. the form of the main word dependent as a persistent tin .. s.. ldatik remains (n ​​..) changed ..I see a cat, they see a cat, I saw a cat, I would see a cat.

The ability of a word to control the number of its potential “subordinates” and the form of which the “boss” will require from them is closely connected with the lexical meaning of the control word. And where vocabulary reigns (n..), un..v..rsal schemes are possible; what name .. about it turns out .. the management model of this ..th word pr. And all of us, native speakers, keep this information in our memory. If (still) there are .. opinions on how to say correctly: the light of a lamp or the light from a lamp, you need to turn to the dictionary.

Linguistics: Encyclopedic Dictionary

Tasks for the text:

1. Title the text.
2. Prove it's text.
3. Determine the topic of the text.
4. Define the text style.
5. Define the text type.
6. The text speaks of only one type of syntactic connection - control. What other types exist? Give them a definition. Give examples from the text.
7. Make a phonetic analysis of the word: WHAT
8. Perform morphemic analysis of words: media, controlled, by heart.
9. Make a morphological analysis of one participle from the text.
10. Make a syntactic analysis of the 3rd sentence.
11. Write out examples from the text that can illustrate the following punctuation rules: a) separation of definitions b) separation of applications
12. Vocabulary: Open the brackets, indicate the case of nouns.

According to (order, decision, observation, plan, schedule); by (several times, twelve hours, graduation from the institute, arrival, illness); miss (he, we, you); thanks to (case, comrades, attention); contrary to (warning, hope, desire).

Text 2

How and why did the Russian language change?

Russians are descended from the Slavs who all once spoke the same language. Relatively one (by) the fact that this pr..Slavic language was internal ..e (not) homogeneous. With the spread of the Slavs on large territories..itories, the unity in..was completely destroyed. New conditions of communication..tania gave birth to new words. pronunciation fell under the influence of (differently) linguistic neighbors geographic..physical disunity..for example, the Slavic peoples were driven along (not) the same paths. The ancient language existed only in a conventional form. The (primitive) Slavs (did not) know the written language. Differences in vocabulary, grammar, phonetics became such that the Slavs ceased to understand each other.

With the adoption of Christianity in Eastern Europe, the task arose to unite the Slavic languages ​​in order to tell all the Slavs about Christ.

On May 24, 863, in the city of Pliska, the then capital of Bulgaria, the Thessalonica brothers Cyril and Methodius proclaimed the invention of the Slavic alphabet. Their idea was magnificent, their work was amazing, and the results were beyond the wildest expectations. Having undergone a number of changes, the Cyrillic alphabet lives to this day among us, Bulgarians, Serbs and other peoples.

The brainchild of the sages, this bookish Old Church Slavonic is one of the most beautiful languages. The first teachers of the Slavs diligently selected the "most beautiful words" from various Slavic peoples, as understandable as possible to all Slavs. The language adapted to abstract reasoning, expressive descriptions, narrations. The success of the Old Church Slavonic language is not so much precisely in the “dispensation”, because the Slavic languages ​​​​in unwritten prehistory were without order, harmony, stability.

According to V.G. Kostomarov

Tasks for the text:

1. Formulate the main idea of ​​the text
2. Specify the number of microthemes in the text. Make a quote plan.
3. Define text style
4. Define the text type
5. Write down the linguistic terms. Are they the keywords here?
6. Make a phonetic analysis of the word: is
7. Make a morphological analysis of the word: Methodius
8. Graphically explain the punctuation marks in the sentences of the 1st paragraph
9. Vocabulary: Fill in the missing letters.l..ngvistika, f..logolog, f..nema, r..duction, gender..semy, ..monims, ..ntonyms, arch..isms, non..logisms, st..litika, inf. .nitiv, he .. mastic.
10. Creative work: Tell us what you know about the arrival of the Old Slavonic language in Rus', about its role in the development of Russian culture and civilization.

