Brief dictionary of physical terms. Glossary of terms Physics terms
There are two kinds of electric charges, positive and negative.
Charges can be transferred (for example, by direct contact) from one body to another. Unlike body mass, electric charge is not an inherent characteristic of a given body. The same body in different conditions can have a different charge.
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. This shows the fundamental difference between electromagnetic forces and gravitational ones. Gravitational forces are always forces of attraction.
One of the fundamental laws of nature is the experimentally established law of conservation of electric charge. In an isolated system, the algebraic sum of the charges of all bodies remains constant:
q 1 + q 1 + q 3 + ... + q n= const.
The law of conservation of electric charge states that in a closed system of bodies processes of the birth or disappearance of charges of only one sign cannot be observed.
From the modern point of view, charge carriers are elementary particles. All ordinary bodies are composed of atoms, which include positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons and neutral particles - neutrons. Protons and neutrons are part of atomic nuclei, electrons form the electron shell of atoms. The electric charges of the proton and electron modulo are exactly the same and equal to the elementary charge e:
e\u003d 1.602177 10 -19 C ≈ 1.6 10 -19 C
In a neutral atom, the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of electrons in the shell. This number is called the atomic number. An atom of a given substance can lose one or more electrons or gain an extra electron. In these cases, the neutral atom turns into a positively or negatively charged ion.
A charge can be transferred from one body to another only in portions containing an integer number of elementary charges. Thus, the electric charge of the body is a discrete quantity.
Physical quantities that can only take on a discrete series of values are called quantized. elementary charge e is a quantum (smallest portion) of electric charge.
It should be noted that in modern elementary particle physics, the existence of so-called quarks, particles with a fractional charge, is assumed. However, quarks have not yet been observed in the free state.
In conventional laboratory experiments, an electrometer is used to detect and measure electric charges - a device consisting of a metal rod and an arrow that can rotate around a horizontal axis. The arrowhead is insulated from the metal case. When a charged body comes into contact with the rod of an electrometer, electric charges of the same sign are distributed along the rod and the arrow. The forces of electrical repulsion cause the arrow to turn at a certain angle, by which one can judge the charge transferred to the rod of the electrometer.
Physics (from other Greek φύσις - nature)- the field of natural science: the science of the simplest and, at the same time, the most general laws of nature, of matter, its structure and movement. The laws of physics underlie all natural science.The term "physics" appears for the first time in the writings of one of the greatest thinkers of antiquity - Aristotle (4th century BC). Initially, the terms "physics" and "philosophy" were synonymous, since both disciplines were based on the desire to explain the laws of the functioning of the Universe. However, as a result of the scientific revolution of the 16th century, physics developed into an independent scientific branch.
In the modern world, the importance of physics is extremely high. Everything that distinguishes modern society from the society of past centuries appeared as a result of the practical application of physical discoveries. So, research in the field of electromagnetism led to the appearance of telephones and later mobile phones, discoveries in thermodynamics made it possible to create a car, the development of electronics led to the appearance of computers. The development of photonics can make it possible to create fundamentally new - photonic - computers and other photonic equipment that will replace existing electronic technology. The development of gas dynamics has led to the emergence of aircraft and helicopters.
E
UNIT is the atomic mass unit. A unit used in atomic and nuclear physics to express the masses of atoms, molecules and elementary particles, equal to 1/12 of the mass of the carbon nuclide 12C.
off-system unit — A unit of physical quantity not included in any system of units.
fractional unit - The unit of a physical quantity is a certain number of times (usually 10 to some integer power) less than the system unit of a physical quantity.
Unit - see UNIT of physical quantity.
multiple unit - The unit of a physical quantity is a certain number of times (usually 10 of any integer power) greater than the system unit of a physical quantity.
basic unit - An arbitrary system unit of a physical quantity.
derived unit - A unit of a physical quantity derived from base units using equations relating physical quantities.
system unit — A unit of physical quantity included in any system of units.
engineering unit of mass— The unit of mass in the system of units of the MKGSS.
unit of physical quantity - A physical quantity that, by definition, has been assigned a numerical value equal to one.
E-CAPTURE see electronic GRIP.
