Dictionary of concepts in social science. Dictionary of basic social science terms and concepts

absolute truth - it is undeniable, unchanging, once and for all established knowledge, which completely exhausts the subject and cannot be refuted with the further development of knowledge.

Animism(from lat. anima - soul, spirit) - an expression of faith in spirits and the soul or the universal spirituality of nature.

Anthropogenesis — the process of separating man from the animal world.

Faith- a specific attitude to reality or imaginary objects, phenomena, when their reliability and truth are accepted without evidence.

Imagination- the ability to create new sensory or mental images in the mind

Genius- the highest degree of creative intellectual manifestations of the individual, which is found in outstanding scientific discoveries or philosophical concepts, technical or technological inventions, social transformations, the creation of works of art that have long-term consequences in many areas of culture.

Hypothesis- a scientific assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain, is of a probabilistic nature and needs to be proven, verified, justified.

Deduction- proof or derivation of a statement (consequence) from one or more other statements (premises) based on the laws of logic, which is of a reliable nature.

Activity- conscious, inherent only to man, the transformation of the social and natural world, as a result of which something is created that was not in nature, due to its needs and goals. [Structure of activity: subject, object, motive, goal, means, actions, result. Main types: work, communication, play, learning].

Dialogue of cultures- interaction, interpenetration of various cultural formations within large cultural zones, as well as communication, spiritual convergence of huge cultural regions that formed a unique complex of specific features at the dawn of human civilization.

Makings- hereditary properties of the human central nervous system, which can develop in various directions, turning into abilities. Even the most excellent inclinations in themselves do not automatically ensure high achievements. Groups of inclinations: physical, intellectual, emotionally sensitive.

Knowledge- the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relations of the real world.

A game- this is a special type of activity that takes place in a conditional situation, the purpose of which is not the production of any material product, but the process itself - entertainment, recreation. Characteristic features of the game: takes place in a conditional situation, which, as a rule, changes rapidly; in its process, so-called substitute objects are used; is aimed at satisfying the interest of its participants; contributes to the development of personality, enriches it, equips it with the necessary skills.

Identity - perception of one's own integrity, unity, identity to oneself.

Individual is the only representative of the human race.

Individuality- a set of characteristic features and properties that distinguish one individual from another; the originality of the psyche and personality of the individual, his originality, uniqueness.

Induction- the path of experimental study of phenomena, in the course of which a transition is made from individual facts to general propositions, individual facts, as it were, lead to a general position.

Innovation- a one-time ordinary improvement associated with an increase in the adaptive capabilities of the social organism in these conditions.

Interest- this is a purposeful attitude of a person to any object of his need.

Intuition - knowledge, the conditions for obtaining which are not realized

Art- spiritual and practical human activity aimed at the development and creation of aesthetic values.

Truth - it is knowledge corresponding to the subject of knowledge or adequate to reality.

Counterculture- opposition and alternative to the dominant culture in society

Culture (in the broadest sense) - the totality of all types and results of the transforming activity of a person, aimed both at the external environment and at himself. In addition, it is also a historically conditioned dynamic complex of forms, principles, methods and results of active creative activity of people that are constantly updated in all spheres of public life.

Culture - (in the narrow sense of the word) the process of active creative activity, during which spiritual values ​​are created, distributed and consumed, the level of human education.

Personality- this is a human individual who is the subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant features, properties and qualities that he implements in public life

outlook- a set of views, assessments, norms and attitudes that determine a person's attitude to the world around him, society, individuals, a person's place in it.

Modernization is the process of transition from a traditional, agrarian society to a modern, industrial society.

Morality is a set of norms approved by public opinion that determine the relations of people in society, their obligations to each other and to society, ideas about good and bad, right and wrong, good and evil. Moral norms and requirements stimulate the development of moral views, beliefs, feelings, which together form the moral consciousness.

Thinking e - the ability and active process of cognition, thanks to which a person receives knowledge about the world and himself, and also plans and carries out his activities.

Observation- purposeful and organized perception of the external world, which provides primary material for scientific research. Here there is no prevailing influence of the subject of knowledge on the object of study, the possibility of using instruments and instruments in order to compensate for the natural limitations of the human senses.

Personal orientation- the leading psychological property of a person, which represents the system of her motives for life and activity: needs, interests, views, ideals, motives of behavior.

The science- a form of spiritual activity of people, aimed at the production of knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, which has the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws.

scientific revolution- a radical transformation, a change in the process and content of scientific knowledge and cognition, associated with the transition to new theoretical and methodological premises, to a new system of fundamental concepts and methods, to a new scientific picture of the world, as well as with qualitative transformations of material means of observation and experimentation.

scientific fact- a reflection of an objective fact in the human mind, i.e. a description by means of a certain language.

Moral- the degree of assimilation by the individual of the moral values ​​of society and the practical adherence to them in everyday life, that is, the expression of the human in a person. Morality is the level of real moral behavior of people.

Education- one of the ways of becoming a person through the acquisition of knowledge by people, the acquisition of skills and abilities for the development of mental-cognitive and creative abilities through a system of such social institutions as the family, school, and the media.

public consciousness- a set of ideas, judgments, ideas, illusions, feelings, moods, in one form or another reflecting different aspects of society.

Society (in the narrow sense of the word) - a circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin (for example, a society of numismatists, a noble assembly); a separate specific society, country, state, region (for example, modern Russian society, French society); historical stage in the development of mankind (for example, feudal society, capitalist society); humanity as a whole.

Society (in the broad sense of the word)- Separated from nature, but closely connected with it, part of the material world, which includes all the ways and forms of human interaction.

Public relations- diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them). They are material (They arise and are formed directly in the course of a person’s practical activity outside of his consciousness and independently of him. Production relations; environmental relations; child-production relations) and spiritual (They are formed, having previously “passed through the consciousness” of people, are determined by their spiritual values Moral relations, political relations, legal relations, artistic relations, philosophical relations, religious relations).

Communication- this is a type of human activity in which there is an exchange of information, ideas and emotions between the subjects of activity (people). The structure of communication: subjects - those who participate in communication (individuals, groups, communities, humanity as a whole); the goal is that for which a person needs to communicate; content is that information, ideas, emotions that are transmitted in interpersonal contacts from one to another; means are ways of conveying information, ideas, emotions.

Social Progress- this is a type of development, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from simple to more complex, moving forward to a more perfect social order.

An object - an object / person / phenomenon that is exposed to and changes under the influence and will of the subject.

Relative truth — incomplete, limited knowledge obtained as a result of cognitive activity.

Cognition- a reflection of objective reality in his mind, the result of which is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him.

Need - it is the perceived need of man for that which constitutes the necessary condition of his existence. Human needs are manifested in the motives of activity. There are primary and secondary; physiological, social, ideal; real and imaginary; reasonable and unreasonable.

Practice- an integral organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at

transformation of reality, carried out in a certain socio-cultural context. Forms of practice: material production (material production (labor), transformation of nature); socio-political: social action (reform, revolution, war, etc.) and scientific and experimental.

Nature (in the broadest sense)- the totality of everything that exists, with the exception of the spiritual life of people. One of the most general categories of science and philosophy, originating in the ancient worldview. In the broad sense of the word, it is the whole world in all its infinity of forms and manifestations. Nature in the narrow sense of the word is the entire material world, with the exception of society, that is, the totality of the natural conditions for the existence of human society.

Revolution- this is a radical, qualitative change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing social order.

Regression- this is a type of social development, which is characterized by a transition from higher to lower, processes of degradation, lowering the level of organization, loss of the ability to perform certain functions.

Religion- a set of views and ideas, a system of beliefs and rituals that unites people recognizing them into a single community, belief in the supernatural (in God), One of the forms of human adaptation to the world around, satisfying his spiritual needs.

Reform- this is a transformation in any sphere of public life, carried out simultaneously, through a series of gradual transformations that do not affect the fundamental foundations (systems, phenomena, structures).

Self-realization — the process of implementing the creative potential of the individual.

Liberty- This a conscious choice of a person, limited by numerous social norms and circumstances, culture and worldview of the subject, for which he is always responsible.

Consciousness- preliminary mental construction of the image of the activity itself and the specific result obtained in the course of it. The properties of consciousness are activity and selectivity, subjectivity and creativity.

Socialization - the process of assimilation by a human individual of patterns of behavior, psychological attitudes, social norms and values, knowledge, skills that allow him to successfully function in society.

social role- a way of behavior approved by the normative and corresponding to the social status;

Social institution - a historically established, stable form of organizing joint activities of people, which is aimed at performing specific social functions and is built on the basis of certain norms, rules, and standards of behavior.

social status- the social position occupied by a social individual or social group in society or a separate social subsystem of society.

Social sciencies- a set of forms of spiritual activity of people, aimed at the production of knowledge about society.

self-awareness- this is a person's awareness of his activities, thoughts, feelings, interests, needs.

Capabilities- these are individual psychological characteristics of a person, which are the conditions for the successful implementation of various activities. Abilities develop in the process of human activity.

Stagnation- stopping social development, stagnation, lack of change.

Subculture- part of the general culture, a system of values ​​inherent in a certain group (gender and age: women, children, youth, etc.; professional: the scientific community, modern business, etc.; leisure (according to preferred leisure activities); religious; ethnic; criminal) .

Subject- an active person with his knowledge, experience and ability to change the objective situation of his being and himself (his qualities) in the process of socially significant activity.

