Exacerbation of class struggle

Royalty and the Cortes

In all the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the XII-XIII centuries. class monarchies emerge. Royal power was limited to meetings of representatives of the estates - the Cortes. The estates sat in them separately. The Castilian Cortes had three chambers: the clergy, the nobility and the cities. Until the beginning of the 15th century. representatives of cities sometimes sat together with representatives of peasant communities. This was a feature of the Castilian Cortes. A feature of the Aragonese Cortes was that the small and middle nobility sat separately from the large feudal lords. There, the Cortes consisted of four chambers: the highest nobility, the minor and middle nobility, the clergy and the cities. Cortes were also in Portugal, Catalonia and Valencia. They limited the actions of monarchical power, voted taxes, resolved controversial issues of succession to the throne, and influenced domestic and foreign policy.

K. Marx noted that during the formation of the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, there were favorable conditions for limiting royal power: “On the one hand, during the long struggle with the Arabs, small parts of the territory were conquered at different times and turned into special kingdoms. During this struggle, folk laws and customs arose. Gradual conquests, carried out mainly by the nobility, enormously increased his power, while at the same time weakening the power of the king. On the other hand, settlements and cities within the country acquired great importance, for the inhabitants were forced to settle together in fortified places and seek protection there from the continuous invasions of the Moors; at the same time, Spain's position as a peninsula and constant relations with Provence and Italy contributed to the formation of first-class commercial coastal cities on the coast. Already in the 14th century, representatives of the cities constituted the most powerful part of the Cortes, which also included representatives of the clergy and nobility.”

The development of commodity-money relations in the states of Spain entailed increased exploitation of the feudally dependent peasantry. The free peasantry also felt the power of the lords to a large extent. The development of sheep farming in Castile resulted in the XIV-XV centuries. massive conversion of peasant lands into pastures. All this intensified the class struggle in the Castilian countryside, which was complicated by conflicts between feudal lords and cities and the struggle of the feudal lords themselves for power.

Particularly famous was the uprising of the "Hermandinos" (brothers) in Castile, suppressed by the government in 1437. Peasant uprisings took place in the 14th-15th centuries. in the Balearic Islands, where the peasants were joined by the urban poor oppressed by the merchants.

The arena of particularly persistent and massive peasant movements during several decades of the 15th century. There was Catalonia, where, as noted, the situation of the peasantry was especially difficult. A movement among Catalan serfs arose at the beginning of the 15th century. The peasants demanded the abolition of personal dependence and “bad customs.” In 1462-1472, a real peasant war broke out in the north of Catalonia. The rebel serfs were also joined by free peasants, land-poor and landless, who demanded the redistribution of land. The uprising took on a fairly organized character: its participants were divided into military detachments, and contributions for military needs were collected among them. The rebels were led by the poor hidalgo Verntaliat. The Aragonese king Juan II, who was at enmity with the Catalan nobility and cities, used the uprising for his own purposes. With the help of Vertagliat and his peasant army, Juan II asserted his power over Catalonia. Verntaliat received rich land holdings and the title of viscount for this, and the peasants were reassured by some insignificant concessions, which, however, were soon canceled by the Cortes.

In 1484, a new powerful uprising began in Catalonia under the leadership of the peasant Pedro Juan Sala. The actions of government troops against the rebels were unsuccessful, since the soldiers were reluctant to oppose the peasants. The capture and execution of Sala did not stop the movement. In 1486, the government had to come to an agreement with the rebels and abolish the personal dependence of the peasants in Catalonia, which was recorded in the “Guadalupe Maxim”. “Bad customs” were abolished, but almost all for a large ransom. The peasants became personally free and could leave the land with their movable property, but their plots still remained the property of the lords and feudal rent was collected for them. Extortions in favor of the church were completely preserved.

Thus, peasant wars in Spain in the 15th century. Unlike the vast majority of peasant uprisings of the Middle Ages, they achieved at least partial success. The intensification of the class struggle accelerated the process of centralization of the state.

Relying on an alliance with the church, cities and minor nobility, with large incomes from maritime trade, the royal power of both Castile and Aragon in the XIV-XV centuries. launched a decisive attack on the political rights of large feudal lords and deprived them of a significant share of independence. By the end of the 15th century. she deprived large feudal lords of the right to mint coins, wage private wars, and confiscated many lands from them. The king also took possession of the lands of the spiritual knightly orders.

In 1479 Aragon, and. Castile united into a single state under the rule of a married couple - Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. This event was one of the important stages in the strengthening of royal power in Spain. In crushing the power of large feudal lords, the royal authorities were supported by the cities. In 1480, the cities of Castile entered into an alliance with each other - the “holy hermandada”, which organized its own militia to fight the feudal lords. But, having used the military forces of the cities to curb the feudal lords, the royal power gradually curtailed the independence of the cities themselves. The church also provided enormous support to royal power, especially the Inquisition, introduced in Spain in 1480.

Fighting all kinds of anti-church heresies, the Inquisition thereby persecuted all social and political opposition to the existing system. In Spain, according to Marx, “thanks to the Inquisition, the church became the most indestructible weapon of absolutism.” The first to lead the Spanish Inquisition was the ferocious Torquemada, whose name became a household name.

