Relevance of the research: Until recently, one of the features of the Russian socio-cultural context was the situation of a sharp break in religious traditions that arose as a result of the radical atheism of the Soviet period. Over the past decades, this situation has changed significantly, and since the late 1980s, enough time has passed for many traditions to be restored, and religious institutions returned to their former functions. However, it is perhaps too early to speak about the complete overcoming of this gap. Ethnic groups, in whose traditional culture there is a great confessional component, still feel it in the intergenerational transmission of sacred knowledge, religious practices and their meanings, in the absence of religious socialization. In addition, involved in the dynamic transformation processes taking place in the context of globalization and modernization, such communities today are experiencing difficulties of a different plan.

In addition to the so-called "main" religions - Orthodoxy and Islam, as well as many "new" trends that have appeared in recent years, in the modern ethno-confessional mosaic of Russia, one can distinguish a group of traditional religions that are not widely spread today, but have played a significant role in Russian history. The latter include, in particular, the Old Believers. For objective reasons, such groups, which did not retain even a minimum base for growth during the Soviet period (clergy personnel, educational institutions, religious buildings) and did not enjoy external support, found themselves in a rather difficult situation. Their survival entirely depends only on internal adaptive resources and self-preservation mechanisms developed in the course of historical development.

Old Believer culture seeks to maximize the actualization of heritage, and tradition is the most important way of structuring collective experience. In the mental sphere, traditionalism is expressed in the use by Old Believers of the categories of mythologized (medieval) consciousness to explain historical realities and modern reality, a kind of interpretation of book texts, and the existence of utopian legends. This principle is clearly demonstrated by the high degree of preservation of the ancient forms of worship and accompanying attributes. Adherence to antiquity is observed in oral and musical folklore, in aesthetic preferences (canonical iconography and architectural types), in the archaic way of life and rituals of the life cycle, the abundance of Old Slavs in Old Believer dialects, etc.

As you know, due to the binary thinking of believers, the semantic series of “traditional” and “modern” are always value-matched, and therefore, in the collective consciousness, there is usually a certain ideal type of “ancient tradition” (synonymous with “pure”, “unclouded”), which in contact with modernity is threatened. The concept of "canon purity", sealed by sacred authority, underlies the self-determination of any religious institutions, and those for which traditionalism is of particular value associate this purity with the need to preserve the faith of ancestors. For them, the problem of finding new forms of translation of traditional norms in modern dynamic reality is on a par with the problem of self-preservation of the group as an integrity. Consequently, the absence of such an opportunity threatens them with the erosion of identity and the loss of selfhood. In this regard, the questions seem to be extremely topical: what are the mechanisms of such self-preservation, in what particular forms (practices) do they find their expression, and, finally, are they capable of ensuring the stable existence of such ethno-confessional formations today? It should be noted that the mechanisms of self-preservation in this work are understood as a set of unique states and processes, interdependent and in a certain subordination, aimed at maintaining group integrity and balance between the social system and the environment.

The aspects of the features of self-preservation of closed religious communities considered in this dissertation work as an object of research are of great scientific interest already due to their novelty and little study. So, in public opinion and among the majority of scientists, the Old Believers are defined only as a Russian religious movement. However, being one of the forms of Christianity, it was not an exclusively Russian phenomenon and was quite widespread among a number of Finno-Ugric and some Turkic peoples. On the territory of the Ural-Volga region, most of the non-Russian Old Believers were among the Mordovians and Komi-Permians, a small number among the Udmurts and Chuvashes. This is evidenced by various written sources, in particular, published materials of the All-Russian census of 1897. Similar groups with cultural specificity still exist and need comprehensive research. The penetration of the Old Believers into different ethnocultural environments undoubtedly influenced the existence of the environment itself, transformed it and introduced new elements. At the same time, it modified itself, pouring out into other forms in the process of adaptation to the real environment. The cultural specificity of the groups that adopted the Old Believers largely contributed to the selection of new subdivisions within ethnic groups (in the case of ethnographic groups of the Permian Komi - Yazvinsky and Zyuzdinsky). Today, the problem of self-preservation for such groups, which are under the threat of Russian assimilation, cannot be considered apart from the question of their confessional affiliation.

Thus, the consideration of the Old Believers as a phenomenon aimed at the reproduction of traditions precisely in different ethnocultural environments allows solving complex theoretical problems associated with the interaction, interpenetration and coexistence of ethnic cultures and identifying general patterns of self-preservation of traditional societies in a modernizing reality.

Purpose of the study: to identify the mechanisms of self-preservation of the Russian and Finno-Ugric Old Believer communities of the Ural-Volga region, ways of translating traditional values ​​and practices in them in a modern dynamic context. To increase the degree of representativeness of the study, the Old Believers' groups were studied among Russians, Mordovians, Komi-Permians (Yazvinsky and Zyuzdinsky), who did not go through the same path of historical development and have a pronounced specificity within the framework of their ethnocultural traditions.

This goal was achieved by solving the following specific tasks:

Coverage of the history of the formation and nature of the settlement of various ethnic groups of Old Believers (Russians, Mordovians, Chuvashes, Komi-Zyuzdins and Komi-Yazvins) in the Ural-Volga region, taking into account historical, geographical and socio-cultural factors;

Revealing the main circumstances, reasons and general patterns of the Old Believers' penetration into the foreign cultural environment;

Characteristics of external intergroup ties (the prevalence of mixed marriages, the nature of social, economic and household contacts with other religions), the degree of declared and real isolation of the Old Believer communities;

Analysis of existing socio-cultural stereotypes, appraisal and behavioral norms, everyday prescriptions and methods of their observance by modern Old Believers;

Determining the role of confessional symbols and everyday phenomena in maintaining group boundaries;

Revealing the degree of preservation of ancient forms of spiritual culture, the level of their leadership and ordinary members of Old Believer communities, methods of their intergenerational transmission (knowledge and observance of the canons, reading skills, hook singing, performance of spiritual poetry, etc.);

Consideration of the rites of passage (baptism and funeral and memorial complex) as a group marker and indicator of intercultural interactions;

Study of ways to regulate life and implement interactions of Old Believer communities within the framework of individual agreements;

Analysis of the internal structure of modern Old Believer communities (gender and age composition, hierarchy, status groups, leaders, social roles);

Consideration of traditional narrative forms and narrative structure of modern eschatological legends and historical prose, their interpretive and adaptive functions in the Old Believer culture.

The chronological framework of the study in the historical part of the work extends back to the end of the 17th century, that is, the time of the appearance of the Old Believers in the Volga-Ural region, but in general they cover the period from the middle of the 19th century. to the present day (2006), which is due to the possibility of using for this period an extensive corpus of archival and published sources, as well as the author's field material.

The territorial scope of the study includes two broad geographic areas. The first is outlined by the natural borders of the Southern Urals, which include the territories of the modern Republic of Bashkortostan, the Orenburg and part of the Chelyabinsk regions (the former Orenburg and Ufa provinces). Until recently, this region was little known in Old Believer historiography and was included only in isolated works on the history and culture of the entire Russian Old Believers. In addition, the Southern Urals, where peoples of East Slavic, Turkic and Finno-Ugric origin have long coexisted in close contact, is interesting for revealing the historical experience of adaptation of Old Believers in a foreign cultural and non-confessional environment. For more than ten years I have been collecting field and archival material about the South Ural Old Believers - Russians (in the bulk) and Mordovians.

The increasing complexity of research tasks and the need to attract additional materials on non-Russian Old Believers led to the expansion of the geographical scope of the study. Compact groups of Komi-Perm Old Believers are settled in the Middle Urals and the Urals - in the north of the Perm Territory (Krasnovishersky and Solikamsky Districts) and in the east of the Kirov Region (Afanasyevsky District). In addition, material on the Chuvash Old Believers settled in the Republic of Chuvashia (Shemurshinsky district) and Ulyanovsk region (Veshkayemsky district) was used. These territories were not isolated from each other and were connected through a network of skete centers of both local and all-Russian importance.

Theoretical approaches and research methodology. A characteristic feature of the development of domestic ethnological science at the present, post-Soviet stage has become a critical revision of its theoretical and methodological foundations, primarily the theory of ethnos and the nature of ethnicity. Numerous discussions on this matter were reflected in the pages of professional publications and author's monographs1.

The great openness in the expression of their own views by Russian scientists, and the availability of previously unknown foreign theoretical developments led, on the one hand, to the absence of a generally accepted system of terms and categories and the associated research difficulties, on the other, to the recognition of the ambiguity of the nature of the ethnic phenomenon and the impossibility of considering it within the framework of only one methodological model. According to D.A. Funka, “every researcher who literally grew up“ surrounded ”by established methods and methodologies, and trying to find his own way, inevitably finds himself outside the usual scientific paradigms, at least outside any one of them” 2.

Today, most researchers recognize the need for a reasonable integration of various scientific theories and concepts and the relevance of complex interdisciplinary methods. In this regard, having determined the optimality for solving the problem of the adaptive approach posed in my study, I want to make a reservation that it does not have a rigid impenetrable framework and allows, depending on the context, the involvement of others, in particular, symbolic and phenomenological interpretations of concepts and phenomena3.

1 See for example: Races and Peoples. Yearbook. M., 1989. Issue. 19; articles by various authors in EO for 1992-2003; Rybakov S.E. Ethnic philosophy. M., 2001; Tishkov V.A. Essays on the theory and politics of ethnicity in Russia. M., 1997; He's the same. Requiem for ethnicity. Research in socio-cultural anthropology. M., 2003.

