The seven most famous palace coups in Russia. Estimates of the reign of Paul in the historical literature Estimates of the reign of Paul in the historical literature

On December 6, 1741, one of the palace coups of the 18th century took place in Russia, as a result of which the young emperor John Antonovich was overthrown. To this date, we have collected stories about seven palace coups.

Elizabeth I Petrovna
2013-12-05 16:48

Palace coup of 1741

After the death of Anna Ioannovna, John Antonovich was elevated to the throne. Ernst Johann Biron becomes regent until he comes of age. After Field Marshal Count Christopher Munnich, his mother Anna Leopoldovna was appointed regent under him. The daughter of Peter the Great decided to remove them from the throne. The coup d'état came as no surprise to anyone. Its participants were those on whom Elizabeth subsequently relied during her reign. The process was led by the life physician I.G. Lestok and Elizabeth herself. Great support was provided by the French envoy, the Marquis de Chétardie.

Elizabeth appeared at the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment and delivered a speech to the grenadiers, who swore allegiance to her and headed towards the palace. The guardsmen passed into the Winter Palace without any resistance from the guard, and Elizabeth Petrovna, who was carried into the palace on her shoulders, with the support of her inner circle, proclaimed herself the new empress. In a brief manifesto, she explained her act by the request of loyal subjects and blood relationship with the royal house. Princess Anna Leopoldovna was arrested, and her son John, on the orders of Elizabeth, was seized only after he woke up.

Elizaveta Petrovna died in 1761 in great suffering, but assured others that they were too small compared to her sins.

Palace coup of 1725

In 1722, Peter I abolished the order of succession to the throne by will or by order of the cathedral, replacing it with a personal appointment. But he did not have time to name his successor. After his death, representatives of the tribal nobility clashed, recognizing Prince Peter as the heir, and the bureaucratic authorities, who staked on Catherine I and won this fight with the help of the guards regiments.

Palace coup of 1727

In May 1727, a new shock awaited Russia: Catherine I died, and again the question of the heir to the throne arose. For many years, one of the closest people to the Empress was Prince Menshikov. He got the dying Catherine to sign a will in favor of her husband's grandson. At the same time, it was agreed that the Supreme Privy Council should play the role of regent under the young emperor, and Peter himself should become engaged to one of Menshikov's daughters. The day after Catherine's death, the prince introduced the new emperor, Peter II, to the guards.

Palace coup of 1730

After the untimely death of Peter II, the issue of succession to the throne is again put on the agenda. Then the Golitsyns, rivals of the Dolgoruky, put forward their own candidate - the niece of Peter I Anna Kurlyandskaya - Anna Ioannovna. But she came to power by signing conditions that limited her power. According to them, she did not have to marry, appoint herself an heir, did not have the right to declare war and make peace, introduce new taxes, reward and punish subordinate high officials.

Palace coup of 1740

On the night of November 7-8, 1740, another palace coup took place, organized by Count Minich. The regent of the Russian Empire, Biron, was arrested and sent into exile in the Tobolsk province, Anna Leopoldovna took the reins of government into her own hands. She recognized herself as empress, but did not take actual part in public affairs.

Palace coup of 1762

During this palace coup, Emperor Peter III was overthrown and his wife Catherine II ascended the throne. The reason was that, having ascended the throne after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude of the officer corps towards him and suspicions of betraying national interests.

Palace coup of 1801

The main reasons for the coup were the infringement of the interests of the nobility and unpredictability in the actions of the emperor. Sometimes he exiled or sent people to prison for the slightest offense. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, Pavel I Petrovich was killed by officers-conspirators in the newly built Mikhailovsky Castle. The people were told that he had died of a stroke. Alexander I ascended the throne.

On March 11, 1801, Emperor Paul the First passed away. The conspirators, headed by the Governor-General of St. Petersburg, Count P.A. Palen, acted decisively. On the night of Thursday to Friday, they entered the Mikhailovsky Castle and went to the emperor's chambers. Two life hussars, standing near the doors of the imperial bedchamber, could not stop the group of people that outnumbered them. One of them tried to resist, but was wounded, the other left his post himself. The entrance to the emperor’s bedroom was free. Hearing the noise, Paul I hid behind a screen, however, they found him here and took him out of his hiding place. Prince Platon Zubov, one of the most prominent conspirators, began to reproach Paul, calling him a tyrant, and finally demanded that he abdicate the throne. Paul I decisively refused and in turn, he uttered a few harsh words that finally decided his fate. Nikolai Zubov, the brother of Platon Zubov, holding a golden snuffbox in his hands, hit the emperor with all his might in the temple. After that, the rest of the conspirators attacked Pavel, threw him to the floor, beat him and trampled underfoot, and then strangled with a scarf.