Having strengthened their positions within the country, the Spanish kings directed their attack on the Emirate of Granada - the last possession of the Arabs in Spain. After a long siege in 1492, Granada capitulated. With its fall, the entire Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal, fell into the hands of the Spanish kings. The Moors surrendered Granada on the condition that they and the Jews retained property and freedom of religion. But these promises were not kept. The persecuted Muslims launched a series of uprisings. They were faced with a dilemma: either be baptized or leave Spain. A significant part of the Muslims and Jews who lived in the south of the country moved to Africa. Thus, most of the trade and craft population, who played an important role in the economic development of the country, left Spain. The Moors (Moriscos) who remained in Spain and converted to Christianity were subjected to constant persecution by the church.

Under Ferdinand and Isabella, an absolute monarchy is established in Spain. Large feudal lords lost their political independence and turned into a court aristocracy. The Cortes are losing their former importance and are convened less and less often. Management takes on a bureaucratic character, concentrating at the center in the hands of royal councils, and locally in the hands of royal officials (corregidors). However, the provincial and class disunity of Spain that has developed over centuries is reflected in the extreme cumbersomeness and lack of coordination of the administrative apparatus.

One of the most important moments in the history of strengthening royal power was the unification of Aragon and Castile. In 1479, these kingdoms united under the rule of a married couple - Ferdinand, King of Aragon, and Isabella, Queen of Castilia. As a result, the united Spain turned out to be one of the most powerful powers in Europe. It included most of the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Sicily and southern Italy. Relying on an alliance with the church, cities and minor nobility, and with significant income from maritime trade, the royal power launched a decisive offensive against the large feudal lords and deprived them of a significant part of their former political independence.

The feudal lords were deprived of the right to mint coins and wage private wars, and many lands were confiscated from them. Their strong castles, the support of their political independence, were destroyed. The king also took possession of the lands of the spiritual knightly orders.

In crushing the power of the feudal lords, the royal authorities were supported by the cities. In 1480, the cities of Castile entered into a general alliance among themselves, the so-called holy hermandada, which fought the feudal lords. The Holy Hermandada set itself the goal of ending feudal wars, establishing safe passage on all roads, and fighting violators of public peace. To protect internal order in Spain, the Holy Hermandada organized a police force, always ready to carry out its decisions. But having used the military forces of the cities to curb the feudal lords, the royal power gradually curtailed the independence of the cities themselves.

The royal power was also greatly supported by the church and especially by the Inquisition, introduced in Spain in 1480. Fighting all kinds of “heresies” that could undermine the rule of the church, the Inquisition thereby persecuted any social and political opposition to the existing system. Any manifestation of social and political dissent was considered resistance not only to the king, but also to the church, and the Inquisition, with its torture and bonfires, was a constant ally of royal absolutism, which in every possible way supported the church. According to Marx, “ever since the time of Ferdinand the Catholic, the clergy came under the banner of the Inquisition and long ago ceased to identify their interests with the interests of feudal Spain. On the contrary, thanks to the Inquisition, the church turned into the most terrible weapon of absolutism” 1. The first head of the Inquisition was the ferocious Torquemada, whose name became a household name due to his fanatical cruelty in the persecution of heretics.

Having strengthened from within, the royal power began a policy of territorial expansion.

The first blow was directed against the Emirate of Granada, the last Arab possession in Spain. In 1481, a campaign against Granada was undertaken. It was given the character of a crusade against the infidels. The war with the Arabs dragged on for 11 years, and only in 1492 Granada was taken by the Spaniards. With the conquest of Granada, almost the entire Iberian Peninsula with the exception of Portugal found itself united in the hands of the Spanish kings.

The capture of Granada required considerable effort, and it was surrendered by the Moors on the condition that they were allowed to freely practice Muslim worship and that Muslims retained their property. This condition was extended to Jews. But all these promises were later broken. Moors and Jews were forced to convert to Christianity. As a result of this, the Muslims launched a series of uprisings, which were suppressed only with great effort. They were offered either to leave Spain or to be baptized (1502). A significant proportion of Muslims and Jews moved to Africa, and thus a lot of economically valuable elements left Spain. With their emigration, a number of important trade ties that the Emirate of Granada maintained with North Africa and the East disintegrated. This eviction was accompanied by large confiscations of land.

The Moors who remained in Spain and converted to Christianity, the so-called Moriscos, were the subject of constant persecution by the church. The life of the Moriscos was subject to the strictest church control. At the slightest denunciation, they were accused of heresy, which entailed death at the stake or life imprisonment. Jews were subjected to the same constant persecution. In 1492 - the year of the capture of Granada and the discovery of America by Columbus - all Jews, with the exception of those who converted to Christianity, were expelled from Spain and all their property was confiscated. Jews who converted to Christianity, the so-called Maranos, like the Moriscos, were subjected to constant spiritual and political surveillance and became victims of inquisitorial terror.

Under Ferdinand and Isabella, an absolute monarchy begins to be established in Spain. Large feudal lords lost their political independence, receiving instead an honorary position at court. The Cortes are losing their former importance and are convened less and less often. Management takes on a bureaucratic character, concentrating at the center in the hands of royal councils, and locally in the hands of royal officials, corregidors. But the bureaucratic apparatus was extremely cumbersome, since it consisted of ancient feudal institutions adapted to the goals of royal absolutism, and new bodies created alongside them. The provincial and class disunity of Spain that has developed over centuries is reflected in an extremely complex and uncoordinated administrative apparatus.

Despite all the external similarities of the political system of Spain with the system of other monarchical states of the then Europe, it was distinguished by significant originality, explained by the entire previous historical development of Spain. Marx characterizes it as follows: “The absolute monarchy in Spain, which has only a purely external resemblance to the absolute monarchies of Europe, should generally be equated with Asian forms of government” 2 .