Text 3

We pr..go into the world in order to (would) comprehend the beauty of affirm ..to create it.

Beauty is the joy of our life. A man became a Man (by) the fact that he saw .. the depth of the azure sky the twinkling of stars the pink spill of the evening .. transparent dawn .. the haze of the steppe expanses .. the thunderous sunset before the windy .. m day tr .. haze over the city.. a horizon of blue .. shadows in the snowdrifts of March snow a flock of cranes in the blue sky reflection of the sun in m.. riads of morning drops.. her rivers. ..in a rhubarb bush, a gentle st..belek and a blue bell of a snowdrop - he saw ..l and, amazed, went along the earth creating ..wai new beauty.

Stop and you are in amazement .. in front of beauty - and nobility will bloom in your heart. The joy of life was opened before a man (by) the fact that he heard the swish of leaves and the song of the body. the solemn .. silence of the night - I heard and with bated breath listening .. for hundreds and thousands of years the wonderful music of life. Feel free to listen to this music. Treasure beauty, take care of it.

V.A. Sukhomlinsky

Tasks for the text.

1. Title the text.

1. Prove it's text.
2. State the main idea of ​​the text.
3. Define the text style.
4. Define the text type.
5. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where necessary.
6. Determine what artistic means are used in the text.
7. Determine the lexical meaning of the word nobility
8. heart
9. Make a morphemic analysis of words:stop, amazed, holding back.
10. Make a morphological analysis of the 1st verb in the form of the imperative mood.
11. Explain the placement of the dash in the highlighted sentence.
12. Write out examples from the text that can illustrate the following punctuation rules: a) a dash between the subject and the predicate b) separation of circumstances
13. Vocabulary: Fill in the missing letters.

Ab..tour..ent, ab..n...ment, abs..lute, av..ngard, auto..r..tet, agr..gat, agr..nom, adv..kat, ac..demia, acc..mp..n..ment, acc..mulyator, al..bastr, all..goria, alpha..vit, amb..l..thorium, ampl..there, amph ..t..atr, an..logia, an..nimny, apl..d..smenty, ar..mat, atm..sphere, auditory..tion, b..gazh, b..l. .rina, b..nokl, b..g..tyr, b..ykot, b..cal, br..zent, but..rbrod, v..kansia, vak..um, v..ktsina , v..nt..lator, v..st..bul, v..t..ran, v..n..gret, v..rtuoz, v..kzal.

Text 4

funny retinue

Among the people who doomed themselves to street buffoonery .. there was a well-known .. retired man .. a newcomer of extremely (not) spectacular n.. appearance with scars on his face who walked .. through the markets and streets always with a retinue of dogs dressed in k. .Stymy. One was in a green tailcoat. and p..rike the fifth in a ladies' bonnet and hat, which they wore in the forties.

All these costumed .. dogs were worn by them .. on modern dandies and dandies known .. of the then society. The appearance of this (semi-)obstruction..n..ogo h..novnik with his retinue aroused general laughter..t. A crowd of boys ran after him, who ate dogs with sugar, who gave gingerbread or crackers.

M.Pylyaev. Great weirdos and originals

Tasks for the text:

1. Define the text style

2. Define the text type

1. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where needed.
2. Write out obsolete, little-used words and try to explain their meaning.
3. Make a phonetic analysis of the word: famous
4. Make a morphemic analysis of words: costumed, half-mad, multi-colored, nondescript.
5. Make a morphological analysis of the word (was) known.
6. Make a syntactic analysis of the 1st sentence.
7. Indicate the incorrect statements: a) the word one is a noun b) the word some is a subordinating conjunction c) the 1st and 2nd sentences are connected by a parallel connection d) there is an incomplete sentence in the text e) there is an SSP in the text f) in the 2nd the sentence has an introductory word g) the sentence ... who treated the dogs with sugar ..- one-part.
8. Vocabulary: Insert double consonants where necessary.