It is still not clear what was the real reason for the assassination of the emperor. According to the most common version, Pavel Petrovich paid for his friendship with the French, which threatened British hegemony in the East. The fact is that shortly before his death, Paul I, together with the first consul of the French of the Republic by Napoleon Bonoparte, hatched plans for a campaign in India. In the silence of the French government offices, a promising Project for an overland expedition to India matured. trade of the educated European nations, and especially France, new paths: such is the purpose of an expedition worthy to perpetuate the first year of the 19th century and the rulers who conceived this useful and glorious enterprise. "Paul I died, and plans to invade the richest colony of the British Empire had to be postponed for an indefinite time. Before his friendship with the French, Pavel Petrovich was very hostile to the first consul of the French Republic and was even going to fight him in a duel in Hamburg. Napoleon called him the Russian Don Quixote. The duel did not happen. the sea and on land badly battered the French. If it were not for the treacherous position of the Austrian court and the hesitation of the British, the military successes of the Russians could have been truly grandiose. However, Pavel Petrovich had other enemies. The Russian emperor did not agree with the partition of Poland, carried out by his mother, Catherine II, together with the Austrian and Prussian courts. The division of Poland objectively contributed to the strengthening of Austria and Prussia, while Russia received territories whose population was extremely hostile towards the Russians. In an effort to smooth over the memories of the recent bloody conflict between the Poles and the Russians, caused by Russia's interference in the internal affairs of the Commonwealth, Pavel released the leaders of the Polish uprising and generously rewarded them for the hardships they had endured. The last Polish king, Stanislav II Augustus, was received with honors in St. Petersburg and until his death he enjoyed all the privileges of a crowned person. To top it off, Paul graciously allowed the Jesuits expelled from Austria-Hungary to settle in St. Petersburg and other Russian cities. The Austrians and Prussians, of course, had every reason to fear the policy of the Russian emperor, aimed at restoring the independence of Poland. M.N. Volkonsky, in his novel "The Emperor's Servant", written on the wave of anti-German sentiments, which were especially strong in the First World War, carries out the following thought: the emperor was killed by the Germans, closely associated with the Prussian court and the Berlin Freemasons. How right he is, to say difficult, especially since the writer, talking about the last years of the emperor’s life, somewhat exaggerated the influence of the Masons on internal Russian affairs. After the death of Paul, the foreign policy of the Russian Empire again made a sharp turn. France, except for moral satisfaction and thousands of dead soldiers, did not bring us anything. The glory of the liberators of Europe finally faded in the Crimean War, when it suddenly became clear that after the Battle of Borodino and the capture of Paris, we slept for some forty years, continuing to be proud of our victories and not noticing the fact that other countries, including France, defeated by us, have long overtaken us in their development. But on March 11, 1801, if one of the Zubov brothers hadn’t been in the hands of one of the Zubov brothers, that very ill-fated snuffbox, our history could have taken a completely different path .

The behavior of Paul I, his extreme irritability and petty captiousness caused discontent in the highest circles, especially in the capitals. Therefore, literally from the first months of his reign, an opposition began to take shape, uniting all those dissatisfied with Paul I. Even during his accession, Suvorov's inner circle hatched plans for a coup d'état. In 1796, A.M. Kakhovsky, one of the leaders of the circle that was opened two years later, considered the possibility of an active military protest.

By 1797, there were three main opposition camps: 1) the group of P.S. Dekhterev - A.M. Kakhovsky in Smolensk; 2) a circle of "young friends" of Alexander Pavlovich in St. Petersburg; 3) the so-called conspiracy of N.P. Panin - P.A. Palen.