Yo
CAPACITY — mutual electrical unit − The characteristic of two conductors, determined by the ratio of the magnitude of the charge transferred from one conductor to another, to the change in the potential difference between the conductors caused by this transfer.
electric capacitance - The characteristic of the ability of a conductor to contain an electric charge, equal to the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on the conductor to the potential of the conductor.
AND
HEAT CAPACITY- The temperature reached when the fuel is completely burned in air.
RIGIDITY radiation— Characterization of the penetrating ability of ionizing radiation into matter.
magnetic hardness - The measure of the momentum of a charged particle moving in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, equal to the product of magnetic induction and the radius of curvature of the particle's trajectory.
mechanical rigidity — A measure of the compliance of a body of deformation under a given type or magnitude of load.
LIQUID- Aggregate state of a substance, which, under external mechanical influences, combines the features of a solid state (practical incompressibility) and a gaseous state (shape variability).
the ideal liquid A fluid in which there is no internal friction.
quantum liquid - A liquid whose properties are determined by quantum effects, in particular superfluidity.
non-Newtonian liquid - A liquid whose viscosity is not constant.
Newtonian liquid - A fluid that, in its flow, obeys the law of proportionality between shear stresses and shear rate.
overheated liquid - The metastable state of a liquid heated to a temperature above the temperature of its equilibrium phase transition to a gaseous state at a given pressure.
supercooled liquid- The metastable state of a liquid cooled to a temperature below the temperature of its equilibrium phase transition to a solid state at a given pressure.
W
LAW— 1. physical LAW. 2. see LAW of change of physical quantity (see also LAWS).
Avogadro's law- The law of ideal gases, according to which, at the same pressures and the same temperatures, equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules.
Law of Amag- The law of ideal gases, according to which the volume of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of their partial volumes.
Law of Amonton- see Coulomb's LAW (3.).
Ampere's law- 1. The law of mechanical interaction of two electric currents flowing through small segments of conductors. 2. The formula for determining the force acting from the magnetic field on the electric current flowing through a small segment of the conductor.
Law of Archimedes- The law of hydrostatics and aerostatics, which determines the force with which a liquid or gas in the field of gravity acts on a body immersed in them.
Biot-Savart-Laplace law- The law that determines the induction of the magnetic field created by the current element at a certain point in space.
Boyle's law - Mariotte- The law of ideal gases, according to which for a given mass of gas at a constant temperature, the product of the gas pressure and the volume occupied by it is constant.
The law of the relationship between mass and energy- The law of relativistic dynamics, according to which the total energy of a body is equal to the product of the mass of the body and the square of the speed of light.
3law of universal gravitation- The law that determines the force of universal interaction with which one material point attracts another.
Newton's second law- The law of mechanics, according to which the first time derivative of the momentum of a material point is equal to the sum of all forces acting on the point.
Gay-Lussac's law- The law of ideal gases, according to which the volume of a given mass of gas at constant pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.
Hooke's law- The law according to which the mechanical stress during elastic deformation of a solid body is proportional to the relative deformation.
Dalton's law— The law according to which the pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of their partial pressures.
Law of movement of a point— 1. Dependence of point coordinates on time. 2. see EQUATION of motion.
Joule-Lenz law- The law that determines the amount of heat (1.) Released by a direct electric current in a conductor.
dynamic law- point movements. see EQUATION of motion.
Law of Dulong and Petit- The rule of thumb, according to which the molar heat capacity of simple chemicals at a constant volume and a temperature close to 300 K, is equal to 3 times the universal gas constant.
radiation law- The law expressing the distribution of energy in the spectrum of equilibrium radiation of an absolutely black body.
3law of change of physical quantity— Dependence of a physical quantity on time.
kinematic law- point movements. see the LAW of movement of a point (1.).
Coulomb's law- 1. The law that determines the force of interaction between two point electric charges in a vacuum. 2. The law that determines the force of interaction between two magnetic poles located at the ends of thin magnetized spokes. 3. The law according to which the force of sliding friction is proportional to the force of normal pressure. 4. The law relating the rolling friction force to the force of normal pressure and the radius of a cylinder or ball rolling on a flat surface.
Ohm's law- The law that establishes the relationship between the strength of the electric current in the conductor and the voltage between two fixed points (sections) of this conductor.
basic law of rotational dynamics- The law of mechanics, relating the change with time of the angular momentum of a mechanical system with the main moment of forces applied to the system.