2 Funk D.A. The worlds of shamans and storytellers: a comprehensive study of Teleut and Shor materials. M., 2005.S. 25.

3 Lotman Yu.M. Selected articles. Tallinn, 1992. Volume 1. Articles on semiotics and typology of culture; Berger P., Lukman T. Social construction of reality. M., 1995. Gurevich A.Ya. Categories of medieval culture. M., 1984; He's the same. Problems of medieval folk culture. M., 1981; Bernshtam T.A. New perspectives in the knowledge and study of traditional folk culture (theory and practice of ethnographic research). Kiev, 1993.

Characterizing the theoretical developments used in this dissertation, let us dwell on some of the main provisions of the adaptive approach and the possibilities of its application to the study of the Old Believers. The main thing for him is the understanding of culture as a dynamic adaptive mechanism, or the ability to bring oneself in line with a changing environment. This understanding, firstly, served as an impetus for the development since the 1970s in domestic and foreign ethnology of new directions, in particular, ethnoecology, and the introduction of the concept of "life support system" 1 into the field of scientific research, and secondly, it stimulated consideration within the framework of many humanitarian disciplines, problems of socio-cultural and psychological adaptation of various ethnic groups in the context of social transformations. The optimal ways of this process were determined, various characteristics were given, specific sociological and ethnopsychological studies were carried out2. It is no longer possible to list all the scientific works available today, carried out in this vein. The most complete and detailed historiographic review of the problem of adaptation is presented in the monograph by L.V. Korel.

For my research, the most important is the understanding of tradition developed within the framework of the adaptive approach. In contrast to the value perception of tradition, which is often used in sociology as the opposition of modernization and progress, in the considered approach, tradition is defined as a way of reproduction of culture or “a universal mechanism that, due to the selection of life experience, its accumulation and spatially

1 Kozlov V.I. Ethnic Ecology: Theory and Practice. M., 1991; Arutyunov S.A. and others. Culture of life support and ethnos: Experience of ethnocultural research (on the example of the Armenian rural culture). Yerevan, 1983, etc.

2 Lebedeva N.M. An introduction to ethnic and cross-cultural psychology. M., 1998; V.V. Gritsenko Social and psychological adaptation of immigrants in Russia. M., 2002.

3 Korel L.V. Sociology of adaptation: Questions of theory, methodology and techniques. Novosibirsk, 2005. temporary transmission, allows you to achieve the stability necessary for the existence of social organisms ”1. Understood in this way, tradition turns out to be closely related to the mechanisms of self-preservation and the problems of socio-cultural adaptation. In the domestic humanities, for the first time such a view of tradition was formulated by E.S. Markarian and was generally shared by the majority of scientists. Tradition is interpreted broadly, almost synonymously with the concept of "culture" (in my research also "Old Believer tradition" = "Old Believer culture"), and as a dynamic interdependent process that includes changes and innovations that turn into a tradition in the course of development3. In modern foreign science, S. Eisenstadt has similar positions, who singled out conservative and creative components in the tradition4 and used the theory of E. Shils about the “central zone” of culture, which has meaningful and ordering functions, to explain the contradictions of tradition ”5.

The work also used the theoretical approaches to the study of the Old Believers outlined by R. Crummy in the context of modern discussions about "folk religion" and the consideration of the Old Believers as a "text community" consisting of many interconnected subcultures with complex synchronous and diachronous connections6.

The works of the well-known researcher of the Volga-Ural region and the author

1 Markaryan E.S. Nodal problems of the theory of cultural tradition and SE. 1981. No. 2. S. 87.

2 See: Discussion of the article by E.S. Markaryan II SE. 1981. No. 2. S. 97-115.

3 Arutyunov S.A. Cultures, traditions and their development and interaction. M., 2000.S. 210.

4 Eisenstadt S.N. Tradition, Change and Modernity. New York, 1973.

5 Cit. by: Lurie C.B. Historical ethnology. M., 1998.S. 183.

6 Crammey R. Old Belief as Popular Religion: New Approaches // Slavic Review. Vol. 52, No. 4 (Winter 1993). P. 700-712. a number of serious theoretical works by R.G. Kuzeeva 1. When determining the specifics of various Old Believer subdenominations of Isl, the publications of P.I. Puchkov.

The research methodology was based on a set of general scientific methods. A comparative historical method was used with the use of systemic and cross-cultural analysis in the interpretation of the material. My approach can also be described as typological, since I tried to find similarities and differences between similar ethno-confessional groups. And, finally, a descriptive method was used, which made it possible to more fully convey the specifics of the ethnographic material and the real context.

The collection of field material was carried out on the basis of a qualitative approach: participatory observation and a semi-structured interview with a guide, in which the problem-thematic blocks of the conversation with the research participants were indicated3. The indicated blocks corresponded to the selected research objectives. The survey consisted of two stages: 1) interviews with the main (“key”) informants and 2) the subsequent addition of the results obtained on separate questions from the secondary informants. In compiling the questionnaire, the programs of M.M. Gromyko, C.B. Kuznetsova, A.B. Buganov "Orthodoxy in Russian folk culture", as well as T.A. Listova (by native rituals) and I.A. Kremlin (according to funeral rituals) 4, supplemented and adapted to Old Believer material.

1 Kuzeev R.G. The Peoples of the Middle Volga Region and the Southern Urals: An Ethnogenetic View of History. M., 1992; Kuzeev R.G., Babenko V.Ya. Ethnographic and ethnic groups (to the problem of ethnos heterogeneity) // Ethnos and its subdivisions. M., 1992.S. 17-38 and others.

2 Puchkov P.I. Modern geography of religions. M., 1979; Puchkov P.I., Kazmina O.E. Religions of the modern world. M., 1998; Puchkov P.I. On the question of the classification of religions // Ethnos and religion. M., 1998.S. 7-48.

3 Semenova V.V. Qualitative Methods: An Introduction to Humanistic Sociology. M., 1998; V.A. Yadov Sociological research strategy. Description, explanation, understanding of social reality. M., 1998.

4 Gromyko M.M., Kuznetsov S.B., Buganov A.B. Orthodoxy in Russian folk culture: direction of research // EO. 1993. No. 6. S. 60-84; Listova T.A. Collection program for

Another way of collecting information was photography and video filming, which made it possible to record in full the dynamic processes, material attributes of culture (religious and household items, clothing, the interior of residential and liturgical premises). When conducting video filming, developed by E.V. Aleksandrov, the method of "consonant camera", which is based on a trusting relationship between the researcher and cultural bearers, which allows them to maintain a natural behavior. The method involves continuous shooting of plans of a relatively large length, the use of synchronous sound, restrained editing1.

Historiography. The initial stage in comprehending any scientific problem is the appeal to the already existing historiographic heritage. The assessments of the Old Believers, this broad religious, social, cultural phenomenon, have never been unambiguous. They saw in him “the cause of troubles and a panacea for them; the only guardian of Orthodoxy and the power that destroys it; the righteous of Russians, saviors of national cultural traditions or their destroyers; the Black Hundred support of the empire or the constant carriers of the Russian popular revolt. " Over the three-century history of the schism, the literature about him has grown to a huge mass. In this regard, in this historiographic review, I included only that part of it that was directly used or had a certain influence on the dissertation, distributing it into thematic sections. The first included general works on the Old Believers with the designation of the main directions of Old Believer historiography, without which the uncommon and rituals associated with the birth of a child were outlined // Russian: family and social life. M., 1998.S. 292-307; I. A. Kremleva The program for collecting material on funeral customs and rituals // Ibid. M., 1998.S. 307-326.

Alexandrov E.V. On two approaches to the creation of anthropological films // Salekhard 2000. Collection of articles on visual anthropology, dedicated to the II festival of anthropological films. M., 2000.S. 14-33.

2 Pozdeeva I.V. Comprehensive studies of the modern traditional culture of the Russian Old Believers: Results and Prospects // The World of Old Believers. Issue 4. Living Traditions: Results and Prospects of Comprehensive Research of Russian Old Believers. M. 1998. S. 12. You can imagine the very appeal to the stated topic. In the second, works devoted to non-Russian Old Believers. And, finally, published studies, in which the problems of socio-cultural adaptation of Old Believer groups and the mechanisms of their self-preservation are raised to one degree or another.

The first works about the Old Believers were written by representatives of the official Orthodox Church and Russian historical science and pursued exclusively denunciatory and missionary goals. They belong to the synodal direction of Old Believer historiography, a characteristic feature of which was the isolation of the schism from the general historical context and the explanation of its causes only by intra-church problems. The most famous work of this kind belongs to Metropolitan Makarii (Bulgakov) 1. In this series, one can list the works of A.I. Zhuravlev, E. Golubinsky and many other authors2. The theory of the incorrectness of the old Russian rituals was first objectively revised by N.F. Kapterev.

In this regard, it is interesting to compare the synodal works with the polemical works of the Old Believers themselves, which give their own interpretations of the historical events that led to the split. First of all, these are "The History of the Vygovskaya Hermitage" by I. Filippov4, "A Brief History of the Ancient Orthodox (Old Believer) Church" by F.Ye. Melnikov5 and others. In the works of Old Believer writers I.А. Kirillova, V.G. Senatov, V.P. Ryabushinsky found a definition of the philosophical and religious foundations of the Russian Old Belief, tra

1 (Bulgakov) Macarius. The history of the Russian schism, known as the Old Believers. SPb., 1855.