Talent- certain or outstanding abilities and skills inherent from birth, their sufficiently high level of manifestation in a certain activity.

Creation- this is a specific type of activity that generates something qualitatively new that has never existed before (for example, a new goal, a new result or new means, new ways to achieve them).

Temperament- a stable set of individual psychophysiological characteristics of a person associated with dynamic, rather than meaningful aspects of activity. Temperament is the basis of character development. From a physiological point of view, it is due to the type of higher nervous activity of a person, and manifests itself in a person's behavior (character), in the degree of his vital activity.

Tolerance- a strategy of behavior, including the readiness to accept other views without protest; respect for freedom (including freedom of thought, creativity, conscience) of another person; a measure of compassion, generosity and patience.

totemism- worship of any kind, tribe, animal or plant as its mythical ancestor and protector.

Work is a type of activity that is aimed at achieving a practically useful result. Characteristic features of labor: expediency; focus on achieving programmed expected results; availability of skills, abilities, knowledge; practical usefulness; personal development; the presence of a result; transformation of the human environment.

Church- a social institution of society, a religious organization, which is based on a single creed (doctrine), which determines religious ethics and religious activity, a system for managing life, the behavior of believers.

Doctrine- this is a type of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can acquire the character of self-education.

Fetishism(from port. feitico - idol, amulet, talisman) - religious worship, the essence of which comes down to attributing to individual objects (amulets, figurines, etc.) magical powers that can influence the course of events and obtain the desired result.

Human- it is the subject of socio-historical activity and culture, a biosocial being with consciousness, articulate speech, moral qualities and the ability to make tools.

Sense cognition – the initial stage of cognition, which gives direct knowledge about the object of cognition with the help of the senses.

Experiment- the study of a phenomenon by actively influencing it by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the course of the process in the right direction, the presence of a predominant influence of the subject of knowledge on the object of study, there is a need to create the necessary conditions, including the elimination of all interfering factors; material impact on the object or conditions; measurements using appropriate technical devices.

empirical law-objective, essential, concrete-universal, recurring, stable connection between phenomena and processes.

absolute truth- complete, unchanging, established once and for all knowledge about an object or phenomenon.
Alcoholism (drug addiction)- a disease that develops as a result of the systematic use of alcohol (drugs).
Basis- a set of social relations that develop between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods.
Being- the existence of man in all the diversity of its manifestations.

Gross domestic product (GDP) - the total value of all goods and services produced by the country in a year (in market prices)

Gross national product (GNP)- GDP + amount of net income from abroad

Ownership- the ability to have something (property).
Voluntarism- absolutizes free will, bringing it to the arbitrariness of an unrestricted personality, ignoring the objective conditions and laws of the development of society.

Perception(1) - the process of forming a holistic image that reflects objects and their properties that directly affect the senses.

Perception(2) - a form of sensory knowledge.
Hypothesis- putting forward and substantiating certain assumptions, with the help of which they want to explain those empirical facts that do not fit into the framework of previous teachings.
The state budget- a list of planned income and expenses.

State- a political-territorial sovereign organization of power in society, which has a special apparatus for the implementation of its functions and is able to make its orders binding on the population of the entire country.
Civil (personal) rights(Articles 9-25, 45-54, 60, 62 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation) - rights belonging to a person as a biosocial being
Civil society- a system of relations between people that ensures the satisfaction of their inalienable rights and interests on the basis of self-government and freedom.

Deviant behavior- deviant behavior
Delinquent behavior- set of crimes.
Democracy- a political regime based on the recognition of the people as the source and subject of power.

Activity- the activity of people aimed at transforming the world around them.

Discrimintion- derogation of the rights of any group of citizens based on their nationality, race, gender, etc.

Differentiation- separation
spiritual production- the activity of consciousness in a special social form, carried out by specialized groups of people who are professionally engaged in skilled mental labor.

imperative manadates- the right to recall a deputy by voters before the expiration of his term of office

Individual( 1) - a single concrete person, considered as a biosocial being.
Individual(2) - separately taken representative of the entire human race.

Individuality- the unique originality of a person, a set of his unique qualities.

Integration- Union
Art- a specific form of social consciousness and human activity, which is a reflection of the surrounding reality in artistic images.
True- compliance of the received titles with the content of the object.

Historical patterns- common features inherent in a group of historical phenomena.
historical process- a temporal sequence of successive events, which was the result of the activities of many generations of people.
Class- a large group of people united by the following features:
1) ownership of the means of production 2) participation in the distribution of profits, 3) organizes production or directly participates in it.
Communication subsystem the political system of society is a set of relations and forms of interaction that develop between classes, social groups, nations, individuals regarding their participation in the exercise of power, the development and implementation of policies.
Constitution is the fundamental law of the state.

Consensus- consent without a formal vote

Collectivism- the principle of community, the collective principle in public life, in work, in any activity

Kosmilitary (representative) democracy- the ability of the people to exercise power through their representatives in various state bodies

culture- all types of industrial, social and spiritual activities of a person and society, as well as all their results.
Cultural and ideological subsystem political system of society - a set of political ideas, views, ideas, feelings of participants in the political system that are different in their content.
cultural rights— rights that ensure the spiritual development and self-realization of the individual.
Personality( 1) - a person who actively masters and purposefully transforms nature, society and himself.
Personality(2) - a human individual who is the subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant features, properties and qualities that he implements in public life.

Morality- this is a set of rules of conduct derived from people's ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice, good and bad, the implementation of which is the result of a person’s inner conviction or the influence of the power of public opinion on him

Multi-party system- the existence and legal activity in the state of two or more parties
Observation- a purposeful study of individual objects and phenomena, during which the title of the external properties and features of the object under study is obtained.
superstructure- a set of political, legal, ideological, religious, cultural and other views, institutions and relations that are not covered by the basis.
Tax- obligatory payment established by the state for citizens and enterprises.

Nationality- a community of people that has historically developed in the process of decomposition of tribal relations on the basis of the unity of language and territory and developing common economic life and culture.

populace- social communities that have developed in a certain territory, whose members have a single mentality, culture, traditions and customs and jointly create material and spiritual values.
The science- theoretically systematized views on the surrounding world, reproducing its essential aspects in an abstract-logical form (concepts, theories, laws) and based on the results of scientific research.
scientific theory- a logically consistent description of the phenomena of the surrounding world, which is expressed by a special system of concepts.

Scientific and technological revolution(NTR) is a qualitative leap in the development of the productive forces of society, its transition to a new state on the basis of fundamental changes in the system of scientific titles.
nations- the most developed ethnic formations that arose on the basis of a linguistic, territorial, cultural, economic, socio-psychological community.
Regulatory subsystem the political system of society - the political norms and traditions that determine and regulate the political life of society.
moral standards- norms that express people's ideas about good and bad, about good and evil, about justice and injustice, the implementation of which is ensured by the internal conviction of people or the power of public opinion.
Education- purposeful cognitive activity of people to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, or to improve them.

Communication— the process of information exchange between equal subjects of activity.
Public associations- voluntary, self-governing formations created on the basis of common interests to achieve some goal common to all their members.
Society(1) - a set of people united by historically conditioned social forms of life and activity (a group of people united for communication and joint performance of any activity);

Society(2) - an integral social organism, which includes large and small groups of people, as well as connections and relationships between them (a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country).

Society(Z) is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interacting people and forms of their unification

Society(4) - a dynamic self-developing system, that is, a system that is capable of seriously changing, at the same time retaining its essence and qualitative certainty.
objective truth- reliable knowledge, independent of the predilections and interests of people.
Custom- a historically established rule of behavior that has become a habit through repeated repetition.
deviant(deviant) behavior - does not meet the requirements of social norms.
Relative truth- incomplete, limited knowledge is true only under certain conditions, which a person (humanity) possesses at a given stage of his development.
Branch of law- a systematized group of legal holes that regulate a certain area of ​​social relations.

Feeling- a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects of the surrounding world, which directly affect the senses.
Parliamentarism- the leading position of the parliament in the system of state power and administration.
Party system- the totality of all parties existing and operating in the country.

Political Party- this is a specialized, organizationally ordered group that unites active adherents of certain goals, ideas, leaders, serving to fight for political power

Political party legal- a party whose activity is permitted by the state and officially registered

Political party illegal- a party that is banned by the state and operates underground

Tribe- an ethnic and social community of people connected by clan relations, culture, language and self-name.

Cognition- the process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him.

Subsystem- "intermediate" complex, more complex than the element, but less complex than the system itself.

Cognition- the process of obtaining and constantly updating the knowledge necessary for a person.
Policy( 1) - the art of government.

Policy(2) - relations between states, classes, social groups, nations arising from the capture, exercise and retention of political power in society, as well as relations between states in the international arena.
Policy(З) - the activities of state bodies, political parties, public associations, in the sphere of relations between social groups (classes, nations, states), aimed at integrating their efforts in order to streamline political power or conquer it.
Policy(4) - the sphere of activity of groups, parties, an individual, the state, associated with the implementation of generally significant interests with the help of political power.

Policy(5) - basic principles, norms and directions of activity for the implementation of state and public power

Political ideology- 1. a system of ideas and views that expresses the fundamental interests, worldview, of any subject of politics (class, nation, society, party, social movement); 2. theoretical substantiation of the system of values ​​of political subjects

Political communication- dissemination and transmission of political information, both between the elements of the political system, and between the political system and society.
Political culture(1) - a complex of ingrained patterns of behavior, value orientations, and political ideas that are typical for a given society.

politicalsky culture(2) - this is the experience of political activity transmitted from generation to generation in which knowledge, beliefs are combined "models of human behavior and social groups
Politicalthe consignment- a specialized, organizationally ordered group that unites active adherents of certain goals, ideas, leaders, serving to fight for political power.