The basic law of the dynamics of translational motion- The law of mechanics, which relates the change with time of the momentum of the system of material points with the main vector of external forces applied to the system.
3law of reflection- The law that establishes the direction of light rays (waves) after their reflection from a smooth (mirror) surface that separates media with different properties.
Pascal's law- The law of hydrostatics, according to which the pressure exerted on a liquid by external forces is transmitted by it equally in all directions.
Newton's first law- The law of mechanics, according to which a material point maintains a state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion until the impact from other bodies takes it out of this state.
full current law- The law according to which the circulation of the magnetic field strength vector of a direct electric current along a closed circuit is proportional to the algebraic sum of the currents covered by this circuit.
3law of refraction- The law that establishes the change in the direction of light rays (waves) when passing through a sharp boundary between two transparent media with different properties.
The law of uniform distribution of energy over degrees of freedom- see the LAW of equipartition.
3equidistribution law- The law according to which, on average, the same kinetic energy falls on each degree of freedom of a system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium.
Wien's displacement law- The law that determines the wavelength, which accounts for the maximum energy in the spectrum of equilibrium radiation of an absolutely black body.
Law of conservation of momentum- The law of mechanics, according to which the momentum of a closed system does not change over time.
The law of conservation and transformation of energy- The law according to which in any processes occurring in an isolated system, its total energy does not change.
Law of conservation of mechanical energy- The law of mechanics, according to which the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of a closed mechanical system, in which only conservative forces act, does not change with time.
Law of conservation of angular momentum- The law of mechanics, according to which the angular momentum of a mechanical system relative to a fixed point remains unchanged if the main moment of forces applied to the system is identically equal to zero relative to this point.
3law of conservation of electric charge- The law according to which the algebraic sum of electric charges in an isolated system remains constant.
Newton's third law- The law of mechanics, according to which the forces by which two material points act on each other are numerically equal and directed in opposite directions along one straight line.
physical law- Found in experience or established theoretically by generalizing experimental data, a quantitative or qualitative objective dependence of some physical quantities on others.
Fourier law- The law that determines the distribution of heat in unevenly heated media.
Charles' law- The law according to which the pressure of a given mass of an ideal gas at constant volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction- The law that determines the value and sign of the electromotive force of electromagnetic induction in an electrical circuit.
dynamic laws- Laws expressing the necessary causal relationship, in which the relationship between cause and effect is unambiguous.
Kepler's law- The laws of motion of a material point in the zero of the central force, and in particular the motion of the planets around the Sun.
statistical laws- Laws expressing a necessary causal relationship, in which the relationship between cause and effect is characterized by the probability of its feasibility.
SLOWING TIME- In the theory of relativity - the slowing down of the course of events occurring towards a frame of reference moving relative to the observer, in comparison with their course for an observer who is at rest relative to this frame.
3law of neutrons— Decrease in the kinetic energy of neutrons as a result of multiple collisions with atomic nuclei of the moderator material.
Neutron moderator— A substance used to slow down neutrons in a nuclear reactor.
LAG WITH TURNAGE- The phenomenon of plastic flow delay after a very rapid application of mechanical stress exceeding the yield strength.
Margin of safety— The ratio of the maximum allowable theoretical load to the load at which safe operation of the structure is possible, taking into account random overloads, unforeseen defects and the unreliability of the initial data for theoretical calculations.
3law of stability- The degree of remoteness of the magnitude of mechanical loads from their limiting values, corresponding to the loss of stability or bearing capacity of structures.
CHARGE baryonic— One of the internal characteristics of elementary particles, different from zero for baryons and zero for leptons, and equal to zero for all other particles.
induced electric charge- An electric charge arising in a part of a neutral conductor as a result of the separation of positive and negative electric charges present in it.
lepton charge— One of the internal characteristics of elementary particles, different from zero for leptons and equal to zero for all other particles.
magnetic charge— A concept similar to electric charge and introduced in the calculation of static magnetic fields.
space charge— see space CHARGE.
space charge- Electric charge dispersed in a certain volume.
specific charge of an electron— The ratio of the electric charge of an electron to its mass.
color charge— In quantum chromodynamics, a parameter analogous to the electric charge that determines the strong interaction of quarks and gluons.
electric charge— 1. The source of the electric field associated with the material carrier. 2. The value that determines the intensity of the electromagnetic interaction of charged particles.
elementary electric charge- The minimum electric charge, which is a multiple of all the electric charges of bodies.