1 Marx and Engels, Works.. vol. X, p. 720.

History of the Kingdom of Aragon

In the period 1975─1982. After the end of Franco's dictatorship, a number of democratic reforms were carried out in Spain during the transition to a constitutional monarchy. At that time, the autonomous community of Aragon appeared within Spain. However, the history of Aragon goes back to the Middle Ages. Emerging from the ruins of the Roman Empire, Aragon gained strength in the Middle Ages. And then it becomes the center of crystallization of the state of Spain. During their history, the kings of Aragon fought many wars. The main war was fought with the Arab states that formed on the Iberian Peninsula after the arrival of conquerors from Africa. As a result of constant struggle, by the XIII-XIV centuries, the Kingdom of Aragon, having captured a significant part of the Iberian Peninsula and a number of islands in the Mediterranean Sea, became a major power. Subsequently, Aragon entered into a union with Castile and the Spanish state was formed. This article will talk about the history of the Kingdom of Aragon.

In ancient times, Aragon was not noted for anything special on the territory of Iberia. The Celtiberians who lived here traded with Carthage, the Greeks and the Phoenicians. The Romans arrived here at the end of the 3rd century BC. During the period of reform of the empire by Augustus, Tarraconian Spain was created in the northeast of modern Spain, which was a province of the Roman Empire. This happened in the period from 27 BC. e. to 14 AD e. At the same time, the Romans founded the city of Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza) here, which received the name of the emperor. When the Roman Empire collapsed, the Visigothic kingdom was formed on the Iberian Peninsula. This occurs in the 5th century AD simultaneously with the spread of Christianity throughout the Iberian Peninsula.

The main shock for the people inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula was the invasion of the Arabs, who in those days were called the Moors. They came to these lands in 712–718. They quickly captured the entire territory of modern Spain. The land in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula was free from them. The Visigoths were unable to offer serious resistance to the Arabs, and were destroyed or captured by the Muslim Moors. The only force that could resist the onslaught of the Arabs were the Franks.

From 768 to 814, the warlike Charlemagne was the king and then the emperor of the Franks. During his reign, he was able to conquer lands in the north of modern Spain from the Arabs. The Spanish March was formed on this territory. Surrounded by Charlemagne was Count Aureolo, who was one of the commanders. He was able to liberate the city of Jaca, located in the Pyrenees Mountains in the northeast of the peninsula.

As a result of this campaign, he was able to expel the Moors from the territories they occupied between the Aragon River and its tributary Subordan. The county of Aragon takes its name from the name of this river. The capital of the county was the city of Jaca. After some time, Aureolo died and the county capital was again captured by the Arabs. And then Aznar Galindez, the new Count of Aragon, again began to liberate these territories.

Aznar Galindes fought the war with the Banu Qasi (Arab state) with the support of the Basques. During his lifetime, Galindez made the County of Aragon independent of the Frankish empire. In essence, Aragon became an independent state. The new Aragon, in addition to the surrounding area of ​​Jaca, included the counties of Ribagorza and Sobrarbe. The latter are located in northeastern Spain in the foothills of the Pyrenees).

In 922, the last representative of the Galindes dynasty dies, and Aragon comes under the control of the kings of Navarre, with whom the Aragonese counts were related. At the beginning of the 11th century, the Kingdom of Navarre became the largest Christian state on the Iberian Peninsula. This is the main center of confrontation with the Arabs. But, as time has shown, the state of Navarre was fragile. When Sancho III the Great died, his kingdom of Navarre fell into several parts. Ramiro, who was the illegitimate son of Sancho III the Great, becomes the head of Aragon. As a result, Aragon regains independence.

Rapid development and the era of conquest (XI-XIII centuries)

At first, after the death of Sancho III the Great and the beginning of Ramiro's reign in Aragon, the territory of the county was insignificant. But Ramiro was not one of those who was content with little, and he began a war with his brother Garcia, who was the king of Navarre. But here his troops were defeated and he abandoned his intention to conquer Navarre. After some time, he still managed to expand his holdings. His brother Gonzalo died and Ribagorza and Sobrarbe were added to the County of Aragon by right of inheritance. Thus, the Kingdom of Aragon began to expand.

Ramiro tried to further expand his possessions beyond Ribagorza and got involved in a war with the Moors. However, he failed at the siege of Grous, where he was killed. After his death, Sancho Ramirez, his son, began to rule the kingdom. He came to the throne in 1063. Sancho-Ramirez continued the war, but more successfully. He first took the fortresses of Monzon and Barbastro. Then Graus and other populated areas submitted to him.

During the reign of Sancho Ramirez, the kingdom of Aragon expanded not only through war, but also through peaceful means. We are talking about the annexation of Navarre. The inhabitants of the kingdom did not want to give the crown to the murderer of Sancho and swore allegiance to Sancho-Ramirez. He subsequently marched west to besiege Huesca, but had no luck there. He died during the siege.

As a result of the campaigns and conquests undertaken, the Aragonese kingdom expanded significantly to include territories in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. By the end of the 11th century, Aragon extended from Ribagora Noguera to San Sebastian, and reached the Ebro (modern Rioja). Huesca was conquered by Sancho Ramirez's son Pedro I in 1096. In addition, he annexed several more cities to the kingdom, recapturing them from the Moors. Pedro I dies in 1104, transferring the throne to his son Alfonso I. He began to wage war with the Muslims even more energetically in the direction of the right bank of the Ebro. The main thing that Alfonso I did was the conquest of Zaragoza in 1118. After this, the kingdom of Aragon included all the Moorish fortresses in the Ebro region. These are Daroca, Tarakona, Calatayud and others. The borders of the kingdom advanced beyond the Ebro towards Teruel and Cuenca. The Almoravids tried several times to recapture Zaragoza, but the army of Alfonso I defeated them at Cutanda in 1120.