The Smolensk conspirators had connections in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and other cities of the empire. They carefully studied public sentiment and sought to establish contacts with all opposition elements. Hence there was a special interest in those persons who were in any way implicated in anti-government actions. The members of the circle tried in every possible way to support them and counteract what actively or passively served the "despotic regime" of Paul I. The members of the "canal shop", as they called themselves, sought by all available means to increase dissatisfaction with the regime among the population, contributed to the dissemination of information that discredited the government, distributed cartoons, poems, songs criticizing Paul I, talked about the situation in Russia, taxes, "oppression" and "burdening". In the group of Smolensk conspirators, the issue of the assassination of the emperor was also discussed, A.M. Kakhovsky was even ready to donate his estate for expenses for such an enterprise. At the same time, members of the circle, apparently, did not rule out an open military action.

The conspiracy became known in St. Petersburg, and at the beginning of 1798, F.I. Lindener, one of the “Gatchins”, was sent to Smolensk to conduct an investigation, during which all its participants were arrested and then exiled.

In 1797-1799. anti-Pavlovian sentiments also existed at the court itself, where a circle of political orientation arose. It was attended by the heir to the throne Alexander, his wife Elizaveta Alekseevna, A. Czartorysky, N. N. Novosiltsev, P. A. Stroganov, V. P. Kochubey;

A.A. Bezborodko and D.P. Troshchinsky maintained contact with the heir. At their secret meetings, these people talked about political affairs in the country, looking for the best forms for its reorganization. In 1798, the circle even published the St. Petersburg Journal, on the pages of which the propaganda of the concept of “true monarchy”, which was widespread during the Enlightenment, was carried out. The investigation into the case of the Smolensk conspiracy led to the curtailment of the main activities of this circle.

At the same time, an opposition group was formed in St. Petersburg, associated with the clan of the last favorite of Catherine II, P.A. Zubov. In the first period of the conspiracy, the most prominent role was played by Vice-Chancellor N.P. Panin. In collaboration with the English ambassador Whitworth and Zubov, he formed a circle of conspirators who, in view of Paul's alleged "mental illness", had the goal of establishing a regency and handing it over to Alexander, convincing Paul to "treat". Panin dedicated the heir to the throne to his plans. The total number of conspirators reached 60 people.

But before the conspirators began to act, Pavel began to suspect Panin and in the fall of 1800 sent him to a village near Moscow. The leadership of the conspiracy passed into the hands of Pavel's favorite, the St. Petersburg military governor P.A. Palen. The conspiracy was strengthened by the spring of 1801.

On the night of March 11-12, the conspirators entered the newly built new residence of Paul - Mikhailovsky Castle, having previously replaced the emperor's guards with their own people. Out of 40 or 50 conspirators, eight people reached Pavel's rooms. Palen was not among them. The premeditation of the emperor's assassination is difficult to assert; perhaps, to some extent, it was caused by Paul's firm intransigence in the demand of the conspirators to agree to abdication. In any case, according to the participants in the event themselves, the murder took place during the emperor's "passionate" explanations with them. Later memoirs claim that the murder of Paul was completely accidental.

First quarter of the 19th century marked by reforms, primarily in the field of public administration. These reforms are associated with the names of Emperor Alexander I and his closest associates - M. Speransky and N. Novosiltsev. However, these reforms were half-hearted and were not completed. The main reforms carried out under Alexander I:

Decree "On free cultivators";

ministerial reform;

Preparation of a reform plan by M. Speransky;

Granting the Constitutions to Poland and Bessarabia;

Preparation of a draft of the Russian Constitution and a program for the abolition of serfdom;

Establishment of military settlements.

The purpose of these reforms was to improve the mechanism of public administration, the search for optimal management options for Russia. The main features of these reforms were their half-hearted nature and incompleteness. These reforms led to minor changes in the system of public administration, but did not solve the main problems - the peasant question and the democratization of the country.

Alexander I came to power as a result of a palace coup in 1801, which was carried out by the opponents of Paul I, dissatisfied with the sharp departure of Paul I from Catherine's orders. During the coup, Paul I was killed by conspirators and Alexander I, the eldest son of Paul and grandson of Catherine, was elevated to the throne. The short and tough 5-year reign of Paul I ended. At the same time, a return to Catherine's order - the idleness and permissiveness of the nobility - would be a step backwards. The way out was limited reforms, which were an attempt to adapt Russia to the requirements of the new century.