SHUTTER optical- A device that transmits or blocks the light flux for a predetermined time.
DAMPING WITH VIBRATIONS— Reducing the amplitude of free oscillations of the system over time.
TIGHTENING with hesitation- Saving the frequency of self-oscillations when changing the parameters of the oscillatory system, which makes the excitation of self-oscillations at a different frequency more favorable.
CAPTURE radiation- The absorption of a neutron by an atomic nucleus, in which the resulting nucleus passes from an excited state to the ground state by emitting gamma - quanta or internal conversion electrons.
electronic capture— Absorption by an atomic nucleus of an electron of one of the electron shells of an atom with the simultaneous emission of a neutrino. CAPTURE with hesitation. The phenomenon consisting in the fact that when an external periodic force acts on an oscillatory system, the frequency of its self-oscillations ceases to depend on the parameters of the system and becomes equal to the frequency of the acting force.
PROTECTION radiation— 1. Measures to ensure a safe level of exposure to equipment and people working near sources of radioactive radiation. 2. Protection of the biosphere from artificial contamination with radioactive substances.
SOUND- Propagation in space of elastic waves in the frequency range perceived by the human ear, and also the physiological perception of these waves by the organ of hearing.
zero sound- Oscillations that can arise and propagate in Fermi liquids at temperatures close to absolute zero, due to violation of the equilibrium distribution of quasiparticles.
SONIC LUMINESCENCE– SONOLUMINESCENCE
MIRROR- A body that has a polished surface and is capable of forming an optical image by reflecting light rays.
magnetic mirror- The configuration of the magnetic field used in controlled thermonuclear fusion installations to reflect particles into the central part of the volume occupied by the plasma.
SIVERT— Unit of equivalent radiation dose in SI.
VALUES- effective values of current and voltage. The values of the indicated quantities for such a direct current, which, on the same active electrical resistance, allocate power that is the same as the average power for alternating current.
SOL— A colloidal system with a liquid disperse medium, in which the particles of the dispersed phase are not bound into a spatial structure.
ZONE- active zone - The area of \u200b\u200ba nuclear reactor in which nuclear fuel is located, a chain reaction of nuclear fission proceeds and energy is released.
3one acoustic shadow- An area in which sound from distant powerful sources is not heard, while at greater distances it reappears.
near wave zone— The region of the wave field in which Fresnel diffraction is observed.
3one of Brillouin- A region of the space of wave vectors, inside which the energy of an electron in a crystal changes continuously, and experiences a discontinuity at its boundaries.
valence band— The range of admissible values of the energy of electrons in a crystal, completely filled with valence electrons at absolute zero temperature.
wave zone- A region of space separated from the radiating system at distances significantly exceeding the dimensions of the system and the length of the waves emitted by it.
3she reproduction- The area of a nuclear breeder reactor, in which the expanded reproduction of fissile nuclei takes place.
far wave zone— The region of the wave field in which Fraunhofer diffraction is observed.
forbidden zone— The range of energies that electrons cannot have in an ideal crystal.
zone of silence- see ZONE of acoustic shadow.
conduction band- The valence band, in which not all energy levels are occupied by electrons.
permitted zone- The range of energies that electrons can have in an ideal crystal.
energy zone— One of the permitted or prohibited zones.
PROBE- acoustic - A device for measuring sound pressure.
atomic probe- A combination of an ion projector with a mass spectrometer, which allows you to register individual ions pulled out from the surface of the analyzed solids.
electrical probe- An electrode introduced into the medium to determine the characteristics of the electric field, charge and current at various points in space.
Fresnel zones- Sections of the surface of the wave front, the optical path difference from the boundaries of which to a given point is equal to half the wavelength of the waves emitted by the source.
VISION- binocular. Vision with two eyes.
🔥562 times viewedAbsolute zero temperature - the lowest of all possible temperature values. At absolute zero, matter has no thermal energy.