2 Golubinsky E. History of the Russian Church. M., 1900; Zhuravlev A.I. Complete historical information about the ancient shearers and new schismatics, the so-called Old Believers, collected from secret Old Believer legends, notes and letters, the Church of the Descent of the Holy Spirit, which is on Bolshaya Okhta. In 4 parts. M., 1890.

3 Kapterev N.F. Patriarch Nikon and Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In 2 volumes. M., 1996.

4 Filippov I. History of the Vygovskaya Old Believer Hermitage. SPb., 1862.

5 Melnikov F.E. A Brief History of the Ancient Orthodox (Old Believers) Church. Barnaul, 1999. The tradition continued with the monograph of the modern Old Believer philosopher M.O. Shakhova 1.

From the middle of the XIX century. a new, so-called, democratic direction in the study of schism is developing. The beginning was laid by A.P. Shchapov, who began to view the Old Believers exclusively as a movement of social protest. The works of S.P. Melgunov, A. S. Prugavin, and others. Subsequently, such attempts were repeatedly resumed, first in the first revolutionary years, then in the Soviet period4.

In the XIX century. the first interesting works appear, in which the Old Believers are characterized as a kind of historical and cultural phenomenon of Russian life. So. N.M. Kostomarov saw in him a "phenomenon of mental progress", and P.N. Milyukov tried to identify common roots with other religious movements and Christian sectarianism5.

In the Soviet period, in accordance with the existing ideological guidelines, the Old Believers were viewed either from an atheistic standpoint or as a form of anti-feudal protest6. Serious in-depth research appeared at this time among the Russian

1 Kirillov I.A. Third Rome (essay on the historical development of the idea of ​​Russian messionism). M., 1996; Ryabushinsky V.P. Old Believers and Russian religious feeling. M.-Jerusalem, 1994; V.G. Senatov Philosophy of the history of the Old Believers. M., 1995; Shakhov M.O. Philosophical aspects of Old Belief. M., 1997.

2 Shchapov A. The Russian schism of the Old Believers, considered in connection with the internal state of the Russian Church and civic consciousness in the 17th century and in the first half of the 18th century. The experience of historical research on the causes of the origin and spread of the Russian schism. Kazan, 1859.

3 Melgunov S.P. Old Believers and Freedom of Conscience (Historical Essay). M., 1907; He's the same. From the history of religious and social movements in Russia in the XIX century. Old Believers. Religious persecution. Sectarianism. M., 1919; Prugavin A.C. Religious renegades (essays on modern sectarianism). Issue 1. SPb., 1904.

4 Bonch-Bruevich V.D. Materials for the history and study of Russian sectarianism and schism. SPb., 1908-1909; He's the same. Schism and sectarianism in Russia (V.D.Bonch-Bruyevich's report to the second regular congress of the RSDLP) // Selected works. M., 1959.T.1. S. 153-189; V.G. Kartsov Religious schism as a form of antifeudal protest in the history of Russia. In 2 hours Kalinin, 1971.

5 Kostomarov N.M. The history of the schism among the schismatics // Bulletin of Europe. 1871. Book 4. S. 470537; Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture. T.2. 4.1.

6 Katunsky A. Old Believers. M., 1972; Milovidov V.F. Old Believers in the past and present. M., 1969; He's the same. Modern Old Believers. M., 1979. Russian emigration (S.A. Zenkovsky, A.B. Kartashov) 1. A number of works by Soviet scientists devoted to medieval public consciousness, the ideology of the peasantry, social utopias and their connection with the Old Believer movement have not yet lost their significance (A.I. Klibanov, K.V. Chistov, R.G. Pikhoya).

The most consistent study of the Old Believers, its manuscript tradition was carried out by domestic archaeographers, thanks to whom a huge number of monuments of Old Believer thought were introduced into scientific circulation, their detailed analysis was carried out (NN Pokrovsky, IV Pozdeeva, EA Ageeva, E.B. Smilyanskaya, E.M. Smorgunova, I.V. Pochinskaya, A.T.Shashkov, V.I.Baydin, A.G. Mosin, E.M. Yukhimenko, etc.). Art historians, philologists and collectors of folklore (O.N.Bakhtina, T.E. Grebenyuk, S.E. Nikitina, B.JI. Klyaus, etc.) addressed the topic of the Old Believers.

The refusal of modern researchers from the given schemes and methodological clichés opened up new perspectives for the objective consecration of the phenomenon of the Old Believers in all its contradictions and versatility. Numerous scientific developments are reflected in specialized collections and periodicals. In this regard, the series "The World of the Old Believers" should be noted, which has been regularly published since 1992 by the archaeographic laboratory of Moscow State University3. The works of leading and novice specialists representing various branches of knowledge, reports of local historians and members of religious communities are published in the materials of the annual conferences "Old Believers: history, culture

1 Zenkovsky S.A. Russian Old Believers: Spiritual Movements of the Seventeenth Century. M., 1995; Kartashev A.B. Collected works: in two volumes. Vol.2: Essays on the history of the Russian Church. M., 1992.

2 Klibanov A.I. Popular social utopia in Russia. The period of feudalism. M., 1977; Pikhoya R.G. Social and political thought of the working people of the Urals (late XVH-XVHI centuries). Sverdlovsk, 1987; Chistov K.V. Russian folk socio-utopian legends of the 17th-19th centuries. M., 1976.

3 The world of the Old Believers. Issue I: Personality. Book. Tradition. M.-SPb., 1992; Also. Issue II: Old Believer Moscow. M., 1995; Also. Issue III: Book. Tradition. Culture. M., 1996; Also. round, modernity "1. In addition, magazines with the same name have been published since 19942. To date, several issues of the "Ural Collection", prepared by Yekaterinburg scientists, have already been published, a periodical dedicated to a special group of Old Believers - Lipovans has appeared in Odessa3. The list can be continued with collective works edited by E.M. Yukhimenko4, collections and monographs covering the history and culture of various regional groups, including the Southern Urals5, etc.

In the context of my research, works that reflect the historical events that took place in the studied territory are of particular importance, first of all, the monograph by H.H. Pokrovsky "Antifeudal protest of the Ural-Siberian peasants-Old Believers in the 18th century." (Novosibirsk, 1974). The South Ural region was included in only a few works on the history and culture of the entire Ural Old Believers. In this regard, the book by N.P. Parfentieva6, which analyzes the late traditions of ancient Russian musical art. Recently, the resulting gap has been substantially filled with two fundamental works - "Essays on the history of the Old Believers in the Urals and adjacent territories.

Issue 4. Living Traditions: Results and Prospects of Comprehensive Research. Materials of the international scientific conference. M., 1998; Also. Issue 5. History and modernity. M., 1999.

Old Believers: history, culture, modernity. Abstracts. M., 1996; Also. M., 1997; Also. M., 1998; Also. M., 2000; Also. M., 2002; Also. М „2005. In 2 parts.

2 Old Believers: history, traditions, modernity. Issue 1. M., 1994; Also. Issue 2. M., 1994; Old Believers: history, culture, modernity. Issue 3. M., 1995; Also. Issue 4. M., 1995; Also. Issue 5. M., 1996; The same, no. 6. M., 1998; Also. Issue 7. M., 1999; Also. Issue 8. M., 2000; Also. Issue 9.M., 2002; Also. Issue 10.M., 2004.

Ural collection. History. Culture. Religion. Issue 1. Yekaterinburg 1997; Also. Issue II. Yekaterinburg, 1998; Also. Issue 111. Yekaterinburg, 1999; Lipovane. History and culture of Russian Old Believers. Odessa, 2004; Also. Odessa, 2005.

4 Old Believers in Russia (XVII - XX centuries). M., 1999; Also. Issue Z. M., 2004; Patriarch Nikon and his time. M., 2004.

5 Mikhailov S. Common faith temples in Guslitsy. Kurovskoe, 2001; Danilko E.S. Old Believers in the South Urals: Essays on history and traditional culture. Ufa, 2002; Old Beliefs of Ukraine and Russia: Past and Present. Kiev, 2004; Filippov Genealogy: Historical Writings of the Old Believers-Filippovites of the Volga Region and Southern Vyatka. M., 2004; Apanasenok A.V. Old Believers of the Kursk Territory in the 17th - early 20th centuries. Kursk, 2005.

Parfentiev N.P. Traditions and monuments of ancient Russian musical and written culture in the Urals (XVI - XX centuries). Chelyabinsk, 1994. thorium "and a joint monograph by H.H. Pokrovsky and N. D. Zolnikova on the consent of the chapel 1.

In ethnographic terms, the material and spiritual culture of Old Believers living in the Perm Territory (G.N. Chagin, S.A. Dilmukhametova, I.V. Vlasova, I.A.Kremleva, T.A. , T.S.Makashina), Ust-Tsilma (T.N. Dronova), the Far East (Yu.V. Argudyaeva), Transbaikalia (F.F.Bolonev). A special category is made up of monographic studies of the Russian population in a particular territory, in which some specificity characteristic of the Old Believer culture was noted. The works of E.V. Richter on the Russians of Western Chud, T.A. Bernshtam about the culture of the Pomors, V.A. Lipinskaya about the Altai Territory3, etc.

