Prof. Duluman E.K.

Nobel laureate Francis CRICK and atheism

(Until the 50th anniversary of the discovery of DNA)

If revealed religions

have revealed anything

it is that they

are usually wrong.

(If religions of Revelation ,

they open something there,

then these revelations, as a rule,

turn out to be deceitful)

Francis Creek

Francis Creek

In 2003, the world scientific community celebrated the 50th anniversary of the discovery of the DNA structure. The Russian Academy of Sciences dedicated the entire sixth edition of "BULLETIN OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES" for 2003 to this significant event, festively calling it: TO THE 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE DISCOVERY OF THE DNA STRUCTURE.

Leading and world-famous our academicians made detailed analytical and informational articles: L.L. Kiselev,"Anniversary of the most important molecule"; E. D. Sverdlov,"Great discovery: revolution, canonization, dogmas and heresy"; V. L. Karpov,"DNA, chromatin, histone code". By clicking with the mouse on the title of these articles, you will be able to get acquainted with the full texts of their authors.

Academician L.L. Kiselev writes:

For the discovery of the structure of DNA, Watson and Crick were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962.

After reading the articles in the academic bulletin, I remembered previously read atheistic articles and statements by Francis Harri Compton Crick ( Francis Harry Compton Crick) and his biography under an intriguing, if not strange, title: “ What mad pursuit», which can be translated as “ What the madman is looking for". It can be translated in another way, since the word “mad” can mean both “biased” and “selfless”, and “in love” and “mad”, and the word “Pursuit” means “to persecute”, “to convince”, “to be in search ". However, when reading Crick's autobiography, one gets the impression that he used the word "mad" in response to the Biblical accusation of an atheist of insanity: "Speech is a madman in his heart: There is no God" (Psalm 13: 1; 52: 2). At this point, the English translations of the Bible call the madman the word "mad".

In his autobiography " What mad pursuit» there is a special chapter that Crick titled How I Got Inclined Towards Atheism. We do not have the opportunity to retell all the interesting and unique thoughts of the great scientist about the atheistic and religious worldview. We will cite only three of the most representative, in our opinion, quotations from this greatest scientist and staunch atheist ..

« The knowledge of the true age of the earth, which is convincingly evidenced by geological deposits, fossils of plants and animals, does not allow the intelligent mind to believe literally, like religious fundamentalists, in everything that is written in the Bible. And if some of the messages of the Bible are clearly false, then on the basis of which other biblical stories should be taken as truth?»

« Christian religious beliefs at the time of their formation, perhaps, responded not only to the imagination of believers, but also to the level of knowledge of that era. But, as regrettable as it was, subsequent scientific discoveries not only decisively refuted Christian beliefs, but also exposed them in an unattractive light. What could be more stupid than justifying the lifestyle of a modern person with completely erroneous ideas only on the basis of the fact that they, these ideas, were once considered true? And what could be more important than finding your true place in the universe, eliminating one by one these perverse remnants of earlier beliefs? But it is still clear that a number of mysteries still await their scientific explanation. As long as they are not explained, they can serve as a refuge for all kinds of religious superstitions.

For me, a matter of paramount importance was the desire to identify still not understood areas of knowledge in biology, to achieve their true scientific understanding. Only in this way was it possible to confirm or deny religious beliefs.».

* * *

« The astonishing hypothesis is that your joys and sorrows, your memories and ambitions, your sense of self and free will are in fact nothing more than a manifestation of the activity of a huge complex of nerve cells and associated molecules. As Alice from Lewis Carroll's fairy tales would put it, you are just a bag of neurons. ».

The "Religions of Revelation" are Judaism, Christianity and Islam, who believe that the content of their beliefs has been revealed to them by God in the text of the Bible ...

(eng. FrancisCrick) was born, June 8 in Northampton, England; died at the age of 88

The DNA Double Helix is ​​50 years old!

On Saturday 28 February 1953, two young scientists, J. Watson and F. Crick, in a small diner Eagle at Cambridge, the crowd at lunch was announced that they had discovered the secret of life. Many years later, Odile, F. Crick's wife, said that, of course, she did not believe him: when he came home, he often said something like that, but then it turned out that it was a mistake. This time there was no mistake, and with this statement a revolution in biology began, which continues to this day.

April 25, 1953 in the magazine Nature three articles on the structure of nucleic acids appeared at once. In one of them, written by J. Watson and F. Crick, the structure of the DNA molecule in the form of a double helix was proposed. In two others, written by M. Wilkins, A. Stokes, G. Wilson, R. Franklin and R. Gosling, experimental data were presented, confirming the spiral structure of DNA molecules. The story of the discovery of the DNA double helix is ​​reminiscent of an adventure novel and deserves at least a brief summary.