Abscissa..a, ak..limatization, ak..ord, ak..military, al..egoria, al..ee, am..jak, am..onit, an..otation, appeal..yatsia, ap..ac..ionata, asim..etria, as..istent, as..ociation, at..estat, at..raction, acc..reditive, acc..umulyator, al..igator, al. .iteration, an..cultivate, antenna..a, ap..arat, ap..endicitis, ap..etit, ap..lication, artillery..eriya, as..ambleya, as..ortiment.

1. Write an essay on this text. Express your attitude to the topic that excites the author.

Text 5

spring holiday

Ras..vet. Electricity goes out..t. The bluish underwater light of the day pours .. through the windows. The hall is empty..t. Like autumn .. the leaves are taking away .. the last dances .. ry ball .. a.On the floor, like traces of ur..gana, there were pieces of different ..colored fabrics, scraps of m..cloudy skins..religions, gold sparkles, fragments of b..feces, torn to pieces..a bunch of flowers, a forgotten scarlet cloak..(Some) where in the corners still .. circling .. forgetting .. in .. by the way of the dance the dancers who continue to dance alone for themselves without hearing that it faded and melted .. the last ac .. horde of the orchestra fell out and (not) noticing that blue .. the hall was empty and faded.

Six o'clock in the morning. A golden spring morning, smoky and fresh ... Deserted .. and echoing streets sprinkling .. visiting Paris, with their mornings .. their inhabitants of milkweed .. garcons in blue dresses garcons sleeping .. washing shutters with a cafe grocers .. bonnes bakers in white h..ptsah ras..tv..roaring windows. And squaw .. this business morning .. restrained .. th Paris, with screams of songs and music, who are on foot, who are in carriages, who are riding a cab .. her horse, who climbed (on) the top of the carriage, heated .. dancing and heads .. whirling ball .. and a motley ribbon of two thousand people, artists return from Montmartre to (would) according to the old .. oh tradition conclude a holiday .. nickname in the courtyard of the school elegant .. art.. kus. .tv

M. Voloshin

Tasks for the text.

1. Define the text style.

2. Define the text type.

1. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where necessary.
2. Determine the way of communication between the following sentences: 1 and 2; 2 and 3; 3 and 4.
3. Determine the lexical purpose of the words: ecstasy, garzon, bonna
4. Write out the obsolete word, determine its modern spelling.
5. Determine the correct pronunciation of the underlined letters in the words: young chnica, bulo chnica.
6. Make a phonetic analysis of the word through .
7. Make a morphological analysis of the word shutters .
8. Write out examples from the text that can illustrate the following punctuation rules: a) isolation of definitions b) separation of circumstances.
9. Find in the text an NGN with several subordinate clauses, draw its diagram, determine the type of subordination.
10. Explain the spelling H and HH in the words: Wagon .. workshops, desert .. corner, hurricane .. th wind, jasmine .. th smell, living room .. th yard, swan .. th song, oatmeal .. th cookies, clay ..th cup, glass ..th door, discussion ..th question, calm ..th days, finished ..th novel, broken ..th toy, paved ..th road, baked in the ashes ..th potatoes, wicker chair, unkempt hair, unbleached linen, quicklime, unpainted floor, lamp extinguished..a, gilded ring..oh, confused..answer, shot .. sparrow, melted .. cheese, baked .. potatoes, not frightened .. th crow, excited .. th speech, chewed .. th paper, sacred .. th union, smart .. th boy, genuine. .o artistic ..th work, to suffer innocent ..o, madly spinning ..o, it is windy ..o, it works tirelessly ..o, to arrive unexpectedly ..o-negad ..o.

Text 6

The samovar is designed to heat water for tea. There is a firebox inside the samovar. Coals are placed in it that burn and give off their heat to the water poured into the samovar itself. Charcoal is an indispensable fuel for samovars and was stocked in advance. The best samovar birch charcoal. It was about him that Ivan Sergeevich Shmelev wrote. Some kind of sonorous, he is special.