Annihilation - a process in which a particle and its antiparticle, colliding, mutually annihilate each other.
Antiparticle - each particle of matter has a corresponding antiparticle. When a particle and an antiparticle collide, they annihilate, as a result of which energy is released and other particles are born.
Atom is the smallest particle of ordinary matter. An atom consists of a tiny nucleus (composed of protons and neutrons) and electrons revolving around it.
white dwarf - a stable cold star, which is in equilibrium due to the fact that, due to the Pauli exclusion principle, repulsive forces act between electrons.
Big Bang- Singularity at the time of the creation of the Universe.
big cotton - Singularity at the end point of the existence of the Universe.
Weight - the force with which the gravitational field acts on the body. Body weight is proportional to body weight, but does not coincide with it.
virtual particle - in quantum mechanics - a particle that cannot be registered directly, but whose existence is confirmed by measurable effects.
Gamma radiation - electromagnetic radiation with a very short wavelength, emitted during radioactive decay or during collisions of elementary particles.
Geodetic ~ the shortest (or longest) path between two points.
Naked singularity A singularity in space-time that is not inside a black hole.
event horizon is the boundary of a black hole.
Gravitational interaction - the weakest of the four fundamental interactions, which has a large radius of action. All particles of matter participate in the gravitational interaction.
Wavelength - the distance between two adjacent wave crests or between two adjacent wave troughs.
Law of energy conservation - the law of science, according to which energy (or its mass equivalent) can neither be created nor destroyed.
Quantum - the minimum portion, which measures the emission or absorption of waves.
Quantum mechanics - a theory developed on the basis of Planck's quantum mechanical principle and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
Planck's quantum mechanical principle (Planck's law of radiation) is that light (or any other classical waves) can be emitted or absorbed only in discrete portions - quanta - with an energy proportional to their frequency.
Quark - an elementary (charged) particle participating in a strong interaction. Protons and neutrons are each made up of three quarks.When a high density of nuclear matter is reached, for example, during a strong explosion, nucleons (protons and neutrons) lose their boundaries. It turns out a new state of matter - without hadrons - quark-gluon plasma. Presumably, this was the state of matter in the first moments after the Big Bang.
Confinement - confinement, confinement of colored quarks and gluons inside hadrons.
Coordinates - numbers that determine the position of a point in space and time.
Space censorship – the assumption about the inadmissibility of bare singularities.
Cosmological constant - a mathematical auxiliary quantity introduced by Einstein in order for space-time to acquire a tendency to expand.
Cosmology A science that studies the universe as a whole.
Redshift Reddening of the light emitted by a star moving away from us caused by the Doppler effect.
A magnetic field - a field that creates magnetic forces. Now the magnetic field and the electric field are combined into an electromagnetic field.
Weight - the amount of substance contained in the body. A measure of a body's inertia or the degree of its resistance to acceleration.
imaginary time is time measured in imaginary units.
Neutrino - the lightest (possibly massless) elementary particle of matter, participating only in weak and gravitational interactions.
Neutron - an uncharged particle, very close in properties to a proton. Neutrons make up more than half of the particles that make up most atomic nuclei.
neutron star - a cold star that exists due to the repulsion of neutrons due to the Pauli principle.
General theory of relativity - A theory created by Einstein, which is based on the assumption that the laws of science should be the same for all observers, regardless of how these observers move. In general relativity, the existence of gravitational interaction is explained by the curvature of four-dimensional space-time.
Primordial black hole - a black hole that arose at a very early stage in the development of the universe.
Positron is the antiparticle (positively charged) of the electron.
Field - something that exists at all points in space and time, in contrast to a particle, which exists only at one point at a time.
Chandrasekhar limit is the maximum possible mass of a stable cold star, above which the star must collapse into a black hole.
Pauli exclusion principle – two identical particles with spin 1/2 cannot (within the limits given by the uncertainty principle) simultaneously have the same positions in space and different velocities.
Proportionality - the statement "X is proportional to Y" means that when Y is multiplied by some number, X is multiplied by the same number. The statement "X is inversely proportional to Y" means that when Y is multiplied by some number, X is divided by the same number.
Spatial Dimension - any of the three space-like dimensions of space-time, i.e. any dimension other than temporal.
space-time is a four-dimensional space, the points of which correspond to events.