The selection of only certain aspects of culture and everyday life in the study of other regional groups of Old Believers somewhat complicates the general comparative analysis, but opens up opportunities for comparisons at a private detailed level. The works of E.E. Blomkvist and N.P. Grinkova4, the Ural Cossacks - S.K. Sagnae

1 Essays on the history of the Old Believers in the Urals and adjacent territories. Yekaterinburg, 2000; Pokrovsky N.N., Zolnikova N.D. Old Believers-chapels in the east of Russia in the 17th - 20th centuries. M., 2002.

2 On the ways from the Perm land to Siberia: essays on the ethnography of the North Ural peasantry of the 17th - 20th centuries. M., 1989; Old Believers' world of Volga-Kama: Problems of a comprehensive study: Proceedings of a scientific conference. Perm, 2001; Dronova T.I. Russian Old Believers-bespopovtsy Ust-Tsilma: confessional traditions in the rituals of the life cycle (late 19th - 20th centuries) Syktyvkar, 2002; Argudyaeva Yu.V. Peasant family among the Eastern Slavs in the south of the Russian Far East (50s of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century). M., 1997; She's the same. Old Believers in the Russian Far East. M., 2000; Bolonev F.F. The folk calendar of the Semeiskie Transbaikalia (second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries). Novosibirsk, 1978; He's the same. Semeiskiye: Historical and Ethnographic Essays. Ulan-Ude, 1985; He's the same. Old Believers of Transbaikalia in the 18th - 20th centuries M., 2004.

3 Bernshtam T.A. Russian folk culture of Pomorie in the 19th - early 20th centuries. Ethnographic essays. L., 1983; Richter E.V. The Russian Population of Western Peipsi (Essays on History, Material and Spiritual Culture). Tallinn, 1976; Lipinskaya V.A. Russian population of the Altai Territory. Folk traditions in material culture (XVIII-XX centuries). M., 1987.

4 Bukhtarma Old Believers. L., 1930. V.P. Fedorova examined in detail the wedding rituals of the Trans-Ural "Kerzhaks", there are descriptions of the rituals of the life cycle of the "Ust'tsilems" 3.

Many works by foreign authors are devoted to the Old Believers (R. Morris, R. Robson, D. Sheffel, E. Nakamura, E. Ivanets) 4. Features of intergenerational relationships in Old Believer families and forms of communication are analyzed in the book by V. Player and article by V. Ryuk-Dravin, which differ in their original author's approach, but contain many inaccuracies and superficial conclusions, which, in my opinion, is due to the lack of their own field research5. A monograph by the French religious scholar P. Pascal is considered a classic work on the Old Believers, using the example of the Old Believers to characterize the Russian mentality and features of religiosity6.

As mentioned above, the next section of the historiographic review consists of works devoted to non-Russian Old Believers. Traditionally, studies of the schism and its significance in the history and culture of Russia were associated with the Russian people, and an official opinion about the mono-ethnicity of the Old Believers was formed and consolidated. However, according to historical evidence, it was quite widespread among a number of Finno-Ugric peoples, with whom many leading centers were associated in the territory of the modern Republic of Komi and Karelia, the Volga region and the Urals. The first

1 Sagnaeva S.K. Material culture of the Ural Cossacks of the late 19th - early 20th centuries (the development of ethnic traditions). M., 1993.

2 Fedorova V.P. Wedding in the system of calendar and family customs of the Old Believers of the Southern Trans-Urals. Kurgan, 1997.

3 Babikova T.I. Funeral and memorial rite of the "Ust'tsilems". Syktyvkar, 1998; Dronova T.I. The world of childhood in the traditional culture of the Ust'tsilem. Syktyvkar, 1999.

5 Pleyr W. Das russische Altglaubigentum: Geschihte. Darsrtellung in der Literatur. München, 1961; Ruke-Dravina V. Die Untersuchungen der russischen Mundarten im Balticum und ihre Bedeutung fur die allgemeine Dialektologie // Scando-Slavica. T.P. Copengagen, 1965, S. 198-209.

6 Paskai P.P. Die russische Volksfrommigkeit // Ortodoxe Beitrage. Marburg an der Lahn, 1966. No.

7 (2). information about non-Russian Old Believers appeared in publications already in the middle of the 19th century, but an increase in targeted research interest in them has been observed only in the last decade. The most extensive historiography belongs to the Komi Old Believers.

The first works in which the influence of the old belief on the life and everyday life of the Komi-Zyryans was considered are the essays by K.F. Zhakov and P.A. Sorokin 1. Then, in the course of comprehensive studies of the ethnography of the Komi peoples in the 1940-1950s. under the leadership of V.N. Belitser, the collection of field material was carried out along the way and in the Old Believer villages. Based on the results of the expeditions, sketches of the material and spiritual culture of the Komi peoples were published; in a number of cases, some cultural specificity of individual Old Believer groups was noted, although their confessional affiliation and features of religiosity were not the subject of special consideration2.

The next to address the topic of interest were L.N. Zherebtsov and L.P. Lashuk, in their works of different years they noted the cultural specificity of the Komi groups who accepted the "old faith", determined the geography of their settlement and sub-confessional composition. All their works are united by the conclusion about the conservative influence of the Old Believers on the culture of the Zyryans and on the preservation of “archaic religious remnants”. The works of Yu.V. Gagarin, written on the results of a continuous concrete sociological study of the state of religiosity of the rural Komi population in 1966

1 Zhakov K.F. On the question of the composition of the population in the eastern part of the Vologda province. M., 1908; Sorokin P.A.Modern Zyryans // Ethnographic studies. Syktyvkar, 1999.

Belitser V.N. Report on the work of the complex expedition to the Pechora // KSIE. Issue Z. M., 1947; She's the same. Ethnographic works in Pechora // KSIE. Issue 14. M., 1952; She's the same. Essays on the ethnography of the Komi peoples: XIX - early XX centuries. M., 1958.

3 Zherebtsov L.N., Lashuk L.P. Ethnographic way of the population of the upper Vychegda // Historical and philological collection. Issue 5. Syktyvkar, 1960. S. 53-98; Lashuk L.P. Old Believers on the territory of the Komi ASSR // Questions of atheistic propaganda. Syktyvkar, 1961.S. 39-53; Foal

67 BC The objectives of the study were to identify the degree of preservation of religious beliefs and their characteristics among the Old Believers. The main conclusion was the conclusion about the imminent "extinction" of the Old Believers1.

Systematic and consistent research at Pechora, Vychegda and Vashka began already in the 1980s, when a folklore and ethnographic laboratory was created at the Syktyvkar University. Syktyvkar scientists (A.N. Vlasov, Yu.V. Savelyev, E.V. Procuratorova, T.A.Kaneva, T.F. Volkova, T.A. materials about the Old Believers' book and manuscript tradition, the formation and functioning of individual communities, mentoring clans, the role of books in traditional culture2.

The latest research among the Komi-Zyryan Old Believers (questions of mythology, artistic creation) belongs to V.E. Sharapov and P.F. Limerov3, who worked in Old Believer villages in the 1990s. The history and culture of local Old Believer groups among the Komi-Zyryans became the subject of dissertation research by A.A. Chuvyurov and V.V. Vlasova in order to identify the role of the Old Believers in the formation of local ethno-confessional communities, to determine their cultural specificity4. Many other published works belong to these authors. More details L.N. Economy, culture and life of the Udor Komi in the 18th - early 20th centuries. M., 1972; Lashuk L.P. Formation of the Komi people. M., 1972.

1 Gagarin Yu.V. Old Believers. Syktyvkar, 1973; He's the same. History of religion and atheism of the Komi people. M., 1978.

2 Sources on the history of the folk culture of the North. Syktyvkar, 1991; Old Believers Center on Vashka. The Oral and Written Tradition of Udora: Materials and Research. Syktyvkar, 2002; Old Belief in the North-East of the European Part of Russia. Syktyvkar, 2006.

3 Sharapov V.E. Christian plots in the folklore of the Komi Old Believers of the Middle Pechora // Christianization of the Komi Territory and its role in the development of statehood and culture. Syktyvkar, 1996; He's the same. About the tradition of making carved wooden icons and pectoral crosses among the Komi-Old Believers-bespopovtsy // Museums and Regional Studies. Issue Z. Syktyvkar, 2001.S. 191-197; Limerov P.F. Udora Old Believers // Springs of Parma. Bbin.IV. Syktyvkar, 1996.

4 Vlasova V.V. Groups of Komi (Zyryan) Old Believers: confessional features of social ritual life (XIX - XX centuries). Diss. for a job. uch. Art. Cand. ist. sciences. SPb., 2002; Chuvyurov A.A. Local groups of the Komi of the Upper and Middle Pechora: problems of linguistic, historical, cultural and confessional self-identification. SPb., 2003. A review of publications on the Old Believers by Zyryan was also compiled by V.V. Vlasova.

The ethno-confessional history of the Tikhvin Karelian Old Believers for three and a half centuries on the basis of the original field material and the revealed archival and documentary sources is consecrated in the monograph and articles by O.M. Fishman, who used a phenomenological approach in research1.

Scientific research among the Old Believer groups of Perm began to be carried out already in the 1950s. V.N. Belitser, in addition to the above-mentioned works, a separate essay was written about the material culture of the Komi-Zyuzdins, where their belonging to the Old Believers is noted, but attention is focused on other problems2. Modern scientific publications about this group are numbered literally by a few3, the rest belong mainly to pre-revolutionary authors. In this regard, for my research it was interesting to attract materials about the closest neighbors of the Permian Zyuzdinsky - the Yurlinsky group of Russians, which was subjected to a strong Old Believer influence (collective monograph by Bakhmatov AA, Podyukov I.A., Khorobrikh CB, Chernykh AB, articles by I.V. Vlasova) 4 ...