Political rights- rights that provide opportunities for citizens to participate in the political life of the country

Politic system- a mechanism for the implementation of political power and political management of society.
The political system of society- a set of various political institutions, socio-political communities, forms of interaction and relationships between them, in which political power is exercised.
Political norms(1) - legal, political and moral rules underlying the life of the political system. (2) - norms established by various political organizations.
Political rights- the rights of a citizen, providing the opportunity to participate in the political life of the country.

Ppolitical roles personalities - political functions, normatively approved images of political behavior expected from everyone who occupies a given position in the political system

Political socialization personality - the process of assimilation by an individual of socio-political knowledge, norms of values ​​and skills of activity, as a result of which he assumes a certain political role

Political status- the position of a person in the political system, the totality of his political rights and obligations, the ability to influence the political life of the country.

Political rule— the process of developing, adopting and implementing political decisions.
Use- the ability to use the useful properties of the property.

A concept is a form (kind) of thought that reflects the general and essential features of objects and phenomena.

Customs duty is a special state tax on goods bought abroad
Human rights- a legally guaranteed measure of the possible behavior of an individual.
Right( 1) - a system of obligatory norms (rules) of behavior established or sanctioned by the state and secured by its coercive force.
Right( 2) - a system of concepts about generally binding rules of conduct, rights and obligations of a person, prohibitions, conditions for their occurrence and implementation.

Right(3) is a system of generally binding, formal norms established or sanctioned by the state (and sometimes directly by the people), the implementation of which is ensured by the authority or coercive power of the state.

Constitutional state- the state, which in all its activities is subject to law, operates within the boundaries defined by law, ensuring the legal protection of its citizens.
Legalstatus personality - a set of rights and freedoms of the individual, which belong to her by law.
Legal regulations- formally defined rules of conduct, established or sanctioned by the state, the implementation of which is ensured by its authority or coercive power.

Direct (immediate) democracy- the ability of the people to directly make political decisions and exercise their power

Offer- this is the amount of goods that the seller can offer the buyer in a particular place at a particular time.
Itemart- a person, his relations with the surrounding world, other individuals, as well as the life of people in certain historical conditions.

Entrepreneurial activity- activities carried out on their own initiative, at their own risk and responsibility, independent, aimed at making a profit
Performance- a form of cognition in which the sensory reflection (sensory image) of objects and phenomena is stored in the mind, which allows you to reproduce it mentally, even if it is absent and does not affect the senses.
Prestige- society's assessment of the social significance of a particular status, enshrined in culture and public opinion.
Privatization- the process of transferring state property to private hands
Progress- the direction of development from the lowest to the highest, from simple to complex
Labor productivity is the quantity of goods produced per unit of time.

productive forces- means of production (object of labor and tools of labor) + labor power.
Relations of production- the relationship of people in the production process

Proletariat- hired workers deprived of the means of production

Duty- this is a special state tax on goods bought abroad

workingforce- people with their skills, abilities and abilities.
Disposition- the ability to change the purpose and ownership.

Revolution- a revolution in the life of society, which leads to the elimination of the former social and political system and the establishment of a new government

Religious norms- norms, which include the rules of conduct contained in the texts of sacred books or established by religious organizations.
Religion( 1) - a set of certain myths, dogmas, cult and ritual actions, as well as religious institutions.
Religion(2) - a system of views, which is based on the concept of sacred, holy.
Religion(З) - one of the forms of adaptation of a person to the world around him, the satisfaction of his spiritual needs, characteristic of culture.

Religion (4) - faith and worship of fictional, supernatural beings (gods, spirits, etc.)

Market- the totality of all relations, as well as forms of organizations and cooperation of people with each other, related to the sale of goods and services.
Market economy An economic system in which the decision about what, how and for whom to produce is the result of the interaction of sellers and buyers in the market.
self-education- acquisition of knowledge through self-study, without the help of a teacher.
self-knowledge- knowledge of the personality of its own capabilities, qualities.
Self-realization- implementation of goals, plans, ideas, projects that are significant for a person.
Liberty- the independence of social and political subjects (including individuals), expressed in their ability and ability to make their own choices and act in accordance with their interests and goals.
Human freedom- a legalized opportunity to act in accordance with one's will, the absence of constraints, restrictions on human activity.

Own- the relationship between a person or a group of people on the one hand, and objects and things on the other.
Estates- large groups of people who have certain rights and obligations that are inherited.
Socialization- the process of influence of society and its structures on individuals throughout their lives, as a result of which people accumulate social experience of life in a particular society, become individuals (i.e., the formation of a personality).
social mobility- the possibility of a person moving from one social level to another, from one group to another.
social role- some pattern of behavior recognized
appropriate for people of a given status in a given society.
social sanction- the reaction of society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation.
social stratification(structure) - the stratification and hierarchical organization of various strata of society, as well as the totality of institutions and relationships between people.
social norms- rules established in society, patterns, standards of human behavior that regulate social life.
social rights- the right to well-being and a decent life.

social status- this is a position in society associated with a certain set of rights and obligations.

Demand- is the quantity of goods of a certain type that the buyer is willing to buy at a certain price level; the desire and ability of the consumer to buy a specific product at a specific time and in a specific place
Price- the amount of costs invested in the product.
strata- large groups of people differing in their position in the social structure of society.
Judgment- a form of thought in which a connection is established between individual concepts and with their help something is affirmed or denied.

Type (essence) of the state- a set of the most important aspects, properties and relations of the state, generated by a specific historical era and reflecting its essence
Labor activity- a form of human activity aimed at transforming the natural world and creating material wealth.

inference- obtaining new judgments based on existing ones by using the laws of logical thinking.
Level of division of labor- distribution of functions between the participants of the labor process.
Fatalism- considers every human action as an inevitable realization of the original predestination, excluding free choice.
Stock market- stocks and bods market.

State form - ways of organizing and exercising power in the country: form of government, form of government, form of political regime
Formation- a historically defined type of society, considered in the organic interconnection of all its aspects and spheres, arising on the basis of a certain method of production of material goods.
Policy Features- a set of processes expressing its purpose in society.

State functions- the main directions of its activity, expressing the essence of the state and corresponding to the main tasks of a certain historical stage of development
Target- the ideal image of the result.
Price- monetary value.

Value- positive or negative significance of objects of the surrounding world for a person, group, class, society
Civilization( 1) - the level, stage of development of society, material and spiritual culture, following barbarism, savagery.

Civilization( 2) - qualitative specificity (originality of material, spiritual, social life), a particular group of countries, peoples at a certain stage of development.
Human- a being belonging to the human race (HOMO SAPIENS).
Economy- a system of social production, that is, the process of creating material goods necessary for human society for its normal development and existence (industry, agriculture, financial system, trade).
Economic rights- legitimized opportunities for free disposal of the means of production, labor and consumer goods.
Experiment- a method of studying phenomena, which is carried out under strictly defined conditions, and the latter can, if necessary, be recreated and controlled by the subject of knowledge (scientist).

Empirical description- fixing information with language signs or other sign forms.
ethnic groups(peoples) - large groups of people, distinguished on the basis of a common culture, language, consciousness of the indissolubility of historical destiny.
Efficiencylabor- cost/result.

Definition of social science term- very simple and obvious from the name itself. This is a complex of disciplines that study various aspects of human society. Simply put, social science is the science of society, and in this definition - everything that can be meant by this. In fact, this science intersects with many others, such as sociology, social psychology, history, political science, jurisprudence, philosophy, and others.

History of social science.

The first works in the history of social science, which at that time did not yet have a definite name, appeared in ancient Greece. Plato came up with his doctrine of a just society, somewhat reminiscent of modern works on socialism, and Aristotle came up with the concept of "democracy", which is now familiar even to first graders. Among other public and political figures, Nicolo Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, Karl Marx and others made their contribution to the development of social science. The ideas of many of them by modern standards were quite radical. Machiavelli, for example, is famous for his idea that the end justifies the means, and Voltaire believed that the poor were born to work for the rich, and this is the ideal society. However, all these works have had an impact on society and therefore on our subject.

Social science as a school subject.

Social science as a school subject in our country appeared in the 60s of the last century under the name of social science. Since then, it has continued to be taught, studied and developed. Social science is included in the list of subjects approved by Rosobrnadzor for Unified State Exam (USE).

Conclusion.

Social science does not give everything answers to questions about the individual and society. This is done by more specific sciences, such as psychology, sociology or jurisprudence, but our subject summarizes the knowledge of these sciences, forms a complete picture and gives direction for further study and research.

A significant part of those who took the exam in social science in 2018, as statistics and methodological analysis show, have difficulty formulating their thoughts in written assignments. Are you one of them? “He who thinks clearly, expresses clearly!” We are launching a new page of our project - social science dictionary.

Learn to formulate social science terms with us!

We are ready to help you with the wording! We have already pointed out the need to begin the analysis of each topic of the Unified State Examination in social science with key terms and concepts. Our dictionary will help you with this. What is it for? In order not to think abstractly, in order to see ready-made formulations in test tasks, in order to clearly decide task 1 (previously 22), For example.