After brilliant victories, Alfonso I was awarded the title "Warrior". In agreement with the Mozarabs, in 1125 he made a campaign against the possessions of Murcia, Valencia and Andalusia. He failed to take any large cities, but his army reached the shores of the Mediterranean Sea after the victory at Arinsol in 1126 near Lucena. In order to populate the conquered lands, Alfonso I brought with him several thousand Mozarabs.

On the right bank of the Ebro, several fortresses remained under the control of the Moors, which posed a threat. Alfonso I organized a campaign against Mexinense and conquered this fortress. He then carried out operations against Fraga, located on the Sinque River, but here he was defeated. And in 1134 Alfonso I dies without leaving heirs.

According to the will of Alfonso I, the kingdom of Aragon should be given to the military orders: the Templars and the Johannites. But the population of Navarre and Aragon thought differently and did not carry out this will. The nobility of Aragon chose Alfonso I's brother Ramiro to the throne. He was a monk in the Narbonne monastery. The nobility of Navarre chose their king and separated from Aragon, regaining their independence.

Ramiro II did not perform any outstanding deeds or military exploits. He received release from the pope from his vow of celibacy. After this, he took Agnes of Aquitaine as his wife. They had a daughter, Petronila. Ramiro II married her to Berenguer IV. It was the Count of Barcelona. In 1137, Ramiro II abdicated the throne and entered a monastery, after which the Count of Barcelona became the ruler of Aragon. The result is a union between these key kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula. The further fate of Catalonia and Aragon becomes common. Catalonia brought with it a spirit of expansion, trade and culture. Through it, connections began to be established with other European states. The first common king of the united Catalonia and Aragon was Ramon Berenguer, who was the son of Ramon Berenguer IV.

He took the name Alfonso II as a sign of respect for the people of Aragon. His close ally was Alfonso VIII of Castile, with whom he fought against Navarre. Alfonso II was unable to include Navarre into Aragon, but he still took several of their fortresses. At the same time, he also achieved success in the field of diplomacy. In 1167, his cousin from the house of the Counts of Barcelona dies. His father Ramon Berenguer IV and the German Emperor concluded a treaty under which Alfonso II inherited the Duchy of Provence. And in 1172, Alfonso II inherited the County of Roussillon.

In addition, in 1187, the counties of Bigorre and Béarn in southwestern France swore allegiance to Alphonse II. Thus, the power of the state of Alphonse II increases significantly and he gains almost complete control over the south of France. Little by little, Alfonso II expanded his borders in the south. He fought with the Moors himself and together with Alfonso VIII of Castile.

He managed to conquer Caspe and Albarracin, where he founded the city of Teruel in 1170. At the same time, they had to repel Moorish raids on Tarragona. The province suffered greatly from these raids. In 1173, the Moors caused serious damage to the villages in this province, although they were unable to capture Zaragoza.

Alfonso II later conquered Cuenca for Castile. As a result, the king of Castile freed Aragon from fiefdom. Towards the end of his reign, Alfonso II, along with Leon, Navarre and Portugal, allied against Castile. But in 1179, Castile and Aragon again concluded an alliance treaty. According to this treaty, they divided the Spanish lands among themselves. Alfonso II died in 1196.

The son of Alfonso II ─ Pedro II inherited the throne at a troubled time for the kingdom. Unrest constantly broke out in the French possessions of Aragon and Catalonia. The French kings sought to take these territories under their crown. In Provence, the nobility tried to achieve independence from Aragon. But Pedro II managed under these conditions to annex the County of Montpellier in 1204. He achieved this as a result of his marriage to Countess Maria. A year later, the County of Urgell came under the crown of Aragon.

Pedro II decided to travel to Rome so that the Pope could crown him. Historians have not yet found a clear explanation for why he decided on this innovation, which was not previously in the customs of Catalonia and Aragon. Apparently, the main motive was to obtain the support of the Pope, as well as the Pisans and Genoese. The latter had powerful fleets, and Pedro II needed them to capture the Balearic Islands. In addition, he hoped to solve problems in the south of France with the help of the political influence of the Pope. Peter II was crowned by the Pope in November 1204, and then also knighted. Pedro II committed himself to the defense of the Catholic faith, the persecution of heretics and the integrity of churches.

In addition, he declared himself a vassal of the Pope and transferred his kingdom to him as a fief. Now the kings of Aragon had to pay a reward every year to the Pope for the patronage he would provide to him and his heirs. The population and nobility of Catalonia and Aragon were unhappy with this decision. After all, Pedro II did this without their consent, and they considered this oath invalid. The cities of the kingdom united in the so-called hermandada and demanded that the king renounce his vassal oath. Pedro II refused and began to pay Rome a reward, assuming the status of a Catholic king. Meanwhile, in southern France the religious issue became increasingly complicated. The situation was especially difficult in Provence.

Relations between the Pope and the nobility in the south of France became very strained. The nobility did not at all strive to suppress heresy to please Rome. This ultimately led to war. The Pope declared a crusade against the Albigenses. The main enemies were declared to be the Count of Toulouse (son-in-law of Pedro II) and Viscount Roman Roger (Béziers and Carcassonne), who was a vassal of Aragon. This campaign was announced by the Pope in 1209.