The most important ideas about the chemical nature of genes and the matrix principle of their reproduction were first clearly formulated in 1927 by N.K. Koltsov (1872-1940). His student N.V. Timofeev-Ressovsky (1900–1981) took these ideas and developed them as the principle of convariant reduplication of genetic material. German physicist Max Delbrück (1906–1981; Nobel Prize 1969) who worked in the mid-1930s. at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Chemistry in Berlin, under the influence of Timofeev-Ressovsky, he became interested in biology so much that he gave up physics and became a biologist.

For a long time, in full accordance with the definition of life given by Engels, biologists believed that some special proteins were hereditary substances. Nobody thought that nucleic acids could have anything to do with genes - they seemed too simple. This continued until 1944, when a discovery was made that radically changed all further development of biology.

This year, an article was published by Oswald Avery, Colin McLeod and McLean McCarthy that in pneumococci, inherited properties are transmitted from one bacteria to another using pure DNA, i.e. it is DNA that is the substance of heredity. Then McCarthy and Avery showed that treatment of DNA with an enzyme that cleaves it (DNase) leads to the loss of gene properties. It is still unclear why this discovery was not awarded the Nobel Prize.

Shortly before that, in 1940, L. Pauling (1901–1994; Nobel Prizes 1954 and 1962) and M. Delbrück developed the concept of molecular complementarity in antigen-antibody reactions. In the same years, Pauling and R. Corey showed that polypeptide chains can form helical structures, and a little later, in 1951, Pauling developed a theory that made it possible to predict the types of X-ray diffraction patterns for various helical structures.

After the discovery by Avery and co-authors, despite the fact that the proponents of the theory of protein genes were not convinced, it became clear that it was necessary to determine the structure of DNA. Among those who understood the importance of DNA for biology, a race for results began, accompanied by fierce competition.

X-ray machine used in the 1940s. to study the crystal structure of amino acids and peptides

In 1947-1950. E. Chargaff, on the basis of numerous experiments, established the rule of correspondence between nucleotides in DNA: the amounts of purine and pyrimidine bases are the same, the number of adenine bases being equal to the number of thymine bases, and the number of guanine bases equal to the number of cytosine bases.

The first structural works (S. Ferberg, 1949, 1952) showed that DNA has a helical structure. With his vast experience in determining the structure of proteins from radiographs, Pauling could no doubt quickly solve the problem of the structure of DNA, if he had any decent radiographs. However, there were none, and because of what he managed to get, he could not make an unambiguous choice in favor of one of the possible structures. As a result, in his haste to publish the result, Pauling chose the wrong option: in an article published in early 1953, he proposed a structure in the form of a three-filamentous helix, in which phosphate residues form a rigid core, and nitrogenous bases are located at the periphery.

Years later, recalling the history of the discovery of the structure of DNA, Watson observed that “Linus [Pauling] did not deserve to guess the right decision. He did not read the articles and did not speak to anyone. Moreover, he even forgot his own article with Delbrück, which talks about the complementarity of gene replication. He thought he could figure out the structure just because he was so smart. ”

When Watson and Crick began working on the structure of DNA, a lot was already known. All that remained was to obtain reliable X-ray structural data and interpret them on the basis of the information already available at that time. How all this happened is well described in the famous book by J. Watson "The Double Helix", although many of the facts in it are presented very subjectively.

J. Watson and F. Crick on the Threshold of the Great Discovery

Of course, it took a lot of knowledge and intuition to build a model of the double helix. But if several coincidences did not coincide, the model could appear several months later, and other scientists could be its authors. Here are some examples.

Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958), who worked with M. Wilkins (Nobel Prize 1962) at King's College (London), received the highest quality DNA radiographs. But this work was of little interest to her, she considered it routine and was in no hurry to draw conclusions. This was facilitated by her poor relationship with Wilkins.

At the very beginning of 1953, Wilkins, without the knowledge of R. Franklin, showed Watson her radiographs. In addition, in February of the same year, Max Perutz showed Watson and Crick the annual report of the Council for Medical Research with an overview of the work of all leading employees, including R. Franklin. This turned out to be enough for F. Crick and J. Watson to understand how a DNA molecule should be arranged.

Radiograph of DNA obtained by R. Franklin

In an article by Wilkins et al. Published in the same issue Nature as in the article by Watson and Crick, it is shown that, judging by the X-ray diffraction patterns, the structure of DNA from different sources is approximately the same and is a helix with nitrogenous bases located inside and phosphate residues outside.