Agree, without knowing the basic terms, it will be extremely difficult to cope with this task. Don't know the answer? Open our dictionary! Answer MAJORITY.

Task 1 USE 2019

It is clear that the term will be from and it will be determined by one of it (since there is an example).

For a better understanding of the terms, develop your own system of the most simple, close to reality and memorable definitions. Each definition can be built on a close term (sphere of values) and its function (property) − regulating.

Task 1 USE 2019

So, remember, synonym + difference, function.

Your 300 Spartan terms at the USE 2019 in social studies!

We are constantly working to replenish our vocabulary, as we understand how important it is for a graduate to master the conceptual apparatus, which he will simply need for the exam in social studies. If you look at the criteria for checking any task, you will see that essential and conceptual errors entail a decrease in USE scores. Therefore, our vocabulary is growing. Now it is already made up of over 600 terms USE formulated for you in social studies.

Formulate the terms yourself!

One of the keys to successful preparation for the exam in social studies is the maximum independence of your preparation. we do not encourage you to memorize the terms of our dictionary dogmatically! He will not be with you at the exam, but in a situation, memory can fail. Learn to think for yourself!

Our subscribers ask that the independent formulation of basic concepts can lead to an error.

Vitaly 06.03.2014
Hello. What if I formulate a term and it's wrong? After all, it is known that retraining is more difficult.

However, it seems to us that the independence of thinking on the exam is the main thing! I propose to look at a few examples where knowledge (or, conversely, ignorance, inability to formulate independently) of the term had a decisive influence on getting it. So, let's see the work of graduates!

Before you is a complex theoretical task 25. Here, it is precisely the graduate's competence to think in scientific terms that is tested. Moreover, if you formulate the term itself incorrectly, then for two further sentences supplementing it, even if they are correctly written, you get 0 (A the maximum score here is 3!).

An example of an error in the term on the exam, task 25

The error is in the definition. For example, in the activities of the peasant on the ground not aimed at generating income, but only to satisfy their needs. And this is something without which no economy is possible. Most likely, this element of the answer was not counted. For example, in our dictionary we give the following definition:

production factor- a resource used by the subject of economic relations to create a product and generate income.

And here is the opposite example. Graduate, subscriber of our public

Absolutism- a form of feudal state in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power.

Abstract- 1) abstract, cut off from life; 2) purely theoretical.

advice- notification of changes in the state of mutual settlements sent by one counterparty to another; associated with the movement of funds from one account to another.

Autonomy- the right of independent exercise of state power or government, granted by the constitution of any part of the state.

Holdings– 1) assets by which payments are made and obligations are repaid; 2) the bank's funds in foreign currency, which are on its account in foreign correspondent banks.

Adaptation- adaptation to changing conditions.

Acceptance- in civil law - consent to conclude an agreement on the terms specified in the proposal (offer).

excise tax- a type of indirect tax on consumer goods and services, which is included in the price of goods or fees for services.

Shareholding- in modern Russia, one of the methods of privatization is through the issuance of shares (securities) for the fixed assets of an enterprise with the subsequent transfer (paid or free) of these shares into the hands of private individuals; A share gives its owner the right to receive a portion of the profits.

Altruism- unselfish concern for the welfare of others, as opposed to selfishness.

Depreciation - the cost of replacing worn-out equipment in production, transport, etc.

Anarchism- a current of social thought that denies the existence of any state.

Anathema- Church curse, excommunication.

Animism- Belief in the existence of spirits and souls. Primitive people have faith in the universal animation of nature.

Annexation- forcible annexation by one state of the territory (or part thereof) of another state.

Anomie- the state of public consciousness, characterized by the decomposition of the value system due to the general crisis of the state or society.

antisemitism- a form of national intolerance, expressed in a hostile attitude towards Jews, infringement of their legal and social rights.

Antiscientasm- a sharp criticism of science and technology, which are not able to "ensure" social progress, improve the quality of people's lives.

Anthropic principle- the argument "We see the Universe like this, because only in such a universe could an observer, a person" arise, stating why in the Universe we observe there are a number of non-trivial relationships between various fundamental physical parameters that can lead to the formation of intelligent life.

Anthroposociogenesis- the transition from the biological form of the movement of matter to the socially organized one, its content is the emergence and formation of social patterns, the restructuring and change of the driving forces of development that determined the direction of evolution.

Rent- use of the property of another owner") for a certain period and on certain conditions.

Artel- association of persons of certain professions for joint work with participation in common income and common responsibility.

Artifact- an object made by man. part of material culture. Artificial versus natural.

Asceticism- extreme degree of abstinence, renunciation of life's blessings.

Assimilation- ethnic absorption, the dissolution of one people in another or in several peoples (it also has other meanings).

Atheism- a worldview position based on the denial of the existence of God.

Attribute- a necessary, essential property of something or someone.

Affiliation- the accession of an enterprise, firm to another, larger enterprise.

Basis- the economic structure of society, the totality of production relations corresponding to a certain stage of development of the productive forces. The term was introduced by K. Marx.

Unemployment- a socio-economic phenomenon, when part of the economically active population does not find a job and becomes "superfluous". According to the definition of the International Labor Organization (ILO) - International Labor Organization (ILO), an unemployed person is anyone who is currently unemployed, looking for a job and ready to start it, i.e. only the person who is officially registered at the labor exchange.

"White collars"- workers employed in automated production, scientific and applied development, as well as in the field of information.

Benefit- an event, the collection from which is almost or completely in favor of one or more participants.

Unconscious- a theoretical construct denoting mental processes in respect of which there is no subjective control. The unconscious is everything that does not become the subject of special actions for awareness. The experimental development of the concept of the unconscious was started by Z. Freud, who showed that many actions in the implementation of which a person is not aware of have a meaningful character and cannot be explained through the action of instincts. He considered how this or that motivation is manifested in dreams, neurotic symptoms, in creativity. In the future, the concept of the unconscious was significantly expanded.

Biosphere- area of ​​distribution of life on Earth.

Bipolar system of international relations- a system based on the confrontation between the two superpowers and the military-political blocs created by them - for example, NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

Broker- a kind of stock market speculators. Intermediary in transactions between buyers and sellers of securities.

Budget- a financial plan that summarizes income and expenses for a certain period of time (most often - for a year).

Valvation- Determining the value of any value, a work of art, or determining the ratio of the value of foreign currency in comparison with domestic.

Currency is the currency of a country.

Currency corridor- in 1995 - 1998 government-established limits on the fluctuation of the exchange rate of a given country in relation to the currencies of other countries.

Verdict- during a court hearing, a judgment as to whether the defendant is guilty or innocent.

Power- influence based on law or tradition, i.e. non-physical influence exerted by some people on others. There are many types of power: moral, economic, political, spiritual, scientific, military, and so on.

military dictatorship- a form of coup d'état carried out with the direct participation of the military and with their subsequent coming to government.

Military Industrial Complex (MIC)- an alliance of the system of national military production and political forces interested in its gradual development.

Voluntarism- arbitrary political decisions that ignore objective laws, real conditions and opportunities.

Globalization- the historical process of rapprochement of nations and peoples, gradually erasing traditional boundaries and turning humanity into a single system.
Epistemology- the philosophical science of cognition, its boundaries and basic principles.

coup d'état- violent change of power in the country bypassing the current legislation.

State- the political organization of a given country, including a certain type of regime of power (monarchy, republic, etc.), bodies and structure of government (government, parliament).

Civil society- one of the phenomena of modern society, a set of social formations (groups, collectives), united by specific interests (economic, ethnic, cultural, and so on), implemented outside the sphere of state activity and allowing control over the actions of the state machine.

Deviation- the so-called "deviant behavior", the deviation of a person in his actions or habits from generally accepted norms. May be harmful to society.
Disintegration- disintegration, dismemberment of the whole into its component parts.

Declaration- an official statement of a person, organization or state; Usually, in the form of a declaration, the principles of community life, foreign and domestic policy, the program provisions of political parties, and so on are proclaimed.

Decree- a normative act of the state or government, an important law.

Demilitarization- destruction of military installations: prohibition to have military bases and troops.

Denationalization- transfer of state property to private ownership.

Denomination- consolidation of the country's monetary unit in order to streamline monetary circulation.

Denunciation- refusal of one of the parties to fulfill the contract.

Money- the universal equivalent of value, a means of implementing exchange relations in society.

Deportation- forced exile, exile.

Dealers- exchange speculators who sell retail products purchased in bulk.

discourse(French discours, English discourse, from Latin discursus 'running back and forth; movement, circulation; conversation, conversation') the process of language activity; way of speaking. An ambiguous term in a number of humanities, the subject of which directly or indirectly involves the study of the functioning of the language - linguistics, literary criticism, semiotics, sociology, philosophy, ethnology and anthropology.

Dissident- a person who does not share the dominant ideology and policy of the authorities, a dissident.

distortion- (from Latin distortio - “curvature”) a gap in changes in economic values, the evolution of which must correspond to a certain ratio between them.

Doctrine- a scientific or philosophical theory, a system of guiding theoretical or political principle.

Grant- appropriations from the state budget to cover the losses of enterprises, firms, financial support for the military industry, infrastructure sectors, etc.

natural law- a set of principles, rights and values, due to the very nature of man and not dependent on social conditions, state institutions and existing legal norms. The eternal inalienable right of the individual, having a moral nature and the character of an absolute value.

closed society- a society where social movements from lower to higher strata are either completely prohibited or significantly limited.