The culture of the Yazvinsky Perm was addressed by philologists, who noted the vivid specificity of their dialect, these are, first of all, V.I. Lytkin in the 1960s, then modern scientists (P.M. Batalova,

1 Fishman O.M. Life by Faith: Tikhvin Karelians-Old Believers. M., 2003; She's the same. Phenomenological approach to the study of the group consciousness of Tikhvin Karelians (on the example of mythological and historical legends) // Kunstkamera. Ethnographic notebooks. Issue 2-3. SPb., 1993.S. 20-28 and others.

2 Belitzer B.H. Among the Permian Komi Zyuzdinsky // KSIE. XV. M "1952. S. 27-39.

3 Trushkova I. Yu., Senkina G.A. Zyuzdinskie Komi: ethnocultural specificity in the past and present // Komi-Permyatskiy Okrug and the Urals: history and modernity. Kudymkar, 2000.S. 103105.

4 Bakhmatov A.A., Podyukov I.A., Khorobrikh C.B., Chernykh A.B. Yurlinsky region. Traditional Russian culture of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Materials and research. Kudymkar, 2003; Vlasova I.V. To the study of ethnographic groups of Russians (Yurlinsky) // Our region. Kudymkar, 1995. Issue. 7 S. 61-67; She's the same. Accommodation of Old Believers in the Northern Urals and their contacts with the surrounding population // TDMK. S. 196-202.

EAT. Smorgunov) 1. Numerous works by G.N. Chagin, who, on the basis of many years of research, comes to the important conclusions that the Yazvinsky, due to the specificity of their culture and language, can be considered not as an ethnographic group of Perm, but as one of the Komi peoples. On the example of V.I. Baidin identified the general patterns of the spread of the Old Belief among the Finno-Ugrians.

Since 1972, a systematic work of the staff of the archaeographic laboratory of Moscow State University has been carried out among the residents of Yazvina, the local book tradition has been studied, its interrelationships with the history of the fugitive Old Believer consent have been identified. The research was reflected in a number of publications in the above-mentioned university series of publications devoted to the problems of the Old Believers (articles by E.M.Smorgunova, V.P. Pushkov, I.V. Pozdeeva). Several expeditions were organized by teachers and students of the Kudymkar State Institute. Thus, today this is the most studied group of the Finno-Ugric Old Believers population in the Ural-Volga region. However, not all aspects of the history and culture of the Yazvinian Komi have been fully sanctified; their complex analysis is also required.

There were practically no separate works devoted to the Old Believers among the Mordovians, although there are references to this phenomenon in missionary reports, archival sources, articles on the Christianization of foreigners. Some information about sectarianism among the Mordovians, and about a hundred

1 Lytkin V.I. Komi-Yazvinsky dialect. M., 1961; Batalova P.M. Areal studies on the Eastern Finno-Ugric languages ​​(Komi languages). M., 1992; Smorgunova E.M. Old Believers of the Upper Yaz'va: a special language situation // TDKM. S. 157-162.

2 Chagin G.N., Chernykh A.B. Peoples of the Kama region. Essays on ethnocultural development in the 19th-20th centuries. Perm, 2002; Chagin G.N. Pudvinskaya Lavra // Ural collection. History. Culture. Religion. Yekaterinburg, 1997.S. 168-173; He's the same. Yazvinskie Perm. Perm, 1993; He's the same. Yazvinskie Perm. Historical and cultural island. Perm, 1995; He's the same. It was on the ground, but on the Yazvinskaya. Perm, 1997; He's the same. The Komi-Yazvin Permians are an ancient people of the Northern Urals. Krasnovishersk, 2002.

3 Baydin V.I. The initial period of the history of the Upper Yazvinsk sketes (on the question of the spread of Old Belief among the Finno-Ugric peoples) // Cherdyn and the Urals in the historical and cultural heritage of Russia. Perm, 1999.S. 195-200. The ritualism of various accords available in the pre-revolutionary editions were summarized by E.H. Mokshina 1.

Among other Finno-Ugric peoples of the Volga region, the Old Believers did not find much distribution and, accordingly, its influence on their traditional culture was insignificant. There are references to Old Believers among the Udmurts in the book by Yu.M. Ivonin, but they are only ascertaining. E.F. Shumilov in a monograph on Christianity in Udmurtia 2.

Old Believer groups among the Chuvashes aroused scientific interest only in the context of general studies of various sectarian movements, not being the subject of special consideration. The most detailed information about the history of the spread of the Old Believers among the Chuvash is found in Yu.M. Braslavsky 3. G.E. Kudryashov singled out this phenomenon among the Chuvash people as a special type of religious syncretism, formed as a result of convergence (i.e. preliminary synthesis) of a number of religious systems at a later stage of interfaith and interethnic interactions4.

Thus, the problem of non-Russian Old Believers in the Urals-Volga region, which is of great theoretical interest, was considered fragmentarily, there are practically no comprehensive studies, and the degree of study of various groups of Old Believers is not the same. In this regard, new research in this area seems to be very promising.

1 Mokshina E.H. Religious life of the Mordovians in the second half of the XIX - early XXI century. Saransk, 2004.

2 Ivonin Yu.M. Old Believers and Old Believers in Udmurtia. Izhevsk, 1973; Shumilov E.F. Christianity in Udmurtia. Civilization Processes and Christian Art. XVI - early XX century. Izhevsk, 2001.

3Braslavsky JI.IO. Old Belief and Christian Sectarianism in Chuvashia. Cheboksary,

4Kudryashov G.E. The dynamics of polysyncretic religiosity. The experience of historical-ethnographic and concrete-sociological research of the genesis, evolution and withering away of religious remnants of the Chuvash. Cheboksary, 1974.S. 28.

In the third section of this historiographic review, works are noted in which, to one degree or another, the problems that are solved in this dissertation are noted. First of all, it is necessary to make a reservation that the consideration of the Old Believers not as a conservative and extremely isolated phenomenon, but as a living developing tradition is characteristic of most modern studies. Thus, archaeographers analyzing written works in all genre diversity draw a direct parallel between the ancient Russian cultural tradition and modern Old Believers. This approach is typical, in particular, for the works of E.A. Ageeva, E.V. Smorgunova, I.V. Pozdeeva, E.B. Smilyanskaya, and others published in the periodical series of Moscow State University. UFO. Bubnov defines Old Belief as a culture-mediator between the Middle Ages and modern Europeanized Russia1. At the same time, speaking about the preservation of the ancient elements of Russian culture in the Old Believers, scientists note "the staunchness, activity, dynamism, even just the resourcefulness of the Old Believer movement as a whole," which allows it to always be in accordance with a specific historical context. The question of the “relative isolation” of the Old Believer communities and their ability to develop collective ways of responding to external changes that do not destroy their culture has been repeatedly addressed by S.Ye. Nikita. R. Morris characterizes the Old Believers as a kind of key to understanding the processes of convergence in the modern world3.

1 Bubnov Yu.N. Old Believer book in Russia in the second half of the 17th century. Sources, types and evolution. SPb., 1995.

2 See, for example: S.E. Nikitina. On the concept of an ethno-confessional group in relation to the Old Believers // Altar of Russia. Issue 1. P. 16.

3 Morris R. Old Believers as a Key to Understanding the Convergence Process // Altar of Russia. Issue 1. Old Believers in Siberia and the Far East, history and modernity: local tradition. Russian and foreign connections. Vladivostok - Bolshoi Kamen, 1997.S. 24-29; He's the same. Life according to ancient traditions in the remote Siberian taiga // World of Old Believers. Issue 4. Living Traditions: Results and Prospects of Complex Research M., 1998. S. 320-333.

The problem of adaptation resources of the Old Belief was raised by E.E. Dutchak, who emphasized the important role of the family in the processes of intergenerational transmission of traditional norms1. The difficulties of self-preservation of Old Believers in a mono-national environment were also considered by V.A. Lipinskaya 2.

Source base of the research. An important source for the dissertation research was pre-revolutionary publications, which contain information of varying degrees of saturation about the split in the studied territory. The line between sources and historiography seems rather arbitrary here. In this regard, N. Chernavsky's work on the Orenburg diocese is of great value. Describing in detail all any significant local events, the author gives a lot of interesting information about the Old Believers: about the popularity of their ideas among the Cossacks, about the founding of sketes, the missionary activity of secular governing bodies and the Orthodox clergy, statistical tables3. A similar work on the Ufa diocese was written by I.G. Zolo-toverkhovnikov. Placing in the book data on the number of schismatics by districts and individual settlements for 1897, he also explains the reason for the rapid spread in the region of the schism, linking it with the construction of mining plants4. The stages of this process are analyzed by V.M. Cheremshansky 1.

One of the active members of the Ufa Missionary Committee N.P. Tyunin published in 1889 a collection of personal conversations with Old Believers, supplemented by the author's reflections and comments

1 Dutchak E.E. Old Believers community in Gar: the possibilities of sociological discourse // Old Believers: history, culture, modernity. M., 2002.S. 189-199.

Lipinskaya V.A. On the stability of small confessional groups in a single-national environment (based on materials from the south of Western Siberia) // TDMK, Novosibirsk, 1992, pp. 212-224.

3 Chernavsky N. Orenburg diocese in the past and present // Proceedings of the Orenburg Scientific Archival Commission. Issue I. Orenburg, 1900; Issue II. 1901-1902.