If the coals in the firebox suddenly die out, then an ordinary old boot, worn and already unusable, came to the rescue. The bootleg was put on the upper part of the firebox and the boot in the hands of a person performed the same work as the bellows in the furnace-forge.

Samovar smoke came out through the existing pipe. In the hut, the samovar was usually placed near the stove so that the smoke fell into the stove chimney.

The hostess watched all the time how the coals burned in the furnace, whether they smoldered, whether they burned strongly, well or barely.

There are many signs associated with the samovar. An ember was accidentally dropped to be guests. Is it buzzing? Frost strong promises. Does it squeak? Survives from the owner's house. Why doesn't he like them? They don’t know how to melt the first time, or they don’t serve it on time, or they serve it, but it looks like it’s just right to clean it out of sight, it’s a shame to show guests ...

Sometimes they don’t see it and the water in the samovar boils away. Rather, a new one should be put suddenly inadvertently who will come in. After all, winter drives every passerby into the hut.

Hard-working housewives cleaned the samovar so much that you look into it like in a mirror. The hostess will admire herself and smile. A smile, as you know, makes everyone beautiful. People say about this that you yourself shine like a samovar.

Samovars were most often made of copper or brass, an alloy of copper with zinc and other metals. Brass is much cheaper and the color is not inferior to copper.

Previously, in any hut, the most prominent and honorable place was assigned to the samovar on the table. The family had to move to a new hut, first of all the samovar was transported and then everything else.

If in late autumn or cold winter they equipped someone on a long journey, then they often put a hot samovar in the sled. Near it, like at the stove, you can warm yourself on the road and drink boiling water if you want.The coal samovar is remarkable for the fact that until the coals in it burn out, the water remains hot.

It is a pity that electric samovars have replaced coal samovars. If you want hot tea, don't hesitate. He does not wait long for the water to cool down. And the tea must be hot.

Tasks for the text.

1. Prove it's text.
2. Define the text style.
3. Define the text type.
4. Fill in the missing punctuation marks.
5. Find 2-3 pairs of synonyms in the text, complete this synonymic row.
6. Determine the way of communication between the sentences of the 1st paragraph.
7. Write out from the text the words with the spelling "I-E in the case endings of nouns", explain the condition for choosing the spelling.
8. Make a phonetic analysis of the word boot .
9. Perform syntactic analysis of the highlighted sentence.
10. Make a morphological analysis of the 1st adjective (qualitative).
11. Choose a syntactic synonym for the 1st sentence.
12. Indicate the role of one-part sentences in the text.
13. Write, opening brackets:Speak (in) English, divide (along) evenly, do (in) your own way, live (like) neighborly, howl (like) a wolf, enter (one by one), retire somewhere (or), what (would) nm happen when (then) was happy, tie tightly (tightly), at the (end) ends agree, tie a cross (on) a cross, stay (with) an eye (on) an eye, buy (at) a cheaper price, little by little it got dark, they they left a long time ago, they said tet (a) tet, to be in time (in) whatever (whatever) (or) became, to be exactly (in) exactly similar, to collide nose (to) nose.

Text 7

A parable is a small narrative genre called .. dative x .. racter. Its content is usually presented in an al.. egorical form and is, as it were, an illustration of one or another moral idea. Probl..matics of parables.. (not) exhausted..ma. Al..egorical meaning of the work is obligatory here (same) time.

The parable is one of the oldest genres in the world fol..cl..re and literature, it came to us from Byzantium and became widespread in (ancient) Russian literature. In the 17th century in Rus', translated parables of the (ancient) Greek fabulist Aesop appeared, for example, the parable of the wife and the chicken.

A certain wife, a widow, had a hen, every day she gave birth to an egg. Think to yourself, as if more than a barley chicken before (la) gati, it will give birth twice a day. And do it. The hen, having grown fat and obese, it is possible to give birth below a single egg during the day.