Wage- the price for the work of an employee, measured per unit of time; calculated at a certain rate multiplied by the amount of time worked.

A game- a type of activity aimed at meeting the needs for entertainment, pleasure, stress relief, as well as the development of certain skills and abilities. A game is also called a form of free self-expression of a person that is not associated with the achievement of a utilitarian goal and brings joy in itself.

Identification- recognition of identity, identification, communion; in sociology and social psychology, the process of emotional and other self-identification of a person with another person, group, model.

Hierarchy- arrangement of parts of the whole in order from highest to lowest; the order of subordination of the lower (ranks, titles, positions, etc.) to the higher categories.

Suffrage- a set of legal norms that establish the procedure for electing the head of state, representative bodies, etc.

Investments- long-term capital investment in the economy.

Individuality- 1) a combination of psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality, difference from other people; 2) a manner, method, style, method, etc., that sharply distinguishes a given representative of a kind of activity from others.

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in all sectors of the national economy, and above all in industry.

industrial society- a society in which the process of creating a large, technically developed industry that prevails over agriculture has been completed.

Intelligentsia- the social stratum of people who, as a rule, have a higher education and are professionally engaged in mental, mostly complex, creative work.

Intervention- violent intervention of one or several states in the internal affairs of other countries and peoples; it can be military (aggression), economic, diplomatic, ideological.

Inflation- a fall in the purchasing power of money, their depreciation associated with an excess of money supply and a lack of consumer goods.

Capital- state, a set of material values ​​(can act as movable or immovable property).

Capitalism - socio-economic formation based on private ownership of the means of production and exploitation of wage labor by capital (replaces feudalism).

Cartel- a form of association of firms, companies, banks that agree on the size of production, markets, prices, while maintaining production independence.

Category- any concept that is “extremely general” or close to it; a concept with great power (volume). In dialectical logic, a category (logical category) is understood as a concept that reflects the sequential stage of formation of any specific whole (respectively, the process of its spiritual and theoretical reproduction).

In metaphysics categories being or just categories called different ways of being. One of the most abstract areas of modern mathematics, category theory, uses the term "category" as its basic term. It is argued that this term was used by its authors in connection with the terminology of Immanuel Kant.

Cybernetics- the science of the general patterns of management processes and information transfer.

Clause- a condition, clause or separate provision, clause of a contract, law.

Clerical- associated with the church, striving to provide religion with a primordial role in society.

coalition government- government formed from representatives of various parties.

Coalition- union.

collaborationism- voluntary cooperation with the political regime imposed from outside by force, with the occupiers.

Colonization- settling, development of empty lands.

Comprador- a local merchant, mediating between foreign capital and the national market of a developing country.

Convention- an international agreement on any special issue, which is binding on the states that have acceded to it (signed, ratified).

Conversion (in economics)- transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of civilian products.

Convertibility (currencies)- unhindered exchange of banknotes of one country for banknotes of another.

Bill of lading- a receipt given by the agent of the transport company to the consignor that the goods have been accepted for transportation, and containing the obligation to release the goods at the destination

Consolidation- rallying individuals, groups, organizations to enhance activities.

Constitution(from Latin constitutio “device”) - a regulatory legal act of the highest legal force of a state or a state-territorial entity in a federal state, fixing the foundations of the political, legal and economic systems of a given state or entity, the foundations of the legal status of an individual.

Contribution- payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.

Counterculture- a specific type of subculture. From the point of view of cultural studies, counterculture is a current within the framework of traditional culture, which is directed against certain values ​​of traditional culture.

Concentration camp- a place of isolation of prisoners of war, prisoners.

Foreign policy concept- a system of views on the place and role of the country in the world and the tasks arising from this in the international arena.

Concern- a form of association of enterprises that formally retain their independence, but are actually subordinate to centralized financial control and management.

confession- religion.

conformism- consent, reconciliation, adaptation to the prevailing views and moods.

Confrontation(French confrontation, from Latin cum - together, against and frons, genitive frontis - forehead, front), confrontation, opposition (social systems, class interests, ideological and political principles, etc.); collision.

Production concentration- an increase in the number of large enterprises in individual regions and the concentration in them of most of the productive forces of society.

Concession- an agreement on the transfer to operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state; also means an enterprise organized on the basis of such an agreement.

Counter-reforms- reforms aimed at returning to the old order.

Cooperation- a form of organization of production and labor, based on the group ownership of the members of the cooperative, the connection between enterprises engaged in joint production.

Co-optation- the introduction of new members to an elected collegial body by its own decision, without holding additional elections.

Corruption- criminal use by officials of the rights and powers entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment.

Cosmopolitanism- an ideological trend that preaches the rejection of national traditions, culture and patriotism, putting forward the ideas of a world state, world citizenship.

In the late 1940s this concept was used as a political accusation of unpatriotic behavior and way of thinking.

Cult of personality- exaltation of the role of one person, attributing to him during his lifetime a determining influence on the course of historical development.

latifundia- large land holdings (more than 500 acres in size).

Legality- this is a strict compliance with the officially existing law. If we compare a specific political or legal case with the norms of the law, we can unambiguously decide whether it is legal or illegal. If something is not against the law, then it is legal, and if it is, then it is illegal.

legitimacy(from lat. legitimus - consonant with the laws, legal, lawful) - the consent of the people with the government, when it voluntarily recognizes its right to make binding decisions. The lower the level of legitimacy, the more often the authorities will rely on coercion.

Personal consumption- the use of income to acquire goods in order to satisfy needs.

Personality in politics- the subject of conscious purposeful activity, expressing and realizing the interests of political forces in unity with their own interests, integrating them into a single whole (state, party, socio-political, international political, etc.). Unlike other spheres of public life, in which a person can realize his interests as individual ones, in politics a person realizes them as an element of some general, i.e. political, interests.

Personal income- household income after taxes used for consumption and savings.

personal status- the position occupied by a person in a small, or primary, group, depending on how he is assessed by his individual qualities.

Lobby- organized groups in the legislature, exerting pressure (up to bribery) on legislators and government officials in order to make the necessary decisions.

Lockout(eng. lock out, literally - to lock the door in front of someone, not to let it in), one of the forms of the class struggle of the bourgeoisie against the working class, expressed in the closing of their enterprises by the capitalists and the mass dismissal of workers to exert economic pressure on them. Through L., entrepreneurs try to prevent a strike that is being prepared or to suppress a strike that has already begun.

lumpen proletariat- declassed strata of society: vagabonds, beggars, criminal elements.

Majoritarian system- the procedure for determining the results of voting, in which the candidate (or list of candidates) who receives the majority of votes in the constituency is considered elected.

Majorat- transfer of power and property from father to eldest son.

Macroeconomics- a section of economic theory that studies the functioning of the economy as a whole as an integral system.

Outcasts- 1) boundary layers in society; 2) people who left their social group and did not join the values ​​of another.

Marketing- a way of managing enterprises, involving careful and active consideration of demand factors.

Marxism- a philosophy and political movement based on the belief in the inevitability of the death of capitalism and the victory of communism as a result of the class struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie, which must end in a social revolution.

international trade- exchange of goods and services between national economic economies.

interpersonal conflict- a kind of conflict, which is based on a divergence of goals and interests between communicating subjects, or contradictions that arise in relations between them.

Measure- 1) expression of the dialectical quality and quantity of an object; 2) proportionality, which underlies the rhythm, the harmony of the melody in music, the ensemble in architecture, etc.

Metaphysics- a way of cognition, when things and phenomena are considered as unchanging and independent of each other.

Method- way to achieve the goal; a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical development of reality.

Methodology- the science of the principles of construction, forms And methods of scientific knowledge; a set of rules of scientific thinking, techniques and means of reflecting the laws of the objective world.

Microeconomics- a section of economic theory that studies the economic activity of subjects: households and firms, as well as the interaction of these subjects in the process of formation of larger structures - markets.

Modernization- updating the foundations of society through various innovations and improvements.

Monarchy- a form of government in the state, the head of which is the monarch as a sole person with full power, which is inherited.

Monogamy- monogamy, the historical form of marriage and family.

Monopoly- such a situation in the market when an individual producer occupies a dominant position and controls the market and the price of this product.

Monopsony- such a situation in the market when there is only one buyer.

Morality(Latin moralis - concerning mores) - one of the main ways of normative regulation of human actions.

Morality covers moral views and feelings, life orientations and principles, goals and motives for actions and relationships, drawing a line between good and evil, conscience and shamelessness, honor and dishonor, justice and injustice, norm and abnormality, mercy and cruelty, etc.

motive- a conscious impulse that determines the action to satisfy any human need; the motivating cause of a person's behavior and actions, arising under the influence of his needs and interests and representing the image of the good desired by a person.

Thinking- a set of mental processes underlying cognition; Thinking refers to the active side of cognition: attention, perception, the process of associations, the formation of concepts and judgments. In a closer logical sense, thinking includes only the formation of judgments and conclusions through the analysis and synthesis of concepts. Thinking is a mediated and generalized reflection of reality, a type of mental activity, which consists in knowing the essence of things and phenomena, regular connections and relationships between them.

superstructure- in Marxist theory - the sphere of social practice, depending on the economic basis of society and including: culture, law, morality, philosophy, science, politics, etc.

Tax- obligatory, gratuitous payment collected from individuals and legal entities in order to ensure the activities of the state.