4 Zolotoverkhovnikov I.G. Ufa diocese in 1897. Geographic, ethnographic, administrative-historical and statistical essay. Ufa, 1899. mi2. It includes a lot of ethnographic subjects - descriptions of some family rituals, everyday specifics, small details typical of the local talk (hole holes, pigeon sense, etc.). This cannot be gleaned from dry archival files. Tyunin's biased attitude towards his interlocutors and a noticeable bias do not prevent him from considering the book an important source.

Ethnographic sketches about the Old Believers were made in the travel notes of M.A. Krukovsky and K.P. Gorbunov, historical sketch of V. Kasimovsky 3. Interesting information about the life of the famous schismatic sketes, located on the territory of the Ural Cossack army and closely connected with the Irgiz monasteries, can be obtained from the article by P.V. Yudin 4. The most detailed ethnographic essay on the Old Believers of the Southern Urals at the beginning of the 20th century. is an article by D.K. Zelenina. In 1905, the famous Russian scientist spent a whole month in the village of Usen-Ivanovskoye, Belebeevsky district of the Ufa province, among the Old Believers-Beglopopovtsy and presented his observations in a rather voluminous essay. It provides a historical excursion, a general description of the methods of management, the construction of dwellings, a description of traditional clothing, the peculiarities of everyday life, religious life and ritual practice of the Usenchan1.

The early history of the Old Believers on the territory of the Perm province (from the end of the 17th to the second half of the 19th centuries) was presented in detail by Archimandrite Pallady (Pyankov), his fundamental work, based on a huge number of almost all available documents and evidence

Cheremshansky V.M. Description of the Orenburg province in economic, statistical, ethnographic, geographical and industrial terms. Ufa. 1859.

2 Tyunin N.P. Split Letters (1886-1889). Issue I. Ufa, 1889.

3 Krukovsky M.A. Southern Urals. Travel sketches. M., 1909; Gorbunov K.P. Among the schismatics of the Southern Urals (from a tourist's diary) // Historical Bulletin. 1888. No. 12; Kasimovsky V. Historical sketches about Duvan (1868, 1877). Mesyagutovo, 1991.

4 Yudin P.V. In the Syrtovsky wilds (Essay from the past of the Ural Old Believers) // Russian antiquity. 1896. № 1. tsev, until now remains the most valuable and objective source of information about the Old Believer communities of various accords in all districts of the province (the appearance of the first sketes, biographies of famous priests and mentors), including the Old Believer center on the Upper Yazva. The works of I.Ya. Krivoshchekov, Ya. Kamasinsky, travel notes by N.P. Beldytsky 3.

An extensive ethnographic essay by N.P. Steinfeld, which contains detailed information about the peculiarities of their settlement and management, describes everyday life. Noting the adherence of the local population to the split, the author writes: “The split here is a special positive phenomenon. During the five hundred years of Orthodoxy, the Zyuzdians did not even learn prayers, not to mention any more or less definite concepts of the dogmas and rituals of their religion. It would seem that the soil here is absolutely unsuitable for the appearance of a split. In fact, about fifty years ago, it spread quite strongly and is holding on stubbornly ”4.

Some data allowing to localize the Chuvash Old Believer groups on the territory of the Ural-Volga region are available in the articles of N.V. Nikolsky 5. Fragmentary information about the Old Believers among the Mordovians is contained in the famous researcher M.V. Evseviev 6.

1 Zelenin D.K. Life features of the Ussen-Ivanovo Old Believers // News of the Society of History, Archeology and Ethnography at Kazan University. 1905, T.21. Issue Z. S. 201-258.

1 Shchalladiy] (Pyankov), archim. Review of the Perm split of the so-called "Old Believers". SPb., 1863.

3 Krivoshchekov I. Ya. Geographical and statistical dictionary of the Cherdyn district of the Perm province. Perm, 1914; Kamasinsky Ya. Near the Kama. Ethnographic essays and stories. M., 1905; Bel-dytskiy N.P. About Vishera Territory // Perm Zemskaya Week. 1908. No. 7-18.

4 Steinfeld N.P. Zyuzdinsky Territory (Glazovsky District) Н Calendar of the Vyatka province for 1893. Vyatka, 1892, p. 312.

5 Nikolsky H.B. Christianity among the Chuvash of the Middle Volga region in the 16th-16th centuries. Historical sketch. Kazan, 1912.

6 Evseviev M.V. Selected Works. T.5. Saransk, 1966.

Another type of published sources used in this work are various periodicals. First of all, these are regularly published in the 19th and early 20th centuries. "Diocesan vedomosti" (used Orenburg, Ufa, Vyatka, Perm, Samarsk, Simbirsk vedomosti). In the reports of the parish priests, printed in them, information about existing schisms and sects was compulsorily placed, sometimes the distribution of schismatics according to confessions and accords was made. The personal observations of their compilers are of particular value, since the statistics, as a rule, did not differ in reliability.

The first publications about Old Believers among the Finno-Ugric peoples of the Ural-Volga region appeared precisely in church periodicals, these were works written by Orthodox priests and had a predominantly missionary orientation. Despite the tendentiousness, they differ in detail, they also consider the history of the spread of the schism among the "infidels", and the peculiarities of their way of life, and the form of religious life. A series of articles by the priest N. Blinov about the Permian Komi should be highlighted, where the special influence of the Old Believers on their way of life is noted1. Information about the Zyuzdin group of Perm Old Believers can be gleaned from the work of Archpriest M. Formakovsky2. The missionary G. Selivanovsky wrote about the group of “non-Moles”. A small note in “Simbirskiye Vedomosti” became practically the only source of information about one of the groups of Chuvash Old Believers4, etc.

1 Blinov N. Agricultural life of the Perm and Votyaks of the Karsovaisky parish (Glazovsky district) // Vyatskie provincial vedomosti. 1865. No. 31-33; He's the same. Foreigners of the northeastern part of the Glazovsky district // Ibid. No. 59-67.

2 Formakovsky M. Split in the northern strip of Glazovsky district. From the report of the missionary archpriest M. Formakovsky for 1879 // BEB. 1880. No. 10.

3 Selivanovsky G. Nemolyaki // BEB. 1902. No. 16.

4 On the history of Christian enlightenment work among foreigners (The history of one foreign parish) // SEV. 1898. No. 23.

In addition, the dissertation actively used the Report of the Ufa Brotherhood of the Resurrection of Christ for 1898 and notes about the Old Believers from the provincial newspapers. The materials of the All-Russian census of 1897 partly contributed to the detection of a non-Russian element among the Old Believer population of the region. Were attracted "Lists of populated areas" in various provinces.

The fragmentation and insufficiency of the published materials at my disposal predetermined their auxiliary, secondary function. The volume of archival documentation is much more significant in the work, in all the diversity of which several categories can be conditionally distinguished (see Appendix III).

The first type includes archival sources of a statistical nature. The solution to the task of completely eradicating the split, which the power structures set themselves, was impossible without clarifying the places of its spread and knowing the quantitative indicators. In this regard, throughout its existence, many regulations were issued, obliging local city and police departments to provide accurate information about the number of schismatics and their prayer buildings. This desired accuracy in real practice was practically unattainable for a number of reasons. First, the natural tendency of the Old Believers themselves to hide their confessional affiliation, both due to persecution and bias against official records. Secondly, a significant layer of the entrepreneurial elite of the Urals society consisted of adherents of the old faith. This is in addition to the fact that merchants and plant owners were seriously interested in cheap and reliable labor, and therefore were in no hurry to give the authorities the true number of Old Believers. Third, the silence of the official clergy could often be guaranteed by elementary bribery.

Accordingly, various statements and reports deposited in the archival funds do not carry objective statistical information. Their value lies elsewhere. They made it possible to identify the settlements where the Old Believers lived, and sometimes their sub-confessions, which was especially important for the almost unexplored Southern Urals in this regard. This kind of work, coupled with modern field material, formed the basis for the creation of the maps included in the appendix (see Appendix IV). With their help, the routes of modern expeditionary trips were planned.

The second category of archival sources, selectively used in the thesis, included forensic materials. These are reports about the crimes of schismatics against the Orthodox Church, lists of those who have not been to confession, court cases about seducing Orthodox Christians into schism, about the capture of schismatic priests, the discovery of secret sketes and prayer houses, about married marriages, etc.

The next extensive group of materials was made up of registration documents of Old Believer communities. The first stream of such cases was observed in the period from 1906 to 1915, that is, after the Imperial decree on freedom of religion in the Russian Empire. And the second - already in Soviet times, when the fiscal goals of an atheistic state were disguised under the guise of registration. During the Soviet period, another kind of sources was formed that illuminated directly opposite processes - the termination of the activities of Old Believer religious associations, the closure and transfer of churches and houses of worship for cultural institutions and economic needs. This also includes applications for registration of various groups and correspondence in this regard.

In general, the sources were examined, stored in seven archives - the Russian State Historical Archives (RGIA, F.815, 796), the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St.

Petersburg branch, F.ZO), the Central State Historical Archives of the Republic of Bashkortostan (TsGIA RB.F.I-1, I-2, I.6, I-9, I-11, R-394, R-1252, R- 4732, R-4797), the State Archives of Public Associations of the Republic of Bashkortostan (SAOO RB, F. P-122), the current archive of the Council for Religious Affairs under the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Bashkortostan, the Central State Archives of the Orenburg Region (TsGAOO. F.6, 10, 11 , 18, 37, 94, 164, 167, 175, R-617) and the State Archives of the Chelyabinsk Region (GACHO. F.220, I-1, I-3, I-33, R-274, F.6, F .eleven). More than two hundred cases were brought in for analysis.