The Crusaders began their offensive from Lyon. Under the leadership of Simon de Montfort, they stormed Beziers and carried out a terrible massacre there, and then also set fire to the city. After this they also took the city of Carcassone and massacred all the heretics there. The Count of Toulouse had to submit to Rome against his will.

As a result, the crusaders of Simon de Montfort captured the lands of Viscount Ramon Roger, but this did not suit Peter II at all. However, under pressure from circumstances and representatives of the Pope, he was forced to recognize Simon de Montfort as the ruler of Carcassonne and Beziers. After this, a short peace was restored, during which Pedro II attended to the affairs of his kingdom. Alfonso VIII declared a crusade against the Moors, which Aragon joined. In 1212, victory was won at Las Navas. Around the same period, Pedro II was able to annex Roncesvalles and Aybar, belonging to the kingdom of Navarre, to Aragon. In addition, some territories in the south of the kingdom and the land of Castile called Moncayo were annexed. But in the south of France, things went badly for the Aragonese king.

In 1213, the fighting of the crusaders against the Count of Toulouse resumed. Pedro II turned to the Pope with a request to protect the Count of Toulouse from Simon de Montfort. But the request remained unanswered, and he had to defend the nobility and the count, from whom the lands had been taken, by force of arms. But luck was not on their side, and at the Battle of Mur, Pedro II was killed and his army was defeated. After his death, Catalonia and Aragon were left without a king. Pedro II had a son, Jaime, who was in the hands of Simon de Montfort. The late monarch himself gave it to him when he planned his marriage to Montfort's daughter.

Pope Innocent intervened in this situation, and after this Montfort returned to Jaime in 1214. But since he was a minor, he could not immediately take over the kingdom. Therefore, the Cortes of Aragon and Catalonia chose Guillen de Monredo as guardian for Jaime. This was the Grand Master of the Templar Order. Sancho, who is the brother of Jaime’s grandfather, became the procurador of the kingdom. In addition, junior procuradores were selected for Aragon, Catalonia and Montpellier. However, there was no agreement in the kingdom. The heir's uncle, Fernando, and the Prosecutor General, Sancho, sought to seize the throne.

At the same time, the nobles of Aragon behaved in their fiefdoms as independent rulers. They fought with each other, trying to grab a piece of the other. There was a group of nobles in the kingdom who stood up for the flawed King Jaime. Guillen de Monredo imprisoned the heir in the Monzon fortress, and they rescued him from there. After this, Jaime led the troops and began to fight against the aristocrats and his relatives who claimed the throne. His party consisted mainly of Catalan nobles. It took him some time to curb his relatives and nobility. The constant struggle lasted until 1227. The result of this struggle was the signing of an agreement with the nobility, according to which peace was restored. This turmoil in the kingdom was reflected in foreign policy affairs. Especially in cases in southern France.

The Battle of Muret never resolved the situation with Simon de Montfort. The local nobility resisted Simon de Montfort and did not want to recognize his power. As a result, the Count of Toulouse, uniting with the Catalan nobility, again went to war against Montfort. The result was the death of Simon de Montfort and the end of French rule, which reigned here after the Crusade in 1209. After the end of the Troubles, Jaime I began to expand borders, in which his intentions coincided with the mood of the population. The residents of Catalonia especially supported him on this issue.

Since ancient times, the Catalans traded by sea and sought to establish their hegemony in the Mediterranean. With the coming to power of Jaime I, they began to implement their plans. The first on the path of conquest were the Balearic Islands. At that time, the Moors lived there and terrorized the coast of Spain with raids. The nobles of Aragon refused to give their troops and money for this campaign. Some Catalans were also against this. Jaime I had to make do only with the funds and people that the cities of Catalonia, some of the lords and representatives of the clergy provided him.

An army was assembled, which was loaded onto 43 ships and 12 galleys. The flotilla headed to the island of Majorca, where the troops landed in September 1229. Jaime I easily conquered the island. The Moors in Palma and the mountains were quickly defeated. In addition, one of the local rulers collaborated with Jaime. As a result of the campaign, good booty was obtained, and the lands of the island were divided among the generals and nobles. Now the king of Aragon appointed his governor in Palma. In 1232, Jaime I undertook a new campaign. Now to the island of Menorca, which also became a vassal of the kingdom. In 1235, Ibiza was conquered. Thus, the Muslim Moors were expelled from the Balearic Islands or annexed to the kingdom of Aragon. In parallel with the conquest of the Balearic Islands, Jaime I began to prepare for Valencia's conquest of the lands next to it. At that time, Muslims dominated there. In 1232, Blasco de Alagon, a nobleman from the Aragonese nobility, captured Morella with his troops. In fact, Morella was conquered with the help of several barons and Catalan militias. Then, for another 5-6 years, Jaime I conquered various fortresses and territories in the vicinity of Valencia. At the beginning of 1238, the siege of Valencia itself began, which capitulated in September. According to the terms of the capitulation, the emir of the Moors and everyone who wants can leave the city. At the same time, it was allowed to take the property that could be carried with you. After the agreement was concluded, 50 thousand Muslims left the city.