Naturalization is the acquisition of foreign citizenship in a country.

Nationalism- ideology, politics, psychology and social practice of isolation and opposition of one nation to another, based on the ideas of national superiority, national exclusivity.

national violence- suppression or belittling of the interests of the nation, the forms of which are the infringement of the rights of the nation, the prohibition and persecution of religion, culture, language, traditions.

Non-tariff barriers- barriers (with the exception of import duties) that restrict international trade: import quotas, special licenses, sanitary passports.

Nominal wages- the amount of money that employees receive.

Nominal income- the amount of money received by individuals during a certain period.

Noosphere- the sphere of interaction between nature and society, within which reasonable human activity becomes the main determining factor in development.

Rule of law- established (sanctioned) by the state and protected by it from possible violations, a universally binding, formally defined rule for the behavior of people as participants in recurring social relations regulated by this rule, which provides them with legal rights and obligations.

Regulatory act- an act of lawmaking issued in the prescribed manner by the competent authorities of the state, containing legal norms.

Political norms- rules of political behavior, expectations and standards, prohibitions and regulations governing the political activities of individuals and social groups V in accordance with the values ​​of the respective political culture, strengthening the stability and unity of the political system of society. In politics, as in any other social activity, there is also a measure, that is, a reasonable limit of what is acceptable. This measure is determined by the interests of security and stable development of society. Political norms are the "rules of the game" in politics.

Bond- a security that gives its holder income in the form of a percentage of its face value or the opportunity to win.

Lifestyle- forms of human (individual and group) life activity, typical for a historically specific society.

Communication- 1) specific interpersonal interaction of people as members of society, representatives of certain social groups; 2) a type of activity in which there is an exchange of ideas, emotions.

public consciousness- a set of views and opinions of people about the subject, content and form of existence of a particular sphere of social practice. Social consciousness at the everyday practical level manifests itself as social psychology, and at the scientific and theoretical level - as an ideology.

Society- a relatively stable system of social ties and relations between people isolated from nature, formed in the process of historical development on the basis of joint activities aimed at reproducing the material conditions of existence and satisfying needs.

Civil Society- a system of non-state and non-political institutions and relations in society.

An object- that which opposes the subject, that to which the subject-practical and cognitive activity of a person is directed. The object of activity can be nature as a whole or its individual aspects, as well as various spheres of human life.

Object in policy- part of the political system, reality, which is included in the scope of the political subject And to which its activities are directed; and the subject is the source of conscious and purposeful political activity.

ecumene- (from Greek) part of the globe inhabited by humans.

Oligarchy- the power of few; power held by a small handful of rich people; the ruling group itself.

Oligopoly- 1) division of the market between several largest companies; 2) a market situation where a few large firms own the market.

Ontology- the doctrine of being, a branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental principles of being, being.

Fundamentals of the constitutional order- the basic, fundamental principles of the organization of the state, the implementation of which ensures its functioning as a constitutional state.

Responsibility- awareness of the objective conditions and the subjectively set goal, the need to choose a method of action to achieve this goal.

open society- a society with a dynamic social structure. One of the types of society in different classifications. The concept of an open society was originally created by the philosopher Henri Bergson. It was then developed in detail by Karl Popper, who combined the philosophy of the open society with his philosophy of scientific rationality.

public relations- material and spiritual relations that arise between people in the course of their life.

Relations are political- the relationship and interaction between people about political power, management and regulation of political interests; are a mechanism for the stability of the state system.

Ochlocracy- the power of the crowd instead of the power of the people.

political parties- voluntary organizations of people who are united by common goals and actions, the desire to possess political power, or to participate V it, in order to realize the interests of certain classes and social groups; arise in order to express the interests of a particular social group and the realization of these interests with the help of political power.

Partocracy- the power of the party apparatus.

Permutations- the movement of values ​​that does not change the balance sheet; There are active and passive permutations.

Planned Economy- an economic system in which the economic activity of all entities is built in accordance with a single plan, which is developed by special state bodies.

Plebiscite- expression of the will of the population by popular vote.

Plutocracy- the power of a handful of rich people.

Pluralism- 1) a philosophical concept that recognizes several or many principles and types of being; 2) the exercise of political power by opposing and balancing political parties, trade unions, religious, peasant and other organizations.

Behavior- a set of actions and deeds of an individual.

Aggressive behavior- an action, an act aimed at causing moral, physical and other damage (up to complete destruction) to another being or object.

Antisocial behavior- behavior characterized by the denial of social norms and values ​​accepted in society.

Regulations- regulatory legal acts of the competent state bodies and local self-government bodies, which are based on the law, cannot contradict it and are issued in pursuance of the law.

Polygamy- polygamy, one of the forms of marriage and family.

Policy- relations between large social groups about political power.

Use of property- operating the means of production in the production process.

concept- the unity of essential properties, connections and relations of objects or phenomena reflected in thinking; a thought or a system of thoughts that singles out and generalizes objects of a certain class according to certain general and, in the aggregate, specific features for them.

Needs- the objective need of people for something objectively necessary for the maintenance of life, the development of the organism, the personality, requiring satisfaction.

Human rights and freedoms- the natural possibilities of the individual, ensuring his life, human dignity and freedom of activity in all spheres of public life. Human rights and freedoms, in accordance with the generally accepted classification, are divided into socio-economic, political, civil, cultural, personal.

Offense- a socially dangerous unlawful act committed by a delinquent subject and entailing legal liability.

Legal capacity- the ability of the subject to have rights and legal obligations.

Pragmatism- 1) a direction in philosophy that considers the usefulness of concepts, views, ideas, their practical results to be the criterion of truth; 2) direction in politics, focused on achieving immediate benefits, ignoring the moral content and long-term consequences of actions.

Offer- the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity that sellers are willing and able to sell.

The subject of labor- what a person influences in the manufacture of the products he needs.

Entrepreneurial ability- a set of abilities inherent in individuals with access to the means of production; abilities realized in conditions of risk, uncertainty and instability of economic development.

Entrepreneurship- the initiative activity of economic entities that take on the risk, aimed at making a profit.

The president- the head of state elected for a certain period in most countries with a republican form of government.

Presumption- recognition of a fact as legally reliable until proven otherwise.

Prime Minister- head of government, council or cabinet of ministers in a number of countries.

Prestige- a comparative assessment by a social community or group and its members of the significance of various social objects on the basis of a certain system of values.

Crime- a committed guilty socially dangerous act (action or inaction), prohibited by the Criminal Code under the threat of punishment.

preferences- special benefits granted by one state to another on the basis of reciprocity or unilaterally, without extending to third countries.

Precedent- a court decision made in a specific case and binding on similar cases subsequently.

Profit- 1) excess of income from the sale of goods or services over production costs; 2) the difference between the cost of producing a product and the selling price.

Privilege- an exclusive right, an advantage granted to someone.

Nature- a set of natural and historical conditions for the existence of man and human society; all forms of motion of matter.

Forecasting social- obtaining knowledge about the future of society, about what is not yet in reality, based on objective and subjective prerequisites for the expected course of events, based on the use of extrapolation methods, historical analogy, computer modeling, creating scenarios for the future, expert assessment.

political program- a document that establishes the main goals and objectives of the state, party, political organization, determines the ways and methods of achieving them.

Progress- a type of development of society, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from simple to complex, from less perfect to more perfect.

Labor productivity- the volume of products produced per unit of time.

productive forces- the means of production and the people who put them into action, thanks to labor skills, knowledge and production experience.

Production funds- investment resources or capital goods in the form of money used by the firm in its business activities.

Production- the process of creating material goods and services in order to meet needs.

Promiscuity- the stage of unrestricted relations between the sexes, which preceded the establishment in human society of any norms of marriage and the family.

proportional system- the procedure for determining the results of voting, in which the distribution of seats among the parties participating in the elections is carried out in accordance with the number of votes received by them in percentage terms.

Protectionism- state policy aimed at protecting the interests of domestic producers by establishing barriers to free international trade.

Protestantism- one of the three main directions in Christianity, which is a collection of numerous churches and sects, connected by their origin with the Reformation.

The process is political- a set of activities of political subjects guaranteed by law and covering all stages of the development of the political system.

Psychoanalysis- a psychological system proposed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Originating first as a method of treating neuroses, psychoanalysis gradually became the general theory of psychology. Discoveries made on the basis of the treatment of individual patients have led to a deeper understanding of the psychological components of religion, art, mythology, social organization, child development and pedagogy. Moreover, by revealing the influence of unconscious desires on physiology, psychoanalysis has made a significant contribution to understanding the nature of psychosomatic diseases.
Equality- formally equal attitude of all to rights and laws, as well as formally equal attitude of the law to all.

Radicalism- 1) resolute implementation of intentions, striving for a radical change in the existing situation; 2) a political trend advocating deep social, economic, political reforms.

Divorce- dissolution, termination of marriage during the life of the spouses.

Racism- the theory and political practice, asserting that there are "full" and "inferior" races and nations, in order to justify the policy pursued.

Rationalism- knowledge of the world around with the help of the mind.

Real wage- the amount of goods and services that can be purchased for nominal wages, taking into account changes in the price level.

Real income- the amount of goods and services that can be bought with disposable income during a certain period, i.e. adjusted for changes in the price level.

Revisionism- a trend in the labor movement that advocates a revision of the main provisions of Marxism: the theory of the class struggle, the relative and absolute impoverishment of the proletariat under capitalism, the social revolution as a way of transition to a new society.