Talk. The parable reveals that covetousness for the sake of a greater desire and the real one destroy.

From the book: Old Russian parable.

Tasks for the text:

1. Define the text style.

2. Define the text type.

3. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where necessary.

4. Determine which means (single-root words, synonyms, repetition, pronoun, conjunctions) is used to connect sentences 1 and 2; 2 and 3; 3 and 4.

5. Choose a synonym for the word instructive (character)

6. Determine the lexical meaning of words:folklore, allegory, problems

7. From the 1st sentence, write out the words in which all consonants are solid.

8. Determine the way words are formed:necessarily, fabulist, interpretation.

9. Make a morphological analysis of the 1st communion.

10. Determine what type of connection is used in the SS:the problems of the parable, a small genre, have come to us.

11. Parse the 2nd sentence.

12. Creative work: Translate the text of the parable into modern language.

A. Write the meaning of the word used here. wife.

B. Indicate which of the statements is more appropriate to explain the parable:If you chase two hares, you won't catch one. Greed does not lead to good.

Text 8

In the villages, I immediately made extensive and curious acquaintances with the peasants. However, the old miller, grandfather Ilya, mastered the awns more strongly than all my pr. With the guys I caught p.. scares and loaches of which there were a great many in our narrow but clean river .. but by the seriousness of my x. who was completely (un)known to me as a city boy. From Ilya, I also learned about the brownie who slept on the skating rink and about the water .. who had a pr. different dusty spots, now in the riga, now in the barn, now in the crush, where in the autumn they pounded the chamois. Grandfather knew least of all about the goblin (because) this one lived somewhere far away near Selivanov's yard and only occasionally came to us in a thick broom to ... make a new broom pipe and play it in the shade of the planters. However, grandfather Ilya, in his entire life rich in adventures, saw the goblin face to face only once, and then on Nikolin's day when we had a temple holiday .. nickname. Goblin approached ..l to Ilya, pr. And when grandfather told him to hell with you, smell it and at the same time opened the tavlinka, the goblin (not) could no longer observe good behavior and went to school, he put his hand under the snuffbox so that he powdered all the eyes of the good miller.

All these lively and entertaining stories then had full probability for me and their dense figurative content.

N. Leskov

Tasks for the text.

1. Title the text.
2. Prove it's text.
3. State the main idea of ​​the text.
4. Define the text style.
5. Define the text type.
6. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where necessary.
7. Determine the way of communication between the following sentences: 1 and 2; 2 and 3; 3 and 4.
8. Determine which means (single-root words, synonyms, repetition, pronoun, conjunctions) is used to connect sentences: 5 and 6; 6 and 7.
9. Make a phonetic analysis of the word: however
10. Write out 1-3 words from the text formed in a suffixal way.
11. Make a morphological analysis of the word: stronger (of all)
12. Write out 2 phrases from the sentences, where the type of connection is adjunction.
13. Make a syntactic analysis of the 7th sentence.
14. Test. Point out the false statements:

1. 1st sentence is simple.
2. In the 2nd sentence there is a separate application.
3. In the 3rd sentence, the subordinate clauses are joined with the help of unions.
4. In the 4th sentence, all subordinate clauses are attributive.
5. 5th proposal - NGN with sequential submission.
6. 8th sentence - sentence with direct speech
7. In the 9th sentence there is an introductory phrase.

Text 9

Bazarov answers..rac..from nature (not) reproaches him for this Turgenev, but only draws..t nature in all its beauty. Bazarov (does not) value friendship and renounces r..mantic love (does not) defame him (for) the author but only depicts Arkady's friendship for Bazarov himself and his happy ..living love for Katya. Bazarov denies the close ties between parents and children (not) upbraiding him for this, the author only unfolds before us a picture of parental love. Bazarov eschews life; his author does not expose him as a villain; he only shows us life in all its beauty. Bazarov rejects poetry Turgenev does not make him a fool for that, the author only portrays him with all the luxury and insight of poetry. In a word, Turgenev stands for the eternal beginnings of human life, for those basic elements that can, of course, change their forms, but in essence always remain (un) changed. As if (n ..) Bazarov was all (still) defeated (not) by persons (not) by the accidents of life, but by the very idea of ​​\u200b\u200blife.