Proton is a positively charged particle. Protons form about half of all particles that make up the nuclei of most atoms.
Radioactivity - spontaneous transformation of one atomic nucleus into another.
light second (light year) - the distance traveled by light in one second (one year).
light cone – a surface in space-time that limits the possible directions of light rays passing through a given event.
Strong interaction is the strongest and shortest-range of the four fundamental forces. Due to the strong interaction, quarks are held inside protons and neutrons, and protons and neutrons, when brought together, form atomic nuclei.
Singularity - a point in space-time at which its curvature becomes infinite.
Weak interaction is the second weakest of the four known interactions. Has a very short range. All particles of matter take part in the weak interaction, but the particles that carry the interaction do not participate in it.
Event - a point in space-time, which is determined by the position in space and time.
Range - splitting of a wave (for example, electromagnetic) into frequency components.
Special theory of relativity - Einstein's theory, the starting point of which is that the laws of science should be the same for all freely moving observers, regardless of their speeds.
Spin (spin - rotate, spin) - an internal property of the particle associated with its rotation around its own axis.
Stationary state - a state that does not change with time: a ball rotating at a constant speed is in a stationary state, because, despite the rotation, at every moment it looks the same.
Singularity theorem - a theorem in which it is proved that under certain conditions a singularity must exist and that, in particular, the beginning of the Universe must be a singularity.
grand unified theory - a theory that combines electromagnetic, strong and weak interactions.
Acceleration - the rate of change of the speed of any object.
particle accelerator - a device that, with the help of electromagnets, makes it possible to accelerate moving charged particles, constantly increasing their energy.
No border condition - a view according to which the Universe is finite, but has no boundaries (in imaginary time).
Phase – for a wave, the position of a point in the cycle at a given point in time: a measure of whether the point is on a crest, a trough, or somewhere in between.
Background of microwave radiation - radiation that arose during the glow of the hot early Universe (called relic). It is now experiencing such a strong redshift that it does not register as light, but as microwaves (radio waves with centimeter wavelengths).
Photon is a quantum of light.
Particle-wave dualism - the idea underlying quantum mechanics that there is no difference between particles and waves, particles can sometimes behave like waves, and waves can behave like particles.
Frequency - for a wave, this is the number of complete cycles per second.
Cherenkov radiation - emission of light by a charged particle when it moves in a substance with a constant speed exceeding the speed of light propagation in this substance.
Black hole - a region of space-time from which nothing, not even light, can get out, because the action of gravity is extremely strong in it.
Electric charge - property of a particle due to which it repels (or attracts) other particles having a charge of the same (or opposite) sign.
Electromagnetic interaction - the interaction that occurs between particles that have an electric charge. The second strongest of the four fundamental forces.
Electron - a particle with a negative electric charge and circulating in an atom around the nucleus.
Elementary particle - a particle that is considered indivisible.
The Energy of Grand Unified Theory is the energy above which the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions are expected to become indistinguishable.
Energy of the electroweak theory is the energy (about 100 GeV), above which the differences between electromagnetic and weak interactions disappear.
Doppler effect – change in the frequency of waves when their source and observer move relative to each other.
Nuclear fusion - the process of collision of two nuclei and their subsequent merger into one heavier nucleus.
Core - the central part of the atom, which consists only of protons and neutrons held in the nucleus by strong interaction.
State vector- a quantity that completely describes the state of a micro-object (electron, proton, atom, molecule) and in general any closed quantum system.
In quantum theory, the state vector is usually denoted by the symbol | >. If some set of data defining the system is denoted by the letter x, then the state vector will look like | x>.
wave function(WF) - a special case, one of the possible forms of representation of the state vector as a function of coordinates and time or variables associated with it. This is a representation of the system, as close as possible to the usual classical description, which assumes the existence of a common and independent space-time.
The description of the state of a microobject with the help of the WF has a statistical, that is, a probabilistic character: the square of the absolute value (modulus) of the WF indicates the value of the probabilities of those quantities on which the WF depends. For example, if the dependence of the WF of a particle on the coordinates X, at, z and time t, then the square of the modulus of this WF determines the probability of detecting a particle at the moment t at the point with coordinates X, at, z. Since the probability of a state is determined by the square of the WF, it is also called the probability amplitude.