Revolution- spasmodic qualitative change, a sharp transition from one qualitative state to another, a radical upheaval in the life of society.

Revolution social- a way of transition from the old society to the new, the signs of which are the transfer of power from the hands of one class to the hands of another, the change in the dominant mode of production and the political system of society.

Regalia- enterprises run by the state and serving as a source of state revenue (post, telegraph, metro).

political regime- designation of a set of means, methods and methods of exercising power in a given state, which characterizes it from a functional point of view.

religious morality- a system of moral ideas, rules, requirements, principles that regulate human behavior in his relationship with God, the sacred, the supernatural, as well as relations between people, based on religious faith and enshrined in the form of moral and religious commandments.

religious consciousness- a set of mental feelings, strong emotional experiences, perceptions, ideas, imaginations, illusions, reflections, ideas, teachings based on a sense of faith in the existence of God, the sacred, the supernatural, their relationship with the world, man and society.

Religious organizations- a social form of organization of people professing religion.

religious cult- spiritual and practical forms of relationship (reverence, worship) of a person to God, sacred, supernatural, transcendent in the form of rituals, ceremonies and other forms of religious practice based on certain religious ideas and traditions.

Religion- an illusory representation of the world around; people's ideas about the existence of God (gods, sacred, - supernatural) and the practice of human relations With them.

Renaissance- the Renaissance, falling on the XIV-XVII centuries. Accompanied by great discoveries and inventions, a revival of interest To ancient culture and human personality.

Rent- regularly received income on capital, government bonds, property or land, which does not require entrepreneurial activity from the recipient.

Profitability- cost effectiveness indicator, defined as the ratio of profit to one-time and current costs, due to which profit is obtained.

Republic- a form of government where collective government is carried out, separation of powers, the popular majority acts as a source of power when state bodies are elected.

Production resources- a set of natural, social and spiritual forces that can be used in the process of creating goods, services and other values.

Referendum- nationwide survey, revealing the opinion of the people on particularly important issues; direct and direct appeal to voters to resolve any political issue. The decisions of the referendum in themselves have the highest legal force and do not need any subsequent approval. In Russia, a referendum is appointed by the President of the Russian Federation and is held on the basis of equal universal and direct expression of will by secret ballot. Each referendum participant has one vote and votes personally. Participation in a referendum is free, control over the will of a citizen is not allowed, no one can be forced to express their opinions and beliefs or to renounce them. A referendum is a form of direct democracy.

Reflection- analysis by the subject of his consciousness and his attitude to life.

Reform- changing any aspect of public life while maintaining the foundations of the existing system; consciously carried out transformation aimed at changing, reorganizing any aspect of social life.

Reformation- a movement for a radical renewal of the Catholic Church, which took place in Western Europe in the 16th century.

Reformism- a political movement that advocates reforms as the main way to reorganize society.

Roman club- an international organization established in 1968 in Rome from representatives of business circles and leading scientists, engaged in research in the socio-economic field and social forecasting. One of the founders is a prominent scientist and public figure Aurelio Peccei (1908-1984)

Risk in business activity- probability of losses in comparison with the planned income.

Rochrematica- the science of managing material flows (goods, materials, etc.) using mathematical modeling. The goal is to cut costs.

Labor market- a set of social and labor relations regarding the hiring and use of workers in the production of goods and services.

Market economy- an economic system where the coordination of economic life is carried out on the basis of prices that are freely formed in the markets.

Sacral- sacred, relating to a religious cult and ritual, ceremonial.

self-knowledge- one of the types of cognitive activity of a person, aimed at understanding the inner world of a person, his own "I".

Self-realization- Realization of human potential.

Sanction- part of the legal norm, which specifies the legal consequences of violation of the law.

Saving- household cash remaining after using disposable income for consumption.

supernatural- something independent of nature and society, but capable of influencing them.

Liberty- one of the most important categories of philosophy, starting with Democritus, Plato and Aristotle. The ability of a person to think and act in accordance with his ideas and desires.

free will- a concept meaning the possibility of unimpeded internal self-determination of a person in the fulfillment of certain goals and objectives.

Freedom of conscience- the right of a person to think and act in accordance with his convictions without external coercion, his relative independence in moral self-assessment and self-control of his beliefs and actions.

freethinking- a broad spiritual movement based on the rights of the human mind to a free critical examination of religion, its ideas and ideas, religious practices, the activities of religious organizations and the actions of religious people.

Freedom of religion (worship)- permission by the laws of the state of activity in a society of various faiths, granting them equal rights and imposing on them equal duties, free, unhindered activity of religious people and associations, excluding violation of the laws of the country.

Family- a small social group based on marriage or consanguinity, whose members are connected by a common life, mutual assistance and moral responsibility.

incomplete family- one of the types of family structure, which includes children with one of the parents.

Sensationalism- direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensations, perceptions are the basis of knowledge.

Simulacrum- a phenomenon described and interpreted for the first time by Jean Baudrillard: this is an image without an original, a representation of something that does not really exist.

System- an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming an integral unity.

The system is political- a set of political subjects, their relationships based on political norms, consciousness, culture and political activity, the essence of which lies in the regulation of people's behavior through political power and political interests; a set of organizations and citizens interacting in the process of realizing their social interests through the functioning of government institutions.

Sculpture- a type of fine art, the works of which have a three-dimensional, three-dimensional shape and are made of solid or plastic materials.

catholicity- the concept of Russian philosophy, expressing "unity in the multitude", the Orthodox Church, as well as government and society, organically combine two principles: freedom and unity.

Own- a social form of appropriation of things, i.e. relations between people about the appropriation of goods.

Consciousness- a set of mental processes for a person's understanding of the world around him and his being.

Consciousness is public- views, ideas, ideas, various theories that reflect the views of society on the world around.

Solidarity- unity of beliefs and actions, mutual assistance and support of members of a social group based on common interests and the need to achieve common group goals, joint responsibility.

estate- a social group that has rights and obligations enshrined in law or custom.

social democracy- a political trend advocating the transformation of capitalist society through the strengthening of state regulation of the economy.

Socialization- the process of personality formation, assimilation by an individual of values, norms, attitudes, patterns of behavior inherent in a given society, social group, this or that community of people, as well as the realization of his capabilities and abilities.

Political socialization- the process of involving a person in politics, introducing him to political norms and values, developing an activist type of political behavior.

Socialism- a social system based on public ownership of the means of production, the principles of social justice, freedom and equality.

social group- a set of individuals united by some common feature: a common spatial and temporal existence, activity, economic, demographic, political and other characteristics.

Social differentiation- the process of development associated with the division of society into interrelated spheres, parts, elements.

social mobility- change in the position of an individual or group in the social structure of society.

social role- a set of norms that determine the behavior of individuals acting in the social system depending on their status, and the behavior itself that implements these norms.

social stratification- the presence in society of many social formations (strata), which differ in unequal attitude to power, material well-being, level of education, social prestige.

social structure- a set of interconnected and interacting social groups, social institutions and relations between them.

social being- the life of society associated with activities, the production of material goods, including the variety of relationships that people enter into in the process of life.

social norms- samples, performance standards, rules of conduct, the implementation of which is expected from a member of the society and supported by sanctions.

social conflict- clash of opposing interests, goals, views, ideologies between individuals, social groups, classes.

social status- a set of rights and obligations of an individual or a social group associated with the performance of a certain social role by them.

sociogenesis- the process of historical and evolutionary formation of society.

Sociology- the science of society as a whole, individual social institutions, processes and social groups.

Sport- a social phenomenon that arose at the dawn of the formation of a class society; an integral part of physical culture, a means and method of physical education, a system for organizing competitions in various physical exercises.

Capabilities- individual psychological characteristics, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain kind of activity.

Justice and Injustice- concepts that reflect the situation, corresponding or not corresponding to the essence and rights of a person.

Demand- the ratio between the price of a product and its quantity, which buyers are willing and able to purchase in a given product market for a certain time.

Means of production- objects of labor and means of labor in the aggregate.

Means of labor- that by means of which a person acts on the objects of labor and adapts them to satisfy his needs.

Marriage stability- stability, strength of marital relations.

Stagflation- the state of the economy, when there is a simultaneous decline in production, rising prices and unemployment.

The status of the individual is political- the position of an individual in the political system, which is characterized by a certain set of rights, freedoms and duties and is legally fixed (for example, in Chapter 2 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation "Rights and freedoms of man and citizen"). The political status of an individual determines his political role in society, i.e. human behavior associated with his place in a given political system and typical for persons of a given status in this system.

Subordination- 1) putting in order; 2) subordination of the younger to the elder; 3) enforcement of the rules of service discipline.

Subject- the one who performs the action has an activity directed at the object. The subject of activity can be a separate individual, a group of people, an organization or a state body. The actions of the subject can be directed at another person or at himself.

Subject and object in politics- in political science - reflective concepts denoting interaction in politics and showing the vector of its direction.

Subjectivism- 1) a theory that rejects an objective approach to reality, denies the objective laws of nature and society, absolutizes the role of the subject in various fields of activity, primarily in the process of cognition; 2) political subjectivism is characterized by decision-making based on arbitrary attitudes.

Subjective obligation- the type and measure of the proper or required behavior of a person, corresponding to the subjective right of another person by virtue of the instructions of the law.

subjective law- the type and measure of possible behavior of a participant in a legal relationship, provided by the state.