N.Strakhov

Tasks for the text:

1. State the main idea of ​​the text.
2. Define the text style.
3. Define the text type.
4. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where necessary.
5. Determine the way of communication between the following sentences: 1 and 2; 6 and 7.
6. Determine what means (single-root words, synonyms, repetition, pronoun, conjunctions) are used to link the sentences of the 1st paragraph.
7. Determine the lexical meaning of the words: reproach, defame, reproach. Are these words synonyms?
8. Find in the 3rd sentence a word in which all consonants are soft sounds.
9. Make a derivational analysis of the 1st verb from the 6th sentence.
10. Make a morphological analysis of the word (with) everything (luxury).
11. Make a syntactic analysis of the 6th sentence.
12. Creative work. The essay is a discussion. What eternal principles of human life does Turgenev stand for? Do you agree with him?
13. Fill in the missing letters, taking into account the lexical meaning of the word.

Linen floor ..sk - child floor ..sk, the economy developed ..was - the flag developed ..was, seedlings were razed .. to cut - a gun to sever .. to eat, someone's virtues mind .. lie - mind about something ..lyat, wind wrap around ..shaft face - liana wrap around .. tree, take opponents ..take - clothes take ..take, herbs ..pat - torches nasch ..drink, eat food ..wat - in the city live ..wat, sea v..ly- tired v..ly, dedicate a book ..tit- dedicate ..tit with a lantern, conditions of the task sp..shi- to the departure of the train sp..shi, plants uv..dali- friends uv..dali us, by old age pos.

Text 10

Ak .. redidives I pol .. lived in a suitcase. The suitcases were stacked (on) against the door. Further, the tail compartment was clogged with (not) known to me cargo in bags and boxes. (B) other boxes are possible and (not) it was just that I had such an impression .. smoldering that they were visible (not) visible there. We took off and after about two minutes .. I was convinced that the weather was indeed (not) flying. Ex.. about an hour after departure, I noticed that my suitcase, which I left in the vertical floor.. wife .., was lying in bed, as if he was already seasick. I pr..lifted it up ..knul for cheerfulness and put it next to the other most stable suitcases. Then I noticed that in this rookery of suitcases (not) a few e..samplers(not) distinguished from mine. I thought that such a resemblance to good (not) pr .. leads. In my pocket, I had a chemical pencil ok.. I pr..bent over my suitcase and thickly painted over its upper plane near the handle. It turned out pretty (still) pretty p..tno with a (bluish) green tint reminiscent of ..naive ..abstract drawing. When I r..z..bent my gaze met with the gaze of ps..azhira who sternly followed my actions.

According to F.Iskander

Tasks for the text:

1. Title the text.
2. Prove it's text.
3. Define the text style.
4. Define the text type.
5. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where necessary.
6. Determine the way of communication between the following sentences: 1 and 2; 2 and 3; 3 and 4.
7. Determine which means (single-root words, synonyms, repetition, pronoun, conjunctions) is used to connect sentences: 1 and 2; 6 and 7.
8. From the 6th sentence, write out the word in which the letter Z stands for the sound (C).
9. From the 3rd sentence, write out all the SSs, indicate the type of connection in them.
10. Determine how the word is formed: plane. Do a morpheme analysis.
11. Indicate the correct explanation for writing NOT with the highlighted word in the 8th sentence: a) the adjective with NOT is written together, because you can choose a synonym without NOT. B) The participle with NOT is written together, because it is not used without NOT C) The participle with NOT is written separately, because there is a word dependent on the participle. D) The adjective with NOT is always written separately.
12. Write out the participle from the 11th sentence and analyze it morphologically.
13. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which there is an attributive clause.
14. Indicate the number of a simple sentence with homogeneous predicates.
15. Parse the last sentence.
16. Write it down, inserting a consonant if necessary. Choose test words.