The article by R. Franklin (with her student R. Gosling) was written in February 1953. Already in the initial version of the article, she described the structure of DNA in the form of two coaxial helices shifted relative to each other along the axis with nitrogenous bases inside and phosphates outside. According to her, the pitch of the DNA helix in form B (i.e., at a relative humidity> 70%) was 3.4 nm, and there were 10 nucleotides per turn. Unlike Watson and Crick, Franklin did not model. DNA was no more interesting to her than the coal and carbon she had been doing in France before coming to King's College.

After learning about the Watson-Crick model, she added by hand to the final version of the article: "Thus, our general views do not contradict the Watson-Crick model presented in the previous article." Which is not surprising, since this model was based on her experimental data. But neither Watson nor Crick, despite the most friendly relations with R. Franklin, never told her what they repeated publicly many times after her death many times - that without her data they would never have been able to build their model.

R. Franklin (far left) at a meeting with colleagues in Paris

R. Franklin died of cancer in 1958. Many believe that if she had lived until 1962, the Nobel Committee would have had to break its strict rules and present the prize to not three, but four scientists. In recognition of the merits of her and Wilkins, one of the buildings in King's College was named "Franklin-Wilkins", forever connecting the names of people who hardly spoke to each other.

Reading the article by Watson and Crick (it is shown below), it is surprising its small volume and lapidary style. The authors perfectly understood the significance of their discovery and, nevertheless, limited themselves to only describing the model and briefly indicating that "from the postulated ... specific pairing immediately follows a possible mechanism for copying genetic material." The model itself is taken as if "from the ceiling" - there is no indication of how it was obtained. Its structural characteristics are not shown, with the exception of the pitch and the number of nucleotides per helix pitch. Pairing is also not clearly described as at that time there were two systems of numbering for atoms in pyrimidines. The article is illustrated with only one drawing made by F. Crick's wife. For ordinary biologists, however, the crystallographic-laden papers of Wilkins and Franklin were difficult to grasp, while Watson and Crick’s paper was understood by all.

Later, both Watson and Crick admitted that they were simply afraid to state all the details in the first article. This was done in a second article entitled "Genetic Consequences from the Structure of DNA" and published in Nature May 30 of the same year. It provides the rationale for the model, all the dimensions and details of the DNA structure, circuitry and base pairing, and discusses the various implications for genetics. The nature and tone of the presentation indicate that the authors are quite confident in their correctness and the importance of their discovery. True, they connected the G – C pair with only two hydrogen bonds, but a year later, in a methodological article, they indicated that three bonds are possible. Pauling soon confirmed this with calculations.

The discovery by Watson and Crick showed that genetic information is written in DNA in a four-letter alphabet. But it took another 20 years to learn how to read it. The question immediately arose about what the genetic code should be. The answer to it was proposed in 1954 by theoretical physicist G.A. Gamow *: information in DNA is encoded by triplets of nucleotides - codons. This was confirmed experimentally in 1961 by F. Crick and S. Brenner. Then, within 3-4 years, in the works of M. Nirenberg (Nobel Prize 1965), S. Ochoa (Nobel Prize 1959), H. Korana (Nobel Prize 1965) and others, the correspondence between codons and amino acids.

In the mid-1970s. F. Sanger (b. 1918; Nobel Prizes 1958 and 1980), who also worked at Cambridge, developed a method for determining the sequences of nucleotides in DNA. Sanger used it to determine the sequence of 5386 bases that make up the genome of bacteriophage jX174. However, the genome of this phage is a rare exception: it is single-stranded DNA.
The real era of genomes began in May 1995 when J.K. Venter announced the decoding of the first genome of a single-celled organism - bacteria Haemophilus influenzae... The genomes of about 100 different organisms have now been decoded.

Until recently, scientists thought that everything in a cell is determined by the sequence of bases in DNA, but life, apparently, is much more complicated.
It is now well known that DNA often has a shape other than the Watson-Crick double helix. More than 20 years ago, the so-called Z-helical structure of DNA was discovered in laboratory experiments. This is also a double helix, but twisted in the opposite direction compared to the classical structure. Until recently, it was believed that Z-DNA is not related to living organisms, but recently a group of researchers from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institutes (USA) discovered that one of the genes of the immune system is activated only when part of its regulatory sequence passes into Z-shape. It is now assumed that the temporary formation of the Z-form may be a necessary link in the regulation of the expression of many genes. Found that in some cases, viral proteins bind to Z-DNA and lead to cell damage.

In addition to helical structures, DNA can form well-known twisted rings in prokaryotes and some viruses.

Last year, S. Nydl of the Cancer Research Institute in London discovered that irregular ends of chromosomes - telomeres, which are single strands of DNA - can fold into very regular propeller-like structures.) Similar structures have been found in other regions of chromosomes and are called G-quadruplexes, since they are formed by sections of DNA rich in guanine.