To prepare reforms in 1801, an Unofficial Committee was created, which included the closest associates - the "young friends" of Alexander I:

N. Novosiltsev; A. Czartoryski; P. Stroganov; V. Kochubey.

This committee for 4 years (1801 - 1805) was the think tank of the reforms. Most of Alexander's supporters were supporters of constitutionalism and European orders, but most of their radical proposals were not implemented due to the indecision of Alexander I, on the one hand, and the possible negative reaction of the nobles who brought him to the throne, on the other.

The main issue that the Unspoken Committee dealt with in the first years of its existence was the development of a program for the abolition of serfdom in Russia, the supporters of which were the majority of the members of the committee. However, after long hesitation, Alexander I did not dare to take such a radical step. Instead, in 1803 the Emperor issued the Decree “On Free Ploughmen” of 1803, which, for the first time in the history of serfdom Russia, allowed landowners to release peasants into freedom for a ransom. However, this Decree did not solve the peasant problem. The chance to abolish serfdom in a timely manner was missed. Other reforms of the Private Committee were:

Ministerial reform - instead of the Petrine collegiums in Russia, European-style ministries were created;

Senate reform - The Senate became a judicial body;

Education reform - several types of schools were created: from the simplest (parochial) to gymnasiums, broad rights were given to universities.

In 1805, the Unspoken Committee was dissolved due to its radicalism and disagreements with the emperor.

In 1809, Alexander I instructed Mikhail Speransky, Deputy Minister of Justice and a talented lawyer and statesman, to prepare a new reform plan. The purpose of the reforms planned by M. Speransky was to give the Russian monarchy a "constitutional" appearance, without changing its autocratic essence. During the preparation of the reform plan, M. Speransky put forward the following proposals:

While maintaining the power of the emperor, introduce in Russia the European principle of separation of powers;

To do this, create an elected parliament - the State Duma (legislative power), the Cabinet of Ministers (executive power), the Senate (judicial power);

to elect the State Duma through popular elections, to endow it with legislative advisory functions; give the emperor the right, if necessary, to dissolve the Duma;

Divide the entire population of Russia into three estates - the nobles, the "middle state" (merchants, petty bourgeois, townspeople, state peasants), "working people" (serfs, servants);

Grant voting rights only to the nobles and representatives of the "average state";

To introduce a system of local self-government - in each province to elect a provincial duma, which would form the provincial council - the executive body;

The Senate - the highest judicial body - should be formed from representatives elected by the provincial dumas, and thus concentrate "folk wisdom" in the Senate;

The cabinet of ministers of 8 - 10 ministers is to be formed by the emperor, who would personally appoint the ministers, and who would be personally responsible to the autocrat;

The connecting link between the three branches of power - the State Duma, the judicial Senate and the Cabinet of Ministers - to make a special body - the State Council, appointed by the emperor, which would coordinate the work of all branches of power and be a "bridge" between them and the emperor;

At the top of the entire system of power was to be the emperor - the head of state endowed with broad powers and the arbiter between all branches of power.

Of all the main proposals of Speransky, only a small part of them was actually implemented:

In 1810, the State Council was created, which became the legislature appointed by the emperor;

At the same time, the ministerial reform was improved - all ministries were organized according to a single model, ministers began to be appointed by the emperor and bear personal responsibility to him.

The rest of the proposals were rejected and remained the plan.

The turning point in the course of the reforms was the Note on Ancient and New Russia in its Political and Civil Relations, sent in 1811 to the Emperor by the well-known historian and public figure N. Karamzin. N. Karamzin's "Note" became a manifesto of conservative forces opposed to Speransky's reforms. In this "Note on Ancient and New Russia", N. Karamzin, analyzing the history of Russia, spoke out against reforms that would lead to unrest, and for the preservation and strengthening of autocracy - the only salvation of Russia.

In the same year, 1811, Speransky's reforms were terminated. In March 1812, M. Speransky was appointed Governor-General of Siberia - in fact, he was sent into an honorable exile.

Reasons for the coup

At the beginning of his reign, Paul I tried to significantly change the system of government in the country. He canceled the decree of Peter I on the right of the emperor to appoint his successor to the throne and established a clear system of succession to the throne. From that moment on, the throne could be transferred only through the male line, after the death of the emperor it passed to the eldest son, and if there were no children, then to the brother. Women could only take the throne if the male line ended. The decree eliminated most of the prerequisites for subsequent palace coups.