Hello .. svey, I .. really, skillful .. ny, crunchy .. zero, woe .. ny, stellar .. ny, uezd .. ny, famous .. ny, holiday .. nickname, greedy .. ny, happy .. lively, ser. superficial ..ny, bumpy ..nick, furious ..ny, conscientious ..living, sad ..ny, wet ..ny, regional ..noy, balanced ..ny.

Text 11

Ask your conscience

Calm and happy .. the one who lives in harmony with his conscience. (Not) enviable is the fate of the one who loosened up with her, sacrificed her conscience for the sake of (this) minute gain, or worse, renounced her out of personal eg..ism.

A conscientious person .. will (not) deceive (not) steal (not) give to production .. (not) cheat. In the hour .. of life .. (not) leave without the help .. and attention of old parents or his own ..th child (not) offended ..t weak and (not) humiliated ..t himself faces ..meriem and flattery.Conscientious..living means a decent honest..ny person endowed.. with a sense of dignity, justice, kindness. About a conscientious ..living person, one can say in the words of N.A. Dobroliubov. Let his life (not) be lit up with the brilliance of any (or) deed for the benefit of society, after all (still) his moral .. value (not) lost. .O.

We add that the moral .. value of each person living according to the (un) written .. laws of conscience is (not) appreciable, because she gives the warmth of humanity to everyone around her.

K.Tkachenko

Tasks for the text:

1. Name the topic of the text
2. Specify the number of microthemes in the text. Make a plan.
3. Name the main idea of ​​the text
4. Define text style
5. Define the text type
6. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where needed.
7. Find in the last sentence the word in which the process of stunning occurs.
8. Determine the lexical meaning of the words:conscience, hypocrisy, flattery.
9. How do you understand phraseology:compromised conscience.
10. Name the words and expressions related to high style. Why does the author use them? Choose neutral synonyms for these words.
11. Find in the text the words formed by the addition method. Make their morphemic analysis.
12. Make a morphological analysis of the 1st short adjective.
13. Perform syntactic analysis of the highlighted sentence.
14. Creative work: Write how the reflections on conscience expressed in this article are related to F.M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment"

Text 12

When late .. the evening (at) the end dissolved .. it reigned, it rustled and to replace (in) inexorably pr .. the (half) night was approaching with coolness and dew; When the birds stopped making noise, laying down to rest and now they were already sleeping, and only an occasional groan of one (some) of them reminded me that it was all (still) a living kingdom around; or suddenly the last crazy .. nightingale began .. started his (in) clever .. in July .. trills but also (same) frightened .. about fell silent; when even the wolves are well-fed and (therefore) full of blessings .. relatives sat out (not) known .. but where then in the (im) possible silence in the primordial .. oh silence .. suddenly distant bells were heard that were all pr .. were approaching pr ..were approaching ..wasting into a wonderful choir of copper and silver and on (weakly) illuminated ..oh young month ..the road showed ..a post ..tovaya troika. She jumped out of (behind) the turn, raising either dust or clubs of night fog pr. ..mym (n..) chase..mym. Behind her, the second followed the second, the third, and they all rushed on, leaving Tula, who had fallen asleep in July, behind her back.