Despite the enormous importance of archival data, the most extensive group of sources was made up of materials from the author's field ethnographic studies, collected during individual expedition trips. It covered about 80 settlements on the territory of the Republic of Bashkortostan (1996-2005) and Chuvashia (2005), Chelyabinsk (2001-2005), Orenburg (2001-2004), Perm (2004-2005). ), Kirov (2004-2005), Ulyanovsk (2006) regions. The list of settlements is given in the appendix.

In the guide questionnaire, the main thematic blocks of conversations with informants were identified. The guide includes sections on history (resettlement, history of Old Believers' movements, the current state of communities), material and spiritual culture.

As observations show, at present, the material culture of the Old Believers has undergone significant unification and standardization, therefore, attention was paid only to those elements that passed into the category of attributes of the ritual and religious sphere and were fixed as the dominant features of culture (prayer costume complex, ritual food, etc.). etc.).

Accordingly, the body of questions concerning spiritual culture was much broader. It included sections designed to reveal the features of the Old Believer worldview (eschatological expectations, the existence of utopian legends, the interpretation of book texts). Much attention was paid to the study of religiosity. Research in this area is feasible only in the context of the daily life of the individual and society and involves the fixation and analysis of particular manifestations of religiosity. The latter were considered church holidays, public worship, veneration of local shrines, as well as the degree of observance of religious precepts and taboos, knowledge of the basic canons, attitude to the sacraments. The composition and structure of confessional communities, the role of spiritual leaders - priests and mentors - were identified.

Scientific novelty of the research. Fundamentally new is the solution to the problem posed - to identify the mechanisms of self-preservation of Old Believer communities - using the example of various ethnocultural environments, since the attraction of material on the Finno-Ugric groups of Old Believers and a multi-level comparative analysis with control groups of Russian Old Believers and representatives of the studied peoples who do not belong to the Old Believer confession are carried out in ethnology for the first time.

In many ways, the object of research is also new - the Old Believers among the Finno-Ugric peoples. In particular, not a single special work has been devoted to the Old Believers among the Mordovians today, and research among the Komi-Zyuzdins, reflected in only a few articles, was carried out in the middle of the past century.

In the dissertation, for the first time, previously unknown archival sources and original field material are introduced into scientific circulation, which makes it possible to fill in the gaps in domestic science, and provides specific material for scientific generalizations.

Practical significance. The dissertation materials can be used to popularize knowledge about the Old Believers, when writing curricula and manuals on the history and traditional culture of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric peoples of the Ural-Volga region and various confessional groups, and used to draw up confessional maps. The scientific information contained in the dissertation can become the basis for the development of general and special courses in universities, as well as for lecture and educational activities in museums and national-cultural societies.

Approbation of the study. The main provisions of the dissertation were outlined by the author in reports and reports at international, all-Russian, regional conferences and congresses organized by scientific and educational centers in the years. Moscow (1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2005), St. Petersburg (2005), Omsk (1997, 2003, 2005), Nalchik (2001), Ufa (1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2006), Yekaterinburg (2000), Orenburg (1998), Chelyabinsk (2006), Perm (2001), Saransk (2004), Samara (2002, 2006), Izhevsk (2004), Sarapula (1997), Yoshkar-Ola (2005), Ulan-Ude (2001), Astrakhan (2005), Kiev (2004), Budapest (2004), were discussed at the Center for the Study of Interethnic Relations of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Conclusion

The spread of Old Believers on the territory of the Ural-Volga region was a long historical process, the intensity of which at one stage or another, along with the difficulties of relations with government bodies and the official church, was also determined by transformations within the entire religious movement and individual Old Believer accords, as well as by the wide opportunities opening up. for the economic and cultural development of sparsely populated areas.

Until the first quarter of the 18th century, the bulk of the Old Believers in the region under study were Cossacks, who, due to their isolated situation in the eastern outskirts of Russia, continued to adhere to the old rituals even after the church reform. Subsequently, the increase in the number of "schismatics" here was associated with the construction of fortresses and mining enterprises, and then - with peasant colonization. Religious self-organization within the framework of Old Believer consensus turned out to be quite adapted to solving organizational problems faced by migrants (choosing places for settlements, migration routes, protecting property rights, land divisions, etc.), and subsequently contributed to the stabilization of the existence of communities in the new socio-economic conditions. Peasant colonization of the region continued with varying degrees of intensity until the beginning of the 20th century. Only by this time the places of compact settlement of the Old Believers, the boundaries of the main beliefs and agreements, were finally identified.

Initially, the Old Believers in the Ural-Volga region were a Russian phenomenon. The basis for intercultural interactions with the Finno-Ugric and other peoples, as a result of which a part of their Old Believer doctrine was adopted, was laid mainly during the 18th and 19th centuries in the process of joint development of new lands and the gradual establishment of various contacts. In the course of the study, the factors that contributed to intercultural interaction were identified: territorial (inter-lane settlement); economic and economic (production and trade contacts, waste trades); sociocultural (knowledge of the Finno-Ugrians and Turks of the Russian language, acquaintance with the basics of Christianity); and the main reasons for the spread of the Old Believers among the Volga peoples (the world outlook crisis, social tension caused by measures for violent Christianization, the socio-psychological closeness of "schismatics" and "foreigners").

The adoption of the Old Believers by the Volga peoples, even where it was not a mass phenomenon, led to the isolation of small groups within their religious communities and, as a consequence, to their further isolation in social terms. In general, this diversified the general ethno-confessional mosaic of the Ural-Volga region and complicated inter-confessional and interethnic, as well as intra-ethnic interaction in the region.

As the study showed, being originally a Russian phenomenon, the Old Believers as a religious doctrine, nevertheless, allowed the existence of an ethnicity different from the Russian one among their adherents. The adoption of the Old Believers did not lead to the immediate Russification of the "foreigners", religious identity coexisted with the general ethnic and linguistic. The Ural-Volga region is characterized by the formation of both mono-ethnic (Russian, Mordovian, Permian, Chuvash) and poly-ethnic confessional communities based on the Old Believers (Russian-Mordovian, Russian-Permian, Russian-Chuvash-Mordovian) around religious centers (temples or prayer), uniting residents of the nearest settlements according to the parish type.

Where the level of interethnic interactions is relatively low, confessional (Old Believer) affiliation, along with language, can serve as a group marker separating both from the main ethnic massif and from Russians. A similar situation has historically developed among the Yazvinsky Permians ("We are not Permian Komi and not Russians, they have Nikon's patriarchal faith, and we are Old Believers"). In addition, in this group, the acceptance of the Old Believers also served as a factor in the preservation of the native language; it is among the Yazvinian Old Believers that the Permian language is mainly used as a spoken language. Among the Komi-Zyuzdins, no such interconnection has been revealed; both Old Believers and Orthodox are equally involved in the assimilation processes, accompanied by the loss of their native language and the change of ethnic identity (to Russian).

The adoption of the Old Believers by the Volga peoples led to transformations of their ethno-cultural appearance, changing the ritual and everyday spheres of their life, in some cases, displacing, in others, on the contrary, preserving certain elements of the traditional complex, while introducing new ones characteristic of Russian culture. Field studies show that the mix of these preserved or displaced elements is always variable in different regional groups. According to S.A. Arutyunov, the extra-linguistic part of culture is generally more diffuse and permeable than the linguistic part, therefore the moment of switching the cultural code is not as discrete and clear as when switching from one language to another, and it is not so easy to unambiguously fix it1. At the same time, in all studied groups, a complex of cultural phenomena, objects, symbols, characterized by the carriers of culture themselves as "Old Believers", and acting as confessional markers, regardless of both the real degree of preservation and the degree of compliance with the canon, is revealed.

Thus, the Old Believers in both Russian and Finno-Ugric communities are an integral part of group self-consciousness,

1 Arutyunov S.A. Cultures, traditions and their development and interaction. M., 2000. S. 182. defining it at various levels of social interactions: within a confession (division between agreements), within an ethnos (division between ethnographic and religious groups) and, finally, more broadly regulating relations with the external environment (separation from other ethnic groups on the basis of ethnic and confessional (Old Believer) affiliation).

The initial premise in solving the main problem posed in this study was the thesis of the continuity of the Old Believer group identity with the preservation and reproduction of tradition. For Old Believers, tradition fulfills the function of making sense, evaluating and ordering life, that is, it is a universal mechanism that ensures the stability of Old Believer groups or social systems, aimed, on the one hand, at ordering the systems themselves as integral organisms, and on the other, at regulating their interaction with external environment.

The external environment sets the rules and restrictions according to which the social system functions, and, at the same time, initiates the adaptation process. For the Old Believers, which were originally an opposition movement, relationships with the state and the official church played an important role. In the course of historical development, the Old Believer communities have developed many protective strategies, and this work considered one of the aspects of the problem associated with the organization of church life, which is highly dependent on government measures to combat schism. The functions of religious centers in the Old Believers were performed by secret monasteries (sketes) and private chapels, communication between which was carried out through priests or mentors and active laity. As the study showed, church institutions scattered over vast territories regulated the life of many communities and represented a kind of network within the framework of individual agreements, the components of which were quickly restored in the event of destruction. In addition, Old Believer monasteries and parishes have demonstrated the ability to combine and divide functions depending on the historical context. The maintenance of the stability of religious life was facilitated by the persisting and at present a certain way of hierarchizing the internal structure of individual Old Believer communities according to the degree of compliance of the behavior of individuals with an authoritatively established norm.