Pavel I restored the system of colleges, which tried to stabilize the financial situation of the country. To do this, he resorted to extravagant actions. So, when the problem of lack of money in the treasury arose, Paul I ordered to melt down his own sets of precious metals into coins. By his manifesto, the emperor forbade the landlords to demand that the peasants fulfill the corvée on Sundays, on holidays, and in total more than three days a week, but in practice this decree was almost never implemented. Pavel I significantly narrowed the rights of the nobles, and tried to introduce the rules that existed in the "Gatchina army" in all military units of the country. The strict discipline and unpredictability of the behavior of the emperor led to the mass release of the nobles from the army.

Attempts by Paul I to carry out military reform, like others, were caused by the difficult situation of the Russian army - the lack of proper discipline, the distribution of military ranks undeservedly. Noble children from birth were assigned to one or another regiment, and many of them, having military ranks, received a salary, while not being in the service at all. The emperor punished officers with particular difficulty for laxity, bad attitude towards soldiers, and corruption in the army.

To reform the Russian army, he decided to use the Prussian experience. At the same time, the indignation of the Russian generals was caused by the fact that they defeated Prussia in the Seven Years' War (albeit due to large human and material losses). For the military reform, Paul I suffered the most criticism, but it was not stopped even after the death of the emperor. Moreover, thanks to Paul I, A. Arakcheev, A. Kutaisov, N. Kutuzov and A. Benkendorf strengthened their positions in the Russian army.

The foreign policy of Paul I was not consistent. Shortly before his death, Paul I felt the deterioration of relations with England, so he tried to negotiate with Napoleon. Pavel I even organized a campaign of 22 thousand Don Cossacks to the English colonies in India. They were stopped already on the road by decree of Emperor Alexander I. March 12, 1801, for the intervention of British intelligence, Paul I was strangled by a group of Russian officers. According to legend, he identified his son Constantine among the attackers, but the participation of the emperor's sons in the conspiracy was never proven. Alexander I, under various pretexts, removed the participants in the conspiracy from the capital, but did not apply repressions against them. Officially, they made an attempt on the emperor, but remained loyal to the Romanov dynasty.

The emergence of a conspiracy against Paul I

The domestic and foreign policy of Paul I caused acute discontent at the court, where a conspiracy gradually arose around Vice-Chancellor Nikita Panin. After his unexpected disgrace, the St. Petersburg governor Peter Palen took matters into his own hands. Meanwhile, the unpredictability of the emperor's actions grew. Subsequently, Prince Eugene of Württemberg, who then observed near the emperor, writes: “The emperor was not mentally ill in the full sense of the word, but he was constantly in a tense and exalted state, which is more dangerous than real madness, because every day he arbitrarily controlled the lives of millions of people.”

Example 1

A secret project was developed to remove Paul from power and introduce a regency. The role of regent was to go to the eldest son Alexander. At first, the Grand Duke did not want to know anything about intrigues. However, Palen gradually convinced the heir to the throne that the country was on the verge of destruction, the people had been brought to the extreme, England was threatening war, and that by removing the emperor from power, his son would only fulfill his patriotic duty. Palen assured that nothing threatened the life of the emperor, he would simply be forced to abdicate in favor of the rightful heir.

Implementation of the coup

On the night of March 12, 1801, the conspirators entered the Mikhailovsky Palace, Pavel's residence. Despite the large number of stories about these events, it is not clear under what circumstances Paul was killed. Some said that during the struggle he was strangled, others said that Nikolai Zubov, a man of great physical strength, hit the emperor's temple with a golden pipe.

Meanwhile, Palen told Alexander the terrible news.

Remark 2

The twenty-three-year-old heir to the throne is shocked, he cannot cope with emotions and feelings, and with great difficulty goes to the guard, who greets him.

The circumstances of the removal from power and the murder of his father instilled in Alexander a sense of guilt and haunted him all his life. So, Alexander took part in a conspiracy against his father. True, he was simply waiting for the results of the coup that took place in March 1801. In addition, Alexander insisted that Paul save his life by achieving his abdication. Most of the conspirators, realizing the unreality of such an outcome, were much more serious. The emperor was killed. Albeit indirectly, Alexander I took the sin of parricide on his soul.