Tasks for the text:

1. Title the text.
2. Define the text style.
3. Define the text type.

1. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where necessary.
2. Determine the way of communication between the following sentences: 1 and 2; 2 and 3.
3. Determine which means (single-root words, synonyms, repetition, pronoun, conjunctions) is used to connect sentences: 1 and 2; 2 and 3.
4. What literary means of language are used by the author. Give examples
5. Specify the correct explanation of the spelling of the missing letter in the word dissolved . 1. Unstressed unverifiable vowel at the root. 2. Unstressed checked vowel in the root, check-solution. 3. Alternating vowel in the root, without stress we write O. 4. Alternating vowel in the root, without stress we write A.
6. From the last sentence, write out the words in which all consonants are voiced sounds. Make a phonetic analysis of one of them.
7. In the last 2 sentences, find the real participle of the present tense and analyze it morphologically.
8. Explain the dash in the last sentence.
9. The first sentence is a complex syntactic construction - a period. Consider its structure, draw its diagram.
10. Using the diagram, compose your sentence - a period.
11. Insert the missing letters: G..ryuchy, sg..ret, burnt..k, lay..live, lay..gay, ob..zhenie, fold..thread, skip..take, za..rya, oz .. to touch, to touch .. to touch, to touch .. to sleep, instructive .. descriptively, exercise .. kat, comp. ..mania, zabl..stet, vyv..remove, prevent..rhenium, satisfaction..rhenium, us..kat, podm..chat, see..chit, prompt..kat, vy..chka, pl ..vnina, r..vnopravie, age..st, otr..sl, r..stavschik.

Text 13

Among this poor ..y p..yanoy and shameful crowd, these holy fools walked these living saints (M, m) of the Moscow (R, r) usi ...

Here he is. holy fool. But it’s also a big test if you mix ..t something in the dough a clever merchant or something else .. reads the holy fool is not bud ..t.5) God’s gift I will feel everything ..t. ..T. However, this time it’s a matter of pure pies with .. eating and whispering and crying right through the snow .. wailing (in) articulate words posh .. l this amazing sv .. toy. Holy fools ... "insane for Christ's sake" with ..them formidable words ..you and sometimes openly shameful deeds God obl..cha..t the vices that we strive to keep (in) secret. To these countries..th ascetics sent down..about a great miracle to prophesy.. 9) The famous holy fool Basil the Blessed, who lived in Moscow ..dvid ..l great fires and fervently .. prayed (on) the eve. 10) And Tsar Ivan himself spoke about Vasily .. subjected himself to constant .. torment and from .. gchavsh .. we were so .. with yellow chains Seer and reader of human thoughts.

11) One of the pseudonyms with which he loved to sign ..vat ..sya adoring ..th samoun ..chizhenie tsar "Parthenius the Fool-for-Christ" ...

12) When Moscow will bury Vasily, the tsar with b..yars will pon..set his bed. 13) It was built in a wonderful temple ... on Red Square .. his relics rest in peace and the people will call this temple after ... the miserable beggar ... St. Basil the Blessed.

E. Radzinsky

Tasks for the text:

1. Title the text. Prove it's text.
2. Define the text style.
3. Define the text type.
4. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where necessary.
5. Determine the lexical meaning of the words: verigi-, odr - . Indicate the homonym in the 5th sentence.
6. Choose a syntactic synonym for the 10th sentence.
7. Determine which means (single-root words, synonyms, repetition, pronoun, conjunctions) is used to connect sentences: 1 and 2; 2 and 3; 3 and 4.
8. From the 1st and 2nd sentences, write out the words in which all consonants are voiced sounds. Make a phonetic analysis of one of them.
9. From sentences 10 to 13, write out the participles and make their morphemic analysis.
10. In the 9th sentence, find the adverb and make its morphological analysis.
11. Parse NGN with a time clause.
12. Insert the missing letters: zh..lty, sh..se, pech..nka, sh..roh, sh..pot, sh..loch, h..porny, conductor..r, dir..r, kryzh ..vnik, izzh..ha, zh..key, sh..mouths, sh..kirovat, uproot..vyvat, print..t, baked..nny, bear..nok, reeds..m, brocade ..vy, fresh.., hot.., carcass..nka, night..vka, live..t, o h..m, nothing..m, general.., candle..th, well.. ngler, burn..g hands, committed fire..g, experience..r, decisive..ny, burnt..ra, credit..t.