After Valencia was taken, the Aragonese army captured other important settlements of this kingdom. In particular, the powerful fortress of Xativa, Alzira and a number of other settlements, in the territory of the modern province of Alicante. The Kingdom of Valencia was completely conquered by 1253. In gratitude for the assistance provided to the king, Jaime I distributed the captured lands among these aristocrats. But after the conquest of these territories, Moorish uprisings arose several times in the mountains. They were suppressed, although not without difficulty. After this, many Muslim inhabitants were expelled from the lands of Valencia. Jaime I planned, in general, to expel all Muslims, but did not have time to do this because he died. In addition, during the reign of Jaime I, some more conquests were made in the territory inhabited by the Moors.

The borders of the kingdom of Aragon now reached the city of Bear. An agreement on this was concluded with the King of Castile, Fernando III. The territories that were located south of Bear were recognized as Castile. But despite this treaty, Jaime I violated this treaty in 1265. With the support of the Catalan and Aragonese nobility, he began a war with the Emirate of Murcia. He first took the cities of Alicante and Elche, and then in 1266 he conquered the city of Murcia.

According to the peace treaty, Muslims received the right to remain in the city. In addition, they retained the right to build mosques and have their own court. King Jaime I settled Murcia with colonists from Catalonia, and distributed the territories among the nobility who helped in the conquest. But he recognized this territory as the king of Castile. During his reign, Jaime I often made various compromises and concessions. This was necessary in order to avoid civil war. The Aragonese nobility was very headstrong and often acted without regard to the monarch. They could at any time refuse to help the king with troops and money.

Therefore, the king of Aragon constantly tried to weaken the influence of the nobility and limit the feudal lords. The king's eldest son, Pedro, took part in this process. He tried to amend the laws and force the nobility to do their duty. As a result, there was a low-intensity civil conflict in Aragon. It was stopped only during a new Muslim invasion of the territory of Murcia. In 1276, Jaime I died in a campaign undertaken to suppress the Moorish uprising in Valencia.

During his reign, the kingdom strengthened significantly politically, expanded its territories and laid the foundation for further expansion in the Mediterranean. In parallel with external conquests, the king tried to carry out internal reforms and overcome the all-powerful feudal lords. He protected all his royal rights and powers, not wanting to make Aragon a vassal of Rome. And Gregory X, who was then Pope, insisted on this.

Jaime I also unified laws, brought order to the finances of the kingdom and founded a number of educational institutions. Moreover, he also had writing talent. He wrote poetry and also left behind a chronicle where he spoke about his reign. But in his will, for some reason, he went against his main idea - the unification of the possessions of Aragon and Catalonia. He bequeathed to divide the kingdom between his sons. The eldest son Pedro received Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia. The youngest son received lands in the south of France and the Balearic Islands. As a result, the kingdom of Aragon was divided for some time. This turned out to be unwise, since the kingdom then needed centralization.

Aragon in the XIII-XV centuries

While still living in Jaima, I married his eldest son, Pedro III, to the daughter of the King of Sicily, Manfred of Hohenstaufen. As a result of this union, the kings of Aragon received legal rights to parts of the lands of Italy. Because of this, there were subsequently many conflicts between Argonne and a number of states in Western Europe. In particular, Charles of Anjou, the prince of the royal house of France, became an opponent of this. The first thing Pedro did on the throne was to declare independence from the Pope. The majority of the population supported him in breaking the vassal agreement.

Soon after this, Pedro III had to fight the nobility in his state. This time the “bone of contention” was the right of inheritance of the County of Urgell. The king's civil war began against Armengol X, who laid claim to the county. As a result of this struggle, Armengol X recognizes himself as a vassal of the king, but the struggle does not end there. In 1280, the entire nobility of Catalonia united against the king. The rebels took refuge in the city of Balaguer, which Pedro III besieged along with the city's militia. The rebels were led by the Count of Foix, who was joined by about three hundred nobles. The local population did not support the rebels, and they quickly capitulated. The instigators were sent to prison, but were soon released. The king obliged them to pay compensation for damages and enter into an agreement.

In 1278, the king's brother Jaime, who inherited Mallorca and Roussillon, concluded an agreement under which the heirs of the Aragonese king were recognized as the overlords of these lands. Around the same time, friendly allied relations were established with Portugal and Castile. This was facilitated by the marriage of the Portuguese king Dinis with Isabella, the Infanta of Aragon. Pedro III completed the suppression of the Moorish uprising in Valencia, which his father had begun. As a result, many Moorish Muslims were expelled from these territories.

During the time of Jaime I, the Emir of Tunisia (al-Mostansir) was an ally of Aragon and paid tribute. When al-Mostansir died, one of his sons seized power. Under this pretext, Peter 3 began to interfere in the internal affairs of the emirate. In 1280, he sent an expeditionary force to Tunisia under the leadership of Conrado de Llanza. As a result of this campaign, he established a protectorate over the Emirate of Tunisia. The Aragonese now had the right to collect duties on the wine trade of 50%. In addition, Tunisia now had to pay tribute and Aragon received the right to appoint a mayor to govern the Christian population of Tunisia. The alcalde could hang out his own flag, which was given honor on an equal basis with the Tunisian one. Catalan consuls appeared in cities such as Tunis and Bougie. The result of this military campaign was the strengthening of Aragon's diplomatic and military positions in North Africa.

Next, Pedro III turned his attention to the kingdom of Sicily. Under the crown of Sicily at that time there were some Neapolitan lands. These territories belonged to the sons of Frederick II (German Emperor). But this right was disputed by the Pope, which resulted in a long struggle. The Pontiff sought to secure his right to the lands of Sicily and, with some reservations, offered them to Charles of Anjou. All he had to do was win them back from the representatives of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, and then rule them as a vassal of Rome. Angevin liked the deal. He defeated the Sicilian troops and killed the regent Manfred, as well as his nephew Conradin, who was captured and beheaded in 1268.