Domestic and foreign policy of Paul I, tasks and methods of solution.
Political life of Russia at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. In the history of Russia at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, conservatism was born as a socio-political trend. The conservative project was built on the foundations of traditionalism and patriarchy, religiosity and the medieval chivalrous pattern with the ideals of morality, honor and duty. The implementation of these principles was carried out by the method of "iron vine" and "tightening the screws". This was manifested in the violation of the rights of the nobility, approved by the Charter to the nobility of 1785, in the approval of general lack of rights, in frequent personnel changes. The program of state government of Emperor Paul I turned out to be utopian in its plans and content. Versions of the assessment of the character and activities of Paul I. Born in November 1754, came to power in 1796. He was married twice: 1773-1775 - Natalia Alekseevna (Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt), 1776 - Maria Feodorovna (Sophia Dorothea of ​​Württemberg). Version 1 - Pavel was crazy (mind). Version 2 - morally sick (morality). 3 version - a saint (tsar-democrat) and wanted to benefit the people. I was in a hurry to change everything, because was no longer young. Catherine II and Paul. Officially, the son of Peter Fedorovich. He ordered to get the remains of Peter III from the grave and placed next to the coffin of Catherine at the funeral, buried as an emperor in the PPC. There are versions that the father was specially invited by Elizaveta Saltykov; that they took someone else's child, because there was a girl or a stillborn (confirms that the village of Kotly was urgently resettled and destroyed). Raised by Elizabeth. There was no will, there is a version that it was not on him. The policy of Paul I in the peasant question, in relation to the army and the nobles. "Three bloody images" - Pugachev, Peter III and Louis 16. Did not call for recruits. He started a big box at the Winter Palace for complaints. He allowed the peasants to take the oath, allowed them to be bought to work in factories. He sent an army even to small uprisings. He took care of the army: the army did not participate in the coup, except for officer ranks. He limited the willfulness of the commissaries, abolished punishments for soldiers and introduced them for officers. 1796 - Enslavement of peasants in the territory of the region by the troops of the Don and Novorossia - extended the scope of serfdom. 1797 - Act of Succession. 1797 - Decree on a three-day corvée (prohibition of work on weekends, recommendation - three days), Decree on the performance of duties by peasants under pain of punishment. 1798 - Confirmation of the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia for wrongdoing. 1798 - The case of the so-called Kanal shop of the Smolensk circle (opposition of officers). Further centralization and bureaucratization of political power. In 1796-1797, Paul I revised the administrative-territorial division. Viceroyalties were abolished and officially renamed provinces. The governor-general administration was left only in the border provinces in which there was a danger of an uprising or foreign invasion (several provinces were united into one governor-general). The provinces were enlarged: instead of 51 administrative-territorial units of the highest level, they became 42. Foreign policy of Paul I. 1798-1801 - Actions of the anti-French coalition. War with France in Italy, crossing the Alps. Order of Malta (Hospitallers). Bonaparte expelled them from Malta. During 1798-1817. The Order was located in Russia, in St. Petersburg, and Emperor Paul I was the Grand Master of the Order from December 1798 to March 1801.