Apparently, such structures contribute to the stabilization of the DNA regions on which they are formed. One of the G-quadruplexes was found directly next to the gene c-MYC, the activation of which causes cancer. In this case, it can prevent DNA binding of proteins - gene activators, and researchers have already begun searching for drugs that stabilize the structure of G-quadruplexes, in the hope that they will help in the fight against cancer.

In recent years, not only the ability of DNA molecules to form structures other than the classical double helix has been discovered. To the surprise of scientists, DNA molecules in the cell nucleus are in continuous motion, as if "dancing".

It has long been known that DNA forms complexes with histone proteins in the nucleus with protamine in sperm. However, these complexes were considered to be strong and static. With the help of modern video equipment, it was possible to photograph the dynamics of these complexes in real time. It turned out that DNA molecules constantly form fleeting bonds with each other and with various proteins that, like flies, twine around DNA. Some proteins move at such a speed that they pass from one side of the nucleus to the other in 5 seconds. Even histone H1, which is most strongly bound to the DNA molecule, dissociates and binds to it again every minute. This impermanence of connections helps the cell to regulate the activity of its genes - DNA constantly checks for the presence of transcription factors and other regulatory proteins in its environment.

The nucleus, which was considered a fairly static formation - a repository of genetic information - actually lives a stormy life, and the well-being of the cell largely depends on the choreography of its components. Some human diseases can be caused by impaired coordination of these molecular dances.

Obviously, with such an organization of the life of the nucleus, its different parts are unequal - the most active "dancers" should be closer to the center, and the least active - to the walls. And so it turned out. For example, in humans, chromosome 18, in which there are only a few active genes, is always located near the border of the nucleus, and chromosome 19 filled with active genes is always near its center. Moreover, the movement of chromatin and chromosomes, and even just the mutual arrangement of chromosomes, apparently affects the activity of their genes. Thus, the close arrangement of chromosomes 12, 14 and 15 in the nuclei of mouse lymphoma cells is considered a factor contributing to the transformation of a cell into a cancerous one.

The past half century in biology became the era of DNA - in the 1960s. the genetic code was deciphered, in the 1970s. obtained recombinant DNA and developed sequencing methods, in the 1980s. the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed, in 1990 the Human Genome project was launched. One of Watson's friends and colleagues, W. Gilbert, believes that traditional molecular biology is dead - now everything can be figured out by studying genomes.

F. Crick among the staff of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge

Now, looking through articles by Watson and Crick 50 years ago, one is surprised how many of the assumptions turned out to be true or close to the truth - after all, they had almost no experimental data. As for the authors themselves, both scientists are celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of the structure of DNA, now actively working in various fields of biology. J. Watson was one of the initiators of the Human Genome Project and continues to work in the field of molecular biology, and F. Crick published an article on the nature of consciousness in early 2003.

* Georgy Antonovich Gamov (1904-1968, emigrated to the United States in 1933) - one of the greatest scientists of the 20th century. He is the author of the theory of theta decay and the tunneling effect in quantum mechanics; liquid-drop model of the atomic nucleus - the foundations of the theories of nuclear decay and thermonuclear reactions; the theory of the internal structure of stars, which showed that thermonuclear reactions are the source of solar energy; the theory of the "Big Bang" in the evolution of the Universe; the theory of relic radiation in cosmology. His popular science books are well known, such as a series of books about Mr. Tompkins ("Mr. Tompkins in Wonderland", "Mr. Tompkins within himself", etc.), "One, two, three ... infinity", "A planet called the Earth " and etc.

James Watson is a pioneer of molecular biology who, along with Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, is considered the discoverer of the DNA double helix. In 1962, they won the Nobel Prize in Medicine for their work.

James Watson: biography

Born in Chicago, USA on April 6, 1928. He attended Horace Mann High School and later South Shore High School. At the age of 15, he entered the University of Chicago on an experimental scholarship program for gifted children. His interest in bird life led James Watson to study biology, and in 1947 he was awarded a Bachelor of Science in Zoology. After reading Erwin Schrödinger's landmark book What Is Life? he switched to genetics.

Rejected by California Institute of Technology and Harvard, James Watson won a fellowship to go to graduate school at Indiana University. In 1950, he was awarded a doctorate in zoology for his work on the effect of X-rays on the reproduction of bacteriophage viruses. From Indiana, Watson moved to Copenhagen and continued to study viruses as a staff member of the National Research Council.

Unravel DNA!

After visiting the New York laboratory in Cold Spring Harbor, where he got acquainted with the results of the research of Hershey and Chase, Watson became convinced that DNA is the molecule that is responsible for the transfer of genetic information. He got carried away with the idea that if you understand its structure, you can establish how data is transferred between cells. Virus research no longer interested him as much as this new direction.