Pedro III was married to one of the daughters of the regent Manfred and could not stay away from these events. Gradually he came into contact with the Sicilians and began preparations for the conquest of the kingdom. Preparations for the war began in 1281. For this purpose, they equipped an army of 15 thousand people and a fleet of 140 ships. The King of France, having learned of these preparations, sent envoys to find out the reason. He was officially told that the expeditionary force was being sent to Algeria (in those days of Constantine) to help this city in the fight against the Sultanate.

In 1282, the fleet went to the city of Alcoil. It was taken and Aragonese troops began to conquer the settlements around the city. At this time, an event occurred that went down in history as the “Sicilian Vespers.” On March 31, 1282, the Sicilians destroyed the French invaders. Some time after this, an embassy from the Sicilians arrived at the headquarters of the Aragonese troops and asked for their help in the fight against Charles of Anjou. Pedro III agreed, believing that the Sicilian throne belonged to him by right. In August 1282 he landed at Trapani and easily captured Sicily.

Aragon won a number of unconditional victories on land and at sea. Charles of Anjou was forced to flee to Italian territory. By February 1283, Pedro III had established control over Calabria. Further military operations in Italy were also successful for the Aragonese army. Admiral Roger de Lauria in 1284 managed to defeat the French squadron near Malta, and not far from Naples he captured Charles the Lame (son of Charles of Anjou). The Pope could not forgive the conquest of the Sicilian kingdom. He proclaimed that Pedro III was deprived of his possessions and his subjects were freed from their oath of allegiance to him. The Pope entrusted their fate to Charles of Valois, who was the youngest son of the King of France.

Charles of Anjou dies in January 1285 and the French troops in Italy are left without leadership, since the late king's son was captured by Pedro III. The French army invaded Catalonia, and the Pope presented it as a crusade. Jaime (King of Majorca and Roussillon), who was the brother of Pedro III, took the side of the French. However, some fortresses and cities resisted the invaders, remaining loyal to the Kingdom of Aragon. But there was no complete support for Pedro III in the kingdom. The nobility and clergy of Ampurdan turned their backs on him or even “put a spoke in his wheels.”

French troops used a poorly guarded location in the Pyrenees Mountains to capture Ampurdan. As a result, they managed to capture almost the entire country. After the capture of the castle of Liers, Charles Valois settled there, and his troops led the siege of Girona. Thanks to the heroic resistance of the city, Roger de Loria arrived in time to help. In addition, luck was on the side of the Aragonese. An epidemic began in the French army, which led to large non-combat losses. The flotilla of Roger de Loria defeated the French fleet. The French troops could no longer receive reinforcements from the sea and began to retreat beyond the Pyrenees mountains. At the Panissars Pass, the troops of Aragon and Castile attacked them and carried out a terrible massacre. Almost the entire French army ceased to exist.

Meanwhile, the war in Roussillon never stopped, and Pedro III kept Charles the Lame captive. Before sending a military corps to the island of Majorca in November 1285, Pedro III dies, and before his death he promises to return Sicily to the Pope. This wish of King Pedro was not implemented. But the king's sons were more sensible and did not intend to give Sicily to the pope. The youngest son, Jaime, ascended the Sicilian throne, and the eldest son, Alfonso, became king of Catalonia and Aragon. Majorca was also in his possession until 1295. He gave it to Jaime II only after he took the feal oath.

In Italy, the war between France and Aragon and Castile continued. In 1288, the parties concluded a peace treaty at Camfranche. According to it, the Pope invalidated the act of donating the Sicilian kingdom to Charles of Anjou. In addition, Aragon's right to Roussillon and the island of Majorca was recognized. Alfonso freed Charles the Lame, and he had to compensate for the damage from the war. He also had to provide hostages in his place. According to the treaty, Jaime was recognized as the King of Sicily.

However, after the release of Charles the Lame, he did not fulfill his obligations. Moreover, he, in collusion with Jaime, the king of Majorca, threatened Aragon with war. Yes, and the struggle continued in Sicily. In 1291, a treaty less beneficial for the Aragonese was concluded in Tarascon. Jaime was recognized as the King of Sicily, but the King of Aragon had to pay tribute for the entire time since its establishment by Pedro II. In parallel with these events, Alfonso III tried to take the Sicilian crown from his brother. At the beginning of 1286, Alfonso III conquers the island of Menorca. Formally, he was a vassal of the kingdom, but in fact an independent entity. Constant external threats could not make the Aragonese nobility united. They constantly fought with the king. Under Alfonso III, the internal situation worsened, since he did not have a strong character and experience in managing his father's affairs. Due to external problems, the nobility decided to advance their interests and achieve privileges. Alfonso III followed their lead and agreed to significant concessions. As a pretext, the nobility used the fact that Alfonso III became king of Aragon without swearing allegiance to the fueros at the Cortes. The Union of noble Aragonese demanded his return to Aragon. Otherwise they threatened to revolt.

Moreover, representatives of the union maintained contacts with Charles Valois, who laid claim to the crown of Aragon. They even began to open their embassies in European countries. At first, Alfonso III sentenced the instigators of the rebellion to death, but this only led to an escalation of the conflict. Due to the aggravation of the foreign policy situation, the country needed peace within. As a result, Alfonso III succumbed to the union and granted the nobility the privileges they demanded. This happened in 1287. According to the adopted “Privilege of Union”, Alfonso III recognized the mediator judge (justisya) and took upon himself the obligation not to encroach on the lives of the nobility in the Cortes and the nobility. In addition, the “Privilege of Union” established other restrictions on the king’s power.