Harmonic oscillator(GO) - a physical system that performs harmonic oscillations around the position of stable equilibrium. For GO, the potential energy of the system U is determined by the expression , where x- deviation of the system from the equilibrium position; k- constant coefficient. For a harmonic oscillator, the average kinetic energy of the system over the period of oscillation is exactly equal to the average potential energy.
A quantum oscillator is characterized by a discrete set of states, energy levels En which are located at equal distances 
, where n = 0, 1, 2...; h- Planck's constant; ? - own frequency of oscillations.
Hilbert space(GP) - in relation to the problems of quantum mechanics, this is the space of possible states of the system, specified by a set of its own (basic, or basic) states.
GP elements must have convergence properties (i.e., consist of vectors whose "length" is finite), for which the concept of proximity between objects is established in a certain way.
Operators play a significant role in GP. The operator defined in the GP acts on one element of the GP and translates it into another.
Depending on the task, we can choose one or another set of basic states. If we are interested in the spatial coordinates of the particle, then an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space is chosen, since the coordinate is a continuous quantity, and each point in space is associated with a separate state of the particle. If we are interested in the behavior of the spin of a particle, we can choose as a basis the possible spin states for the particle, for example, “spin-up” and “spin-down”.
Decoherence- a physical process, which is accompanied by a decrease in quantum entanglement as a result of the interaction of the system with the environment. Decoherence is accompanied by the appearance of its classical features: subsystems "appear" from a non-local state, acquiring visible local forms. This process can be described as the formation of quantum correlations (or entanglement) between the system and its environment, arising in the process of their interaction. In this sense, decoherence is identical to quantum measurement.
Decoherence, caused by the interaction of a quantum system with its environment, destroys quantum effects, turning them into classical ones. Due to this interaction, the states of the system are "entangled" with so many states of the environment that coherent effects are "lost" in the ongoing averaging and become unobservable.
Decoherence is a movement from the source, the center - to the periphery, a multitude of externally unrelated phenomena. A completely decohered system is heading towards chaos.
In relation to the human psyche, decoherence means a narrowing of attention on one side of the phenomenon, the object of attraction or addiction, as a result of which a person finds himself in a narrowed space of perception. He accepts one side of the phenomenon, but not the other.
Diffraction- scattering of microparticles (electrons, neutrons, atoms, etc.) by crystals or molecules of liquids and gases, in which deflected beams are formed from the initial particle beam, the direction and intensity of which depend on the structure of the scattering object.
Particle diffraction arises due to the interference of the components formed during the interaction of the initial beam with the periodic structure of the object and can only be understood on the basis of quantum theory. Diffraction of particles, from the point of view of classical physics, is impossible.
Diffraction of light- a phenomenon observed when light propagates past the sharp edges of various bodies (for example, slits). In this case, there is a violation of the straightness of the propagation of light, that is, a deviation from the laws of geometric optics.
Entangled (quantum-correlated) states(ЗС) - a form of correlations of composite systems that does not have a classical analogue. CS is the state of a composite system that cannot be divided into separate, completely independent and independent parts, that is, it is an inseparable (inseparable) state. APs can arise in a system whose parts interacted, and then the system broke up into subsystems that did not interact with each other. For such systems, fluctuations of individual parts are interconnected through non-local quantum correlations, when a change in one part of the system at the same time affects its other parts (even those separated in space by infinitely large distances).
In the case of open systems interacting with the environment, the connection between particles will be preserved until the superposition of states turns into a mixture under the influence of interaction with surrounding objects.
Interference- addition in space of two (or several) waves, in which at different points an increase or decrease in the amplitude of the resulting wave is obtained. If the crests of one wave coincide with the crests of another wave, then amplification occurs and the amplitude increases. If the crests of one wave fall on the troughs of another, then the waves cancel each other out, and the amplitude of the resulting wave weakens.
Interference is characteristic of all waves, regardless of their nature: for waves on the surface of a liquid, elastic (for example, sound) waves, electromagnetic (for example, radio waves or light) waves.
quantum system- this term indicates not the size of the system, but the way it is described by the methods of quantum physics in terms of states.