In the spring of 1951, at a conference in Naples, he met Maurice Wilkins. The latter demonstrated the results of the first attempts to use X-ray diffraction to photograph a DNA molecule. Watson, thrilled by Wilkins' data, arrived in the UK in the fall. He got a job at the Cavendish Laboratory, where he began to collaborate with Francis Crick.

First attempts

In an attempt to unravel the molecular structure of DNA, James Watson and Francis Crick decided to use a model-building approach. Both were convinced that solving its structure will play a key role in understanding the transfer of genetic information from parent to daughter cells. Biologists realized that the discovery of the structure of DNA would be a major scientific breakthrough. At the same time, they were aware of the existence of competitors among other scientists, such as Linus Pauling.

Crick and James Watson had a hard time modeling DNA. None of them had a chemistry background, so they used standard chemistry textbooks to cut out cardboard chemical bond configurations. A visiting graduate student noted that, according to new data missing from the books, some of his cardboard chemical bonds were used in the opposite direction. Around the same time, Watson attended a lecture by Rosalind Franklin at nearby King's College. Apparently he wasn't listening very carefully.

An unforgivable mistake

As a result of the error, the first attempt by scientists to build a model of DNA failed. James Watson and Francis Crick built a triple helix with nitrogen bases on the outside of the structure. When they presented the model to colleagues, Rosalind Franklin criticized it harshly. The results of her research clearly proved the existence of two forms of DNA. The wetter of these matched the one Watson and Crick tried to build, but they created a DNA model without the water present in it. Franklin noted that if her work were correctly interpreted, the nitrogen bases would be located inside the molecule. Embarrassed by such a public failure, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory encouraged researchers to abandon their approach. Scientists officially took up other directions, but privately they continued to think about the DNA problem.

Peeped Opening

Wilkins, who had worked at King's College with Franklin, was in personal conflict with her. Rosalind was so unhappy that she made the decision to move her research elsewhere. It’s not clear how, but Wilkins got at his disposal one of her best X-rays of a DNA molecule. She may even have given it to him herself when she was cleaning her office. But it’s certain that he took the image out of the laboratory without Franklin’s permission and showed it to his friend Watson in the Cavendish. Subsequently, in his book "Double Helix", he wrote that the moment he saw the picture, his jaw dropped and his pulse increased. Everything was incredibly simpler than the previously obtained A-form. In addition, the black cross of reflections that dominated the photo could only have originated from the spiral structure.

Nobel Prize Laureate

Biologists used the new data to create a double-stranded helix model with nitrogenous bases in the AT and C-G pairs in the center. This pairing immediately suggested to Shout that one side of the molecule could serve as a template for the exact repetition of DNA sequences for the transmission of genetic information during cell division. This second, successful model was presented in February 1951. In April 1953, they published their findings in the journal Nature. The article caused a sensation. Watson and Crick found that DNA has the shape of a double helix, or "spiral staircase." Two chains in it detached like a "lightning" and reproduced the missing parts. Thus, each deoxyribonucleic acid molecule is able to create two identical copies.

The DNA abbreviation and the elegant double helix pattern have become known throughout the world. Watson and Creek also became famous. Their discovery revolutionized the study of biology and genetics, which made possible the methods of genetic engineering used in modern biotechnology.

An article in Nature led to him and Wilkins being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962. Swedish Academy rules allow a maximum of three scientists to be awarded. Rosalind Franklin died of ovarian cancer in 1958. Wilkins mentioned her in passing.

In the year he received the Nobel Prize, Watson married Elizabeth Lewis. They had two sons: Rufus and Duncan.

Continuation of work

James Watson continued to work with many other scientists throughout the 1950s. His genius consisted in the ability to coordinate the work of different people and combine their results for new conclusions. In 1952, he used a rotating X-ray anode to demonstrate the helical structure of the tobacco mosaic virus. From 1953 to 1955 Watson collaborated with scientists at the California Institute of Technology to model the structure of RNA. From 1955 to 1956 he again worked with Crick to uncover the principles of the structure of viruses. In 1956 he moved to Harvard, where he researched RNA and protein synthesis.

Scandalous chronicle

In 1968, a scandalous book about DNA was published, authored by James Watson. The Double Helix was full of derogatory comments and rancorous descriptions from many of the people attending the opening, especially Rosalind Franklin. Because of this, the Harvard Press refused to print the book. Nevertheless, the work was published and was a great success. In a later edition, Watson apologized for his interpretation of Franklin, stating that he was unaware of the pressure she faced in the 1950s as a female researcher. He earned the greatest profit from the publication of two textbooks - "Molecular Biology of the Gene" (1965) and "Molecular Biology of Cells and Recombinant DNA" (updated edition of 2002), which are still out of print. In 2007, he published his autobiography Avoid Boring People. Life Lessons in Science ”.