The personal factor has always played an important role in overcoming crisis situations in the Old Believers, which was especially evident in the most difficult Soviet period, when religious life in communities was supported by a small circle of people, usually monks from former monasteries. The transfer of the monastery to the "world", although it was a violation of the canon, under the prevailing conditions was considered as the only opportunity to preserve and transmit the tradition. Accordingly, unlike most Old Believer communities, in which the transmission of religious experience in Soviet times took place only at the level of individual families, in such communities there were also institutionalized forms of transmission of sacred knowledge, which to a large extent contributed to the strengthening of intragroup ties. In general, the Soviet period turned out to be the most destructive for the Old Believers; the currently observed restoration of the infrastructure of Old Believer accords is proceeding much more slowly than in official Orthodoxy. Historical experience is used: as in the 19th century, connections between individual communities are carried out through priests and active laity.

Despite the declared isolation and the desire to limit external contacts, three main directions of interaction of Old Believers with a different ethnic and non-confessional environment are identified. Interactions in the economic and economic sphere, although they were most active, did not affect the preservation of the religious tradition, but ensured the physical survival of the Old Believer communities. Interfaith marriages were subjected to stricter collective control, within the family and within the community, but were allowed under certain conditions; rather flexible ways were developed for resolving contradictions between the canon and everyday practice. Finally, the third direction of interactions - missionary activity, qualitatively differed from the first two, being quite definitely aimed precisely at expanding contacts and strengthening the Old Believer presence in a "foreign" environment.

The external environment, considered in the context of the adaptive process, also acts as a subject of interpretive activity, since each community perceives and explains it in its own way, in accordance with the cultural and historical context and with its own conceptual picture of the world. The Old Believers are characterized by the use of eschatological categories in the socio-historical conceptualization, which, in my opinion, is explained both by the circumstances of the emergence and existence in an aggressive atmosphere, and by the reaction of traditional society to transformational processes. All new phenomena of the surrounding world, related to social life, to the objective and natural world, are interpreted by Old Believers as signs of recent times. That is, eschatology is a way of interpreting reality and, accordingly, including the changing forms of everyday life in the circle of familiar and explainable concepts. In addition, by creating additional psychological stress, eschatology allows you to more fully mobilize defense mechanisms to maintain group integrity. So with Christian eschatology, the messianic idea, which is relevant for the Old Believers, is closely related, contributing to the formation of expressed personalism and their perception of their own position as the only correct and possible one.

The self-preservation of Old Believer communities, like other ethno-confessional communities, is directly related to the maintenance of external and internal group boundaries, while the principle of selection of cultural features symbolizing the border is determined by the degree of compliance with tradition, they should not be subjectively assessed as an innovation.

The separation of Old Believers from other communities was originally built on a religious basis, in this regard, the border is fixed, first of all, by a system of confessional symbols (churches and prayer houses, books, icons, various religious objects), which constitute the so-called basic symbolic environment, which, Being in the process of socialization as bearers of culture, promotes group cohesion. Accordingly, the most severe restrictions on contacts with “strangers” also apply to the ritual and religious sphere (a ban on joint worship, visiting temples, using religious objects).

Along with confessional symbols, everyday phenomena (clothing, appearance, food) are also endowed with a symbolic status in the Old Believers. If, under the conditions of normal reproduction of cultural tradition, everyday behavior is defined as "natural", then in the case when society finds itself in the position of an outcast, it is endowed with a special meaning and additional functions, values ​​and motivations. The rejection of novelties, first of the Peter's era, and then of all subsequent ones, contributed to the gradual formation of a whole system of everyday prohibitions. Old-style clothing, wearing a beard, stopping smoking are now perceived by the Old Believers themselves and the surrounding population as symbols of the group. In addition, behavioral taboos are declared that are mandatory for every "true" Old Believer (a ban on sharing a meal with representatives of another confession, pronunciation of certain words, smoking, etc.).

Thus, both in historical retrospect and now, all the symbolic resources of the Old Believer communities are thrown into the preservation of purity, the threat of which comes from others, from the "worldly". For the constant maintenance of the border, everything is used - from radical eschatology to endogamy and chasnichestvo. Here, according to R. Crammy's classification, the “text community” dominates, which presupposes the identification of authenticity with strict normativity. However, if you look more closely, it turns out that the super-task of preservation cannot be accomplished except through a detailed, inventive system of adaptation, which also includes a repertoire of legitimate means of breaking the norm.

In addition to creating a boundary between “friends” and “aliens,” every society, taking care of its integrity, develops a system of social codes or behavioral programs aimed at maintaining internal balance and developing various types of collective cohesion. The consolidation of members of Old Believer communities is facilitated by many group ties: these are marriage contacts, and council decisions on dogmatic and everyday issues, and general church holidays, and the veneration of their own shrines.

In addition, a powerful psychological factor of consolidation, as well as one of the components of the Old Believers 'group self-identification, which makes it possible to draw an unmistakable border along the “we” - “they” line, is the Old Believers' perception of their community as a collective custodian of sacred book texts. The traditionally important role of literacy determined the existence in the Old Believer oral culture of a large number of secondary texts (interpretations of written works), reflecting the mental characteristics of the entire community. The specificity of culture is manifested already at the level of selection of written works that are included in the communication processes, based on the search for analogies between the events of sacred history and the history of the Old Believers. Such a comparison of the content of canonical texts and significant for the Old Believers of phenomena and events serves them as a way of arguing the truth of their own beliefs and contributes to the formation of a positive identity, strengthening of confessional identity.

Historical memory as one of the components of group consciousness is also expressed in oral works from the circle of "small" or "local" history, which also reveal distant and near projections - from legends about legendary ancestors to the history of their community. As the study has shown, the most archaic layers of local oral history, not based on Old Believer books, are more preserved among the Finno-Ugric groups (legends about the Chudi, ancestors-pioneers, endowed with the features of cultural heroes, etc.).

Thus, the aspiration of the Old Believers, declared by the Old Believers, for a complete rejection of innovations and complete isolation, inevitably faced the impossibility of their practical implementation, which prompted a constant search for a compromise and new ways to preserve tradition in the face of changing reality. It was traditionalism that confronted the Old Believers with the need to choose more flexible relationships with the outside world, and, paradoxically, stimulated their creative and social activity. In this regard, some regularities can be identified.

First, the degrees of declared and real closeness of the Old Believer communities do not always coincide; absolute isolation, both in historical retrospect and now, is rather a subjective idealized characteristic of the group, supported from within and from the outside. The focus, intensity of interactions between Old Believers and the environment, as well as the level of collective control in this area, can vary depending on the context and situation.

Secondly, the Old Believer culture, like any other, is not a rigid structure with a simple and unambiguous correspondence between all components, when the change or loss of one of them leads to its complete destruction. In the changing conditions, far from all the components of the Old Believer culture are preserved, but only those that relate to the sphere of the sacred. With regard to this area, cultural scientists use the concept of "cultural core", understanding by it a set of certain ideas, norms, dogmas, adopted by the absolute majority of members of society as the basis for self-affirmation in the world1. The phenomena close to the sacred center are more conservative than those in the profane peripheral and more mobile part of the culture. Thus, displaced from everyday life, the Russian folk costume, having turned out to be "prayer" clothes, partly retains its traditional features. The prohibitions proclaimed by the canons, but not observed in ordinary life, are actualized during the performance of rituals, manual Easter, which does not find practical application, is carefully handed down from generation to generation, etc.

Thirdly, as ethnographic studies show, the norms declared by the Old Believers themselves do not remain unchanged, but are periodically revised taking into account specific situations. This can be seen in the examples of religious literature (later commentaries on church rituals) and everyday innovations. Old Believers' views on technical inventions evolve from active rejection to active use; eschatological dates are postponed and re-justified; the rationale for the introduction of previously unseen subjects into everyday practice is proposed; prohibited products are replaced by others, etc. That is, the set of rules turns out to be elastic and responsive to external impulses. The search for ways to transform new or foreign cultural phenomena into the norm presupposes either confirmation of its compliance with the teachings of the "holy fathers" by referring to an authoritative source, or interpretation in terms and categories of one's own culture. In this process, the discipline set by the canon is necessarily observed, but there is also room for free experimentation.

Fourthly, the implementation of basic norms is not practiced by the entire team, but by only a small part of its members, who voluntarily assumed responsibility for preserving the tradition and limited external contacts. The transition to this category, which is possible for each member of the community, is made, as a rule, by people who do not participate in various social activities. Differentiation of "conciliar" and "secular" in popov-free communities and informal division into groups according to the degree of church-going - in priest-like communities allows creating legitimate mediators, firstly, between the "world" and "true believers", and secondly, between the religious canon and practice ... At the same time, the continuity in the transfer of the accumulated experience is not interrupted, its translation is ensured.

Thus, the conducted research testifies to the high adaptive abilities of the Old Believers. At the same time, the observed ratio of traditional and new forms always remains such, which allows Old Believer communities to organically fit into the surrounding context and develop dynamically. In this regard, the mechanism of their self-preservation can be defined as follows - maintaining a balance or optimal balance between tradition and innovation, between isolation and openness.

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