Classical correlations- the relationship of the characteristics of any objects through ordinary interactions through the exchange of energy. The speed of establishment of classical correlations between objects is limited by the speed of light.
coherence(from lat. cohaerens- being in connection) - the coordinated flow in time of several oscillatory or wave processes, which manifests itself when they are added. Oscillations are called coherent if the difference between their phases remains constant in time and, when the oscillations are added, determines the amplitude of the total oscillation.
Correlation(from lat. correlation- interdependence) - a systematic and conditional relationship between two data series.
Density matrix- a matrix (table of elements), with the help of which both pure quantum states and mixed states that arise during the interaction of the system with the environment are described.
Nonlocality- a property of entangled states, which cannot be compared with local elements of reality. The term "non-locality" is often used to describe the extra-spatial connection of entangled states, when one particle or part of the system immediately responds to changes with another particle or subsystem, regardless of the distance between them.
Uncertainty ratio(uncertainty principle) - one of the provisions of quantum theory, stating that any physical system cannot be in states in which the coordinates of its center of inertia and momentum simultaneously take on exact values. An equivalent formulation is that the energy of any system can be measured with an accuracy not exceeding , where h- Planck's constant; ? t- measurement time. In other words, the classical concepts of position and momentum are applicable to microparticles only within the limits established by the Heisenberg relations. Thus, the law of conservation of energy during short periods of time may not be fulfilled, this makes it possible to create virtual particles (or pairs) that exist for a short time. According to quantum field theory, any interaction can be represented as a set of processes involving virtual particles.
Inseparability- the fundamental impossibility of dividing the system into independent and independent of each other component parts. Same as quantum entanglement.
Light polarization- a property of optical radiation, consisting in the inequality of different directions in a plane perpendicular to the light beam (the direction of propagation of the light wave). This is due to the fact that the vectors of the electric field strength oscillating in the light wave E and magnetic field strength H are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation and distinguish certain directions in space.
Energy flow characterizes the intensity of energy exchange of any object with the environment. The energy flux density is the amount of energy flowing per unit time through a unit area of a surface located perpendicular to the flow. Energy flows inside the body arise due to the uneven distribution of energy, that is, due to the presence of energy gradients that occur, for example, during accelerations. In relation to our perception, this is felt as “spirit captured”, “blood rushed to the head”, “hair stirred” or a soft feeling of what is happening in the body.
Scattering- the process of interaction of microparticles with various objects (including other particles), during which their energy, direction of movement, internal state, etc. can change.
Recoherence- a process that is the reverse of decoherence, that is, the transition from mixed (classical) states to purely quantum ones. This is the process of acquiring quantum properties by a system, including quantum entanglement, when interaction with the environment is terminated or weakened. For the system to recohere into a quantum state, it is necessary to stop or weaken the exchange of information with the environment.
In the course of recoherence, dense material shells “blur”, and the boundaries between bodies begin to disappear, the subsystems merge into a single non-local quantum system. Recoherence means movement from the periphery of flickering phenomena to the center, to their source.
In relation to the human psyche, recoherence means awareness, synthesis, getting into the source, that is, the transition to understanding what is happening from a wider spectrum of perception of the world. For recoherence, it is necessary to be able to distinguish a fairly complete set of states of a certain event space and be able to interact with them in a controlled manner.
In this case, recoherence comes down to defocusing of attention, that is, removing the focus of attention from the object, thought or feeling that caused addiction without suppressing them.
In subjective perception, recoherence can be characterized by a state of rest, clarity, non-occupancy, an expanded vision of what is happening. In the case of "recoherence" of everyday troubles, the result can be expressed in the words: "This question no longer interests me"; “I noticed so many new and interesting things around”; “It turned out that everything is very good”; “I clearly understood what had to be done.”
mixed condition- such a state of the system that cannot be described by a single state vector, it can only be represented by a density matrix. In a mixed state, the most complete set of independent physical quantities that determine the state of the system is not set, but only the probabilities are determined w 1, w 2... detect the system in various quantum states described by the state vectors |1>, |2>...
State of the system- realization of certain potential possibilities of the system, possible under given conditions. It is characterized by a set of quantities that can be measured.
Pure state(pure quantum state) - a state that can be described by a state vector. Pure states describe closed systems.
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