James Watson: contributions to science

In 1968 he became director of the Cold Spring Harbor laboratory. The institution was in financial difficulties at the time, but Watson was very successful in finding donors. The institution headed by him has become a world leader in terms of work in the field of molecular biology. Her collaborators discovered the nature of cancer and discovered its genes for the first time. More than 4,000 scientists from all over the world visit Cold Spring Harbor every year - so profoundly the influence of the Institute for International Genetic Research.

In 1990, Watson was named Head of the Human Genome Project at the National Institutes of Health. He used his fundraising abilities to lead the project until 1992. He quit due to a conflict over patenting genetic information. James Watson believed that this would only hinder the research of the scientists working on the project.

Controversial statements

His stay at Cold Harbor ended abruptly. On October 14, 2007, on his way to a conference in London, he was asked about events in the world. James Watson, a world-renowned scientist, responded that he was overshadowed by the prospects for Africa. According to him, all modern social policy is based on the fact that the intelligence of its inhabitants is the same as that of the rest, but the test results indicate that this is not so. He continued his thought with the idea that progress in Africa is being hampered by poor genetic material. Public outcry against this statement prompted Cold Spring Harbor to ask for his resignation. The scientist later apologized and retracted his statements, saying that "there is no scientific basis for this." In his farewell speech, he expressed his vision that "the ultimate victory (over cancer and mental illness) is within our grasp."

Despite these setbacks, geneticist James Watson continues to make controversial claims today. In September 2013 at the Allen Institute in Seattle, at a brain research meeting, he again made a controversial statement about his belief that an increase in diagnosed hereditary diseases may be associated with later childbirth. “The older you get, the more likely you are to have defective genes,” Watson said, also suggesting that genetic material should be collected from people under 15 for further conception through in vitro fertilization. In his opinion, this would reduce the chances that the parents' lives will be ruined by the birth of a child with physical or mental disorders.

The discovery of the existence of a duplicated DNA helix proved to be a watershed moment in biology. It was made by the Englishman Francis Crick and the American James Watson. In 1962, scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize.

They are among the smartest people on the planet. Crick made many discoveries in various fields, not limited to genetics. Watson has earned himself a notoriety for a number of statements, but this characterizes him more as an extraordinary person.

Childhood

Francis Crick was born in 1916 in Northampton, England. His father was a successful businessman and owned a shoe factory. He went to a regular high school. After the war, the family's income was significantly reduced, the head decided to transfer the family to London. Francis graduated from Mill Hill School, where he was fond of mathematics, physics and chemistry. He later attended University College London and is recognized as a Bachelor of Science degree.

Then, on another continent, his future colleague, James Watson, was born. Since childhood, he was different from ordinary children, even then they predicted a bright future for James. He was born in Chicago in 1928. His parents surrounded him with love and joy.

The teacher in the first grade noted his intelligence was inappropriate for his age. After the 3rd grade, he took part in an intellectual quiz for children on the radio. Watson showed amazing ability. Later he was invited to the four-year University of Chicago, where he became interested in ornithology. Having a bachelor's degree, the young man decides to continue his studies at the University of Bloomington in Indiana.

Interest in science

At Indiana University, Watson is engaged in genetics and comes to the attention of the biologist Salvador Lauria and the brilliant geneticist J. Moeller. The collaboration resulted in a dissertation on the effect of X-rays on bacteria and viruses. After a brilliant defense, James Watson becomes a Ph.D.

Further research on bacteriophages will take place in distant Denmark - the University of Copenhagen. The scientist is actively working on compiling a DNA model and studying its properties. His colleague is the talented biochemist Herman Kalkarom. However, the fateful meeting with Francis Crick will take place at the University of Cambridge. The aspiring scientist Watson, who is only 23 years old, will invite Francis to his laboratory to work together.

Before World War II, Crick studied the viscosity of water in various states. Later he had to work for the Ministry of the Navy - he develops mines. The turning point will be the reading of the book by E. Schrödinger. The author's ideas pushed Francis to study biology. Since 1947 he has been working in the Cambridge Laboratory, studying X-ray diffraction, organic chemistry and biology. Its leader was Max Perutz, who studies the structure of proteins. Crick takes an interest in defining the chemical basis of the genetic code.

DNA decoding

In the spring of 1951, a symposium was held in Naples, where James meets the English scientist Maurice Wilkins and the researcher Rosalyn Franklin, who also conduct DNA analysis. They determined that the structure of the cell is similar to a spiral staircase - it has a double spiral shape. Their experimental data pushed Watson and Crick to further research. They decide to determine the composition of the nucleic acids and seek the necessary funding - a grant from the National Society for the Study of Infantile Paralysis.

In 1953, they will inform the world about the structure of DNA and present a finished model of the molecule.