Deepening the liberal course in the policy of Alexander I. M.M. Speransky, his project of reforming Russia. Reasons for resignation.
The problem of reforming Russia and the liberalization of the political course at the beginning of the 19th century. By decree of Alexander, Catherine's letters of commendation were restored, but Paul's decrees were caused not so much by his capricious nature as by the real state of affairs of the Russian nobility. Liberalism in Russia, unlike Western Europe, did not reflect changes in social life, but was a kind of fashionable ideology common in aristocratic circles. The main issue of the reform was the abolition of serfdom. Alexander I, assessment of his personality and politics. 12 1777 - 3 1801 - 11 1826 - years of life and reign. The very personality of Alexander I in Russian history is very controversial, and in some cases even mythical. The inconsistency of Alexander's personality is expressed in the attitude of A. S. Pushkin towards him. Before the war of 1812 he admired him, and then called him "the ruler of the deceitful and crafty." Most historians agree that serfdom could have been abolished under Alexander I. Features of Alexander I's approach to the problem of reforming Russia. The first stage of reform activity. In 1801 Alexander issues a decree that allows not only nobles, but also merchants, petty bourgeois and state peasants to buy land. In 1803 Alexander issued the most progressive decree on the peasant issue “on free cultivators”, which allowed landowners to release serfs with land for ransom. This decree was used mainly by the landlords of the non-chernozem zone. In 1804-1805. Alexander is reforming the Ostsee region (modern Estonia and Latvia). Peasant householders (farmers) became hereditary and lifelong holders of their lands. 1803 - New regulation on the structure of educational institutions. Educational districts were created in the country, each of which had to have educational institutions of four levels according to territorial division. In 1804 A university charter was issued - one of the most progressive for that time in the world, it provided for: the election of the rector and professors, the independence and independence of the university from the state administration, the creation of its own university court. At the same time, the first prestigious elite state institutions for the nobility appeared - lyceums: Tsarskoselsky, Richelievsky (Odessa), Nezhinsky. 1802 - Manifesto "On the establishment of ministries." The Manifesto established eight ministries: Military and Land Forces, Naval Forces, Foreign Affairs, Justice, Internal Affairs, Finance, Commerce, Public Education. New were the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Public Education. It was proclaimed that each minister would have an instruction that would precisely determine the scope of his powers. All issues that exceeded ministerial authority were resolved by the emperor, on the basis of a ministerial report on this issue. The Manifesto was the most important stage in overcoming the crisis of public administration, in reforming the system of central power in Russia. In 1802 The Senate was declared the highest administrative body, and the rights of the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod were expanded. "Unspoken Committee" and measures to improve feudalism in Russia. 1801-1803 - Activities of the Secret (Intimate) Committee. From his friends, he created the so-called. A secret committee that began to deal with the problem of reforming Russian society. Reflection of the liberal course in the project of reforms and the activities of M.M. Speransky. 1809 - Introduction to the Code of state laws M.M. Speransky. Speransky based the state system on the principle of separation of powers, or rather, the distribution of the action of sovereign power in three "orders". Some researchers rightly call this "the principle of separation of competences of the three specialized branches of government - legislative, executive and judicial." The main innovation in Speransky's project was the establishment of the State Council, in which he saw the possibility of joint action by all branches of government. The State Council was supposed to serve as a kind of link between the emperor and the new state bodies. The State Council, according to Speransky's plan, is not the legislative power, but only its subsidiary body, which is called upon to discuss legislative issues in all branches of government and submit its conclusions to the supreme power for consideration. 1809 - Decrees on court ranks and exams for rank. In December 1809, with the direct participation of Speransky, a plan for financial transformations was prepared, and after its approval, the financial reform (1809-1810) was proclaimed. In the course of the measures to implement the financial reform, Speransky also developed a new customs tariff. 1810 - Creation of the State Council. 1811 - "General establishment of ministries". Meanwhile, Alexander himself experienced the strongest pressure from the court environment, including members of his family, who sought to prevent radical reforms. The higher nobility, having heard about Speransky's plans to endow serfs with civil rights, expressed dissatisfaction. All conservatives united against Speransky, among whom A.A. Arakcheev, a former favorite of Paul, who fell into favor with the new emperor. A certain influence on him, apparently, was exerted by N.M. Karamzin, which obviously gave the emperor reason to doubt the correctness of the path he had chosen. Of no small importance was the factor of Russia's international position: the growing tension in relations with France and the need to prepare for war made it possible for the opposition to interpret Speransky's reformist activities as anti-state. Speransky was surrounded by paid and voluntary spies who conveyed to the tsar his every careless word. In March 1812, he was removed from business and exiled into exile. N.M. Karamzin as a historiographer and his political concept. 1811 - Note "On ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations" N.M. Karamzin. In the Note on Ancient and New Russia, he sharply criticized the projects of state reforms by M. M. Speransky. From Karamzin's point of view, the autocracy was a "smart political system" that had undergone a long evolution and played a unique role in the history of Russia. This system was “the great creation of the princes of Moscow”, starting with Ivan Kalita, and, in its main elements, it had the quality of objectivity, that is, it weakly depended on the personal qualities, mind and will of individual rulers, since it was not a product of personal power, but a rather complex structure based on certain traditions and state and public institutions.