Sovereignty- 1) complete independence of the state from other states in foreign and domestic policy; 2) belonging of power to the people, nation.

Judgment- this is a form of thinking in which the connection between an object and its attribute or the relationship between objects is affirmed or denied, and which has the property of expressing either truth or falsehood.

succession- succession in law or inheritance.

Spheres of public consciousness - so-called "ideologies"; modern social philosophy distinguishes the following spheres of public consciousness: religion, science, philosophy, public morality, aesthetic sphere, economic sphere, political sphere, legal sphere.

scientism- worldview and methodological setting, extolling the role of science in the life of society, absolutizing science in history and culture.

Talent- outstanding abilities, a high degree of talent in any field.

Creation- 1) an activity that generates something qualitatively new, with signs of originality, originality and socio-historical uniqueness; 2) the cognitive and active ability of a person to create qualitatively new material and spiritual values.

Theater- a kind of art, a specific means of expression of which is a stage action that occurs in the process of playing an actor in front of the audience.

Temperament- a set of individual abilities that determine the dynamics of a person's mental activity.

Theocracy- a form of government in which power belongs to the clergy, the church.

Theory- a system of generalized knowledge, explanations of certain aspects of reality.

The theory of separation of powers in the state- the mode of functioning of political power in a democracy, which is designed to prevent its concentration in the hands of one person or body, which inevitably leads to forms of tyranny and despotism. The power is divided into legislative, executive and judicial.

Terror- a special form of political violence, characterized by extreme cruelty, the desire to achieve its goal by intimidating society, forcing fear into it.

Terrorism- violent actions with the aim of intimidating, suppressing political opponents, imposing a certain line of behavior on them.

Terrorism international- the spread of terrorist acts on a global scale with the aim of changing the domestic or foreign policy of certain states.

Terrorism is political- a set of particularly harsh forms and methods of political violence that are used to achieve their own, often non-political, goals.

Technique(ancient Greek τεχνικός from τέχνη - art, skill, skill) - a cultural phenomenon that has been inherent in human society for the past few thousand years - the general name for various devices, mechanisms and devices that do not exist in nature and are manufactured by man. The word "technique" also means "a way of making something" - for example, the technique of painting, the technique of growing potatoes, and so on.

Technocracy- a concept based on the belief that the future of mankind is associated with the widespread use of science and technology, advanced technologies; on the allocation of a special role in the society of technocrats - a social system engaged in the use of new equipment and technologies.

Product- an economic good that can satisfy any human need and is intended for exchange.

Tolerance- 1) the absence or weakening of the response to any adverse factor as a result of a decrease in sensitivity to its effects; the ability of a person to withstand various kinds of life difficulties without losing psychological adaptation;

2) respectful, tolerant attitude of people towards dissent;

3) tolerance for someone else's way of life, behavior, customs, feelings, beliefs, views.

Totalitarianism(from lat. totalis - whole, whole, complete; lat. totalitas - wholeness, completeness) - a political system that seeks complete (total) control of the state over all aspects of society.

Traditional economy- such an economic system in which decisions on the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods are made based on traditions and customs.

transcendent- "going beyond", i.e. transcending the boundaries of human experience and thought, linking the natural and the supernatural.

Trust(from English trust) - one of the forms of monopolistic associations, in which participants lose their industrial, commercial, and sometimes even legal independence. The real power in the trust is concentrated in the hands of the board or the parent company. The most widespread were in the late XIX - early. XX centuries.

Third World- countries that are not included in the number of industrialized states and are not related to socialist countries.

Work- expedient human activity aimed at transforming the substance of nature in order to meet human needs.

Human Resources part of the population of working age.

inference- reasoning, during which a new judgment is derived from one or more judgments, new knowledge is obtained.

Urbanization- increase in the proportion of the urban population and the spread of the urban lifestyle.

Unemployment rate- the proportion of the number of unemployed in the economically active population.

Utopian socialism- the doctrine of an ideal society based on the equality of its members, collective property and the obligation of labor for all.

Fact- a piece of reality that has already taken place.

falsification- a method of scientific knowledge developed by the German philosopher of the twentieth century K. Popper, declaring that scientific truth can claim high validity if it can be refuted, revised, as opposed to the dogmatization of scientific knowledge.

Fatalism- a direction that is characterized by the idea of ​​the world as a kind of mechanism, the work of which is subject to objective, i.e., independent of human consciousness, laws, which act as a necessity.

Fascism- 1) the nationalist, republican, anti-church and anti-capitalist movement that arose in 1919 in Italy around Mussolini; 2) political movements characterized by aggressive nationalism and racism, rejection of liberal values, democracy and market economy, hostility to social democracy and communism, adherence to violent methods of struggle; 3) one of the types of totalitarianism (in Italy and Germany).

Federation- a form of government in which state entities have a certain independence, their own administrative-territorial division, the presence of dual citizenship, legislation, a two-channel tax system, etc. There are two levels of state education in the federation: federal and republican. Republics may have their own constitutions, but they must not conflict with the federal constitution. The subjects of the federation have significant powers. Federations are divided into national and territorial, symmetrical and asymmetric.

Feudalism- a formation based on feudal ownership of land and the labor of peasants who are dependent on the owner of the land - the feudal lord, leading a small individual economy on the land of the feudal lord, performing various duties in favor of the feudal lord, the main of which are corvée and dues.

Philosophy- the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society and thought.

Stock market- the market in which transactions with securities are carried out.

Form of government- a way of organizing the supreme state power, the position of the bodies of which determines the difference between its two main forms: the monarchy and the republic. The concept of the form of government is also customary to include a system of relationships between the highest bodies of state power, the procedure for its formation, and interaction with civil society.

Form of territorial-state structure- administrative-territorial organization, the way of relationships, the scope of powers of the central and regional authorities. According to this criterion, the states are divided into unitary, federal and confederal.

Futurology- 1) general concept of the future of the Earth and mankind; 2) the field of scientific knowledge, covering the prospects of social processes.

Character- a set of relatively stable mental characteristics of a person that determine the typical way of behavior and activity for a given person, his attitude to the world and himself.

Charisma- 1) in religion - a mystical property, bestowed from above and distinguishing its owner from the mass of believers; 2) in politics - the possession of special charismatic (personal) qualities by a politician.

Choreography- the art of dance.

Junta- 1) the name of socio-political organizations and associations in Spanish-speaking countries; 2) a military group that seized power in the country.

Target- a subjective image of the desired result, "that for which" (Aristotle) ​​certain actions are taken.

Price- the value of the goods, expressed in money.

Values- social definitions of objects of the surrounding world, reflecting their positive or negative values ​​for a person and society.

Church- 1) specific social institution, type of religious organization; 2) a Christian religious building where services are held.

Cycles- Periodic fluctuations in economic activity.

Chauvinism- an ideology that preaches hostility, and often hatred for other peoples.

Evolution- the process of gradual changes in various spheres of public life.

selfishness- a moral quality inherent in a person who in his behavior is guided only by his own interests, ignoring the interests of society and others.

Egocentrism- a view that places the individual “I” of a person at the center of the entire universe, an extreme form of individualism and egoism.

Economic practice- a way of economic activity, embodied in economic theory, the result of the theory.

economic system- a way of interaction between economic entities, in accordance with which the problem of distribution of limited resources is solved in society.

Economic theory- the science of people's behavior in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods, services and information in conditions of limited resources and the multivariance of their use.

economic laws- established on the basis of practical experience, identified through scientific research, the most significant, stable, constantly recurring causal relationships and interdependencies in economic processes and phenomena.

The economic growth- an increase in the volume of goods and services created over a certain period of time.

Economic saving (accumulation)- financial investments (investments in shares, securities) or investments of money by the population (households) in banks in the form of deposits, i.e. their transfer to financial intermediaries who will use the accumulated funds for the development of the economy.

Export quota- the main indicator characterizing the country's involvement in international trade, showing the ratio of the value of exports to the value of the gross domestic product.

Expropriation- forced separation of the direct producer from the means of production.

Extremism- adherence in politics and ideas to extreme views and actions.

Extremism is political- orientation in the implementation of policy towards radical goals, ideas and means, the achievement of which is carried out by force, as well as by illegitimate and anti-legal methods.

Electorate- a set of citizens who have the right to participate in elections.

Elite- the highest, privileged stratum of society, performing the functions of management, development of science and culture.

Emission- issuance of money and securities into circulation.

Empiricism- knowledge of the world around with the help of sensory experience.

Aesthetics- 1) the science of the laws of aesthetic exploration of the world by man, the essence and forms of creativity according to the laws of beauty; 2) a science that studies the sphere of the aesthetic as a specific manifestation of the value relationship between man and the world, and the field of people's artistic activity.

Eschatology- a religious doctrine about the final destinies of the world and mankind, about the end of the world and the Last Judgment.

Ethnos- a community of people, characterized by specific cultural features that have developed over many centuries and are transmitted from generation to generation.

Efficiency- criterion of expediency of economic activity, assuming the ratio of costs and results.

Legal liability- a measure of state coercion, which is embodied in the obligation of the guilty person to undergo certain deprivations of a state-imperious nature provided for by law for an offense committed.

I-concept- a system of ideas of a person about himself. Within the framework of a single I-concept, its various components are distinguished:

1. I-physical as a scheme of one's own body;

2. I-social, correlated with the spheres of social integration: gender, ethnic, civil, role;

3. I-existential as an assessment of oneself in the aspect of life and death.