In just 8 months, two brilliant scientists will summarize the results of their experiments with the available data. In a month, a three-dimensional model of DNA will be made from balls and cardboard.

The discovery was announced by the director of the Cavendish laboratory, Laurence Bragg, at a Belgian conference on April 8. But the importance of the discovery was not immediately recognized. Only on April 25, after the publication of the article in the scientific journal "Nature", biologists and other laureates appreciated the value of new knowledge. The event was attributed to the greatest discovery of the century.

In 1962, the British Wilkins and Creek with the American Watson were nominated for the Nobel Prize in Medicine. Unfortunately, Rosalind Franklin passed away 4 years ago and was not included in the list of applicants. In this regard, there was a loud scandal, since the model used data from Franklin's experiments, although she did not give official permission. Crick and Watson worked closely with her partner Wilkins, and Rosalind herself did not learn the importance of her experiments for medicine until the end of her life.

A monument to Watson was erected in New York for the opening. Wilkins and Creek did not receive this honor, since they did not have American citizenship.

Career

After the discovery of the structure of DNA, the paths of Watson and Crick diverge. James becomes a senior fellow in the Department of Biology at the University of California, and later a professor. In 1969 he was offered to head the Long Island Laboratory of Molecular Biology. The scientist refuses to work at Harvard, where he worked since 1956. The rest of his life he will devote to neurobiology, the study of the effects of viruses and DNA on cancer. Under the leadership of the scientist, the laboratory reached a new level of research quality, its funding increased significantly. Gold Spring Harbor has become the world's premier center for the study of molecular biology. From 1988 to 1992, Watson was actively involved in a number of projects to study the human genome.

Crick, after world recognition, becomes the head of the biological laboratory in Cambridge. In 1977 he moved to San Diego, California to study the mechanisms of dreams and vision.

In 1983, with the mathematician Gr. Mitchison, he suggested that dreams are the ability of the brain to free itself from useless and excessive associations that have been accumulated during the day. Scientists have called dreams prevention of nervous system overload.

In 1981, the book by Francis Crick "Life as it is: its origin and nature" was published, where the author suggests the origin of life on Earth. According to his version, the first inhabitants on the planet were microorganisms from other space objects. This explains the similarity of the genetic code of all living objects. The scientist died in 2004 from oncology. He was cremated, and his ashes were scattered over the Pacific Ocean.

In 2004, Watson became rector, but in 2007 he had to leave this position for speaking out about the genetic connection between origin (race) and the level of intelligence. A scientist who likes provocative and offensive comments on the work of his colleagues, Franklin was no exception. Some of the statements were taken as attacks on obese people and homosexuals.

In 2007, Watson published his autobiography Avoid the Tediousness. In 2008 he gave a public lecture at Moscow State University. Watson is called the first person with a completely sequenced genome. The scientist is currently working to find genes responsible for mental illness.

Crick and Watson opened up new possibilities for the development of medicine. It is impossible to overestimate the significance of their scientific activities.

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English physicist (by education), Nobel Prize Laureate in Physiology or Medicine for 1962 (jointly with James Watson and Maurice Wilkins) with the formulation: "for their discovery of the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance in the transmission of information in living matter."

During World War II he worked at the Admiralty, where he developed magnetic and acoustic mines for the British Navy.

In 1946 Francis Creek read the book Erwin Schrödinger: What is life from the point of view of physics? and decided to leave research in the field of physics and deal with problems of biology. He later wrote that in order to move from physics to biology, one must "almost be reborn".

In 1947 Francis Creek left the Admiralty, and at about the same time Linus Pauling put forward the hypothesis that the diffraction pattern of proteins was determined by alpha-helices wrapped around one another.

Francis Crick was interested in two fundamental unsolved problems in biology:
- How do molecules allow you to make the transition from non-living to living?
- how does the brain carry out thinking?

In 1951 Francis Creek met with James Watson and together in 1953 they turned to the analysis of the structure of DNA.

"Career F. Crick cannot be called fast and bright. At thirty-five, he is still not received PhD status (PhD roughly corresponds to the title of Candidate of Sciences - Approx. I.L. Vikentiev).
German bombs destroyed a laboratory in London where he was supposed to measure the viscosity of warm water under pressure.
Crick was not very upset that his career in physics was at a standstill. Biology had attracted him before, so he quickly found a job in Cambridge, where his topic was measuring the viscosity of the cytoplasm of cells. In addition, he studied crystallography at the Cavendish.
But Crick lacked the patience to successfully develop his scientific ideas, nor the proper diligence in order to develop those of others. His constant mockery of others, disregard for his own career, combined with self-confidence and a habit of giving advice to others, annoyed his Cavendish colleagues.
But Crick himself was not happy with the scientific focus of the laboratory, which focused exclusively on proteins. He was sure the search was going in the wrong direction. The secret of genes is not hidden in proteins, but in DNA. Seduced by ideas Watson, he abandoned his own research and focused on the study of the DNA molecule.
This is how the great duo of two friendly rival talents was born: an ambitious young American with a little knowledge of biology, and a bright-minded, but unassembled, thirty-five-year-old Briton, versed in physics.
The combination of the two opposites caused an exothermic reaction.
Within a few months, having gathered together their own and previously obtained by others, but not processed, the two scientists came close to the greatest discovery in the entire history of mankind - deciphering the structure of DNA. […]
But there was no mistake.
Everything turned out to be extremely simple: DNA contains a code written along its entire molecule - an elegantly elongated double helix that can be arbitrarily long.
The code is copied due to the chemical affinity between the constituent chemical compounds - the letters of the code. The letter combinations represent the text of the protein molecule, written in a still unknown code. The simplicity and elegance of the DNA structure was stunning.
Later Richard Dawkins wrote: "What was truly revolutionary in the era of molecular biology that followed the discovery of Watson and Crick was that the code for life was digitized into an incredibly similar to computer program."

Matt Ridley, Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters, M., Exmo, 2009, pp. 69-71.

After analyzing the received Maurice Wilkins data on X-ray scattering on DNA crystals, Francis Creek together with James Watson built in 1953 a model of the three-dimensional structure of this molecule, called the "Watson-Crick Model".

Francis Creek wrote to his son in 1953 proud: “ Jim Watson and I made what was perhaps the most important discovery ... Now we are convinced that DNA is a code. Thus, the sequence of bases ("letters") makes one gene different from another (just as different pages of printed text differ from one another). You can imagine how Nature makes copies of genes: if two chains are untwisted into two separate chains, each chain will attach another chain, then A will always be with T, and G will always be with C, and we will get two copies instead of one. In other words, we think we have found the underlying mechanism by which life arises from life ... You can understand how excited we are. "

Quoted in Matt Ridley, Life Is a Discrete Code, in Collected Works: Theory of Everything / Ed. John Brockman, M., Binom; Knowledge Laboratory, 2016, p. eleven.

Exactly Francis Creek in 1958 "... with formulated the "central dogma of molecular biology" according to which the transmission of hereditary information goes only in one direction, namely from DNA to RNA and from RNA to protein .
Its meaning is that the genetic information recorded in DNA is realized in the form of proteins, but not directly, but with the help of a related polymer - ribonucleic acid (RNA), and this path from nucleic acids to proteins is irreversible. Thus, DNA is synthesized on DNA, providing its own reduplication, i.e. reproduction of the original genetic material in generations. RNA is also synthesized on DNA, resulting in the rewriting (transcriptions) of genetic information in the form of multiple copies of RNA. RNA molecules serve as templates for protein synthesis - genetic information is translated into the form of polypeptide chains. "

Gnatik E.N., Man and his perspectives in the light of anthropogenetics: philosophical analysis, M., Publishing house of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, 2005, p. 71.

“In 1994, the book, which caused a wide resonance, was published Francis Crick“An amazing hypothesis. Scientific search for the soul ”.
Crick is skeptical about philosophers and philosophy in general, considering their abstract reasoning to be fruitless. Nobel Prize Winner for DNA Decoding (with J. Watson and M. Wilkins), he set himself the following task: to decipher the nature of consciousness on the basis of specific facts of the brain.
By and large, he is not worried about the question "what is consciousness?", But how the brain produces it.
He says: "You, your joys and sorrows, your memories and ambitions, your sense of identity and free will are really no more than the behavior of a huge community of nerve cells and their interacting molecules."
Most of all, Crick is concerned with the question: what is the nature of the structures and patterns that ensure the connection and unity of the conscious act ("the binding problem")?
Why are the very different stimuli received by the brain interconnected in such a way that they ultimately produce a unified experience, for example, the image of a walking cat?
It is in the nature of the brain connections, he believes, that one should look for an explanation of the phenomenon of consciousness.
The “amazing hypothesis”, in fact, is that the key to understanding the nature of consciousness and its qualitative images, possibly, are the synchronized flashes of neurons recorded in experiments in the range from 35 before 40 Hertz in the networks connecting the thalamus with the cerebral cortex.
Naturally, both philosophers and cognitive scientists doubted that from the vibrations of nerve fibers, possibly really associated with the manifestation of phenomenal features of experience, it is possible to build hypotheses about consciousness and its cognitive thinking processes. "

Yudina N.S., Consciousness, physicalism, science, in Sat: The problem of consciousness in philosophy and science / Ed. DI. Dubrovsky, M., "Canon +", 2009, p. 93.