Alfonso III died in 1291, leaving no issue. The crown of Aragon passed to Jaime, who was king of Sicily. He transferred Sicily to his son Fadrica, which was a violation of the treaty at Tarascon. The result was a new war with France. But Jaime did not fight for long and, under the influence of Pope Boniface VIII, he concluded a humiliating peace. June 5, 1295 in Aguan. According to the treaty, he renounced his rights to Sicily. The Sicilians, led by their son Fadrique, did not recognize this treaty and continued to fight. In fact, Jaime took it upon himself to wage war against his own son in order to return Sicily to the Pope.

In exchange, Boniface VIII lifted the excommunication of the kings of Aragon from the church, and France renounced its rights to the Sicilian crown. In 1297, the Pope granted Jaime rights to the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. And he, in turn, recognized Aragon as a vassal of the Pope and assumed obligations to pay tribute. And he must conquer these islands on his own. Jaime II entered into a marriage agreement with the daughter of the King of France, Blanche of Anjou.

But, despite all the diplomatic concessions, the war began again. The Sicilians proclaimed Fadrique their independent king, and a long war began with Aragon. Eventually, the House of Angevin was inclined to negotiate peace as the alliance with the Pope fell apart. In 1302, a peace treaty was concluded, according to which Fadrique was recognized as the crown of Sicily, and he married Eleanor (daughter of Charles of Anjou). At the same time, Fadrique promised that after his death the throne would not pass to his children, but would go to his father-in-law. But Aragon subsequently still retained Sicily under his rule.

In addition to the difficulties in the Sicilian issue, Jaime was also worried about other unresolved problems in Spain. In particular, these are disagreements with Castile, which arose as a result of the unrest in this kingdom. There was a struggle between Sancho IV and the Infantes of Cerda, who eventually fled to neighboring Aragon. Jaime II attempted to capture Murcia and as a result received recognition of rights to its northern part. In addition, the Aragonese royal house was able to increase its territory through marriage alliances. So, the daughter of Jaime II married the Duke of Austria. He subsequently became German Emperor, which improved relations with the Pope. Alfonso (another son of Jaime II) was married to the niece of the Count of Urgell. This gave him the right to inherit Urgell after the death of the count. Jaime II's wife (Blanca of Anjou) died and he married the daughter of the Cypriot king.

The grandson of Jaime II became king of Mallorca, and the counties of Ampurias and Ribagorza went to his son, Pedro. In 1323-1324 Alfonso conquered Sardinia. Jaime II received the right to do this from the Pope. But this company was not an easy ride. The Pisans put up stubborn resistance. At the end of his reign, Jaime II was able to partially limit the privileges of the Zanti. For example, the powers of the great Khustisya.

In those days there were no regular armies and after the conclusion of the peace treaty many people were left without any kind of occupation. And since these people were armed, they posed a serious threat to the territories where they remained. Gangs of mercenaries were formed who would serve any master for money. And simply, they devastated and plundered the territories in which they were located. Therefore, the owners of such lands always tried to facilitate the exodus of armed people to other territories. Fadrique ─ the king of Sicily acted in the same vein when he liberated the island from the military who remained there in 1302 after the conclusion of the peace treaty.

In 1303, the Turks greatly annoyed Andronikos (Byzantine Emperor) and Fadrique invited one of the military leaders to go to the aid of the Emperor of Constantinople. He accepted this offer and went to Constantinople with several thousand soldiers, who were transported on several dozen ships. These ships were provided to Fadrika, if only the mercenaries would go home. This army was led by Roger de Flor, to whom the Byzantine emperor granted the title of Grand Duke and gave him the daughter of the Tsar of Bulgaria as his wife. In the campaign against the Turks that began, Roger de Flor's army performed well in battle. Since de Flor himself was well rewarded, adventurers from Aragon, Catalonia, and the kingdom of Navarre flocked to him. Two more campaigns were made, led by Berenguer de Entensa and Berenguer de Rocafort. As a result of the help, the Byzantine emperor was freed from the Turks. For this, he awarded Florus the title of Caesar, and granted Berenguer de Entens the title of Grand Duke. In addition, in 1305 he gave them Anatolia and all the surrounding islands.

Such an award aroused the envy of the Greek nobility and Crown Prince Michael. They organized a conspiracy, as a result of which de Flor, his entourage and more than a thousand soldiers were killed. Similar killings also occurred in Constantinople and Gallipoli. Fernando de Aones was killed, and about 3 thousand lightly armed soldiers remained from the army. The remaining troops, as a sign of revenge, attacked the Greeks, defeated them and ravaged the cities and suburbs. These events were called the "Catalan revenge". All these mercenaries were also at enmity with each other. Together with them, Fernando, the son of the Sicilian king Fadrique, took part in these campaigns. Later, the Aragonese troops were called to help by the Duke of Athens, and then he himself began to prepare a conspiracy against them in order to get rid of them. His plan was discovered, and the Aragonese then took control of Athens. They declared themselves vassals of Fadrique, and invited Manfred (another son of the King of Sicily) to the kingdom. This Aragonese Duchy of Athens existed in the period 1326─1387.

In 1327, Jaime II dies and Alfonso takes his place on the throne. At this time, the war for Sardinia with the Pisans was still going on. Alfonso decided to divide the kingdom into two parts to give to his sons. Fernando ─ he planned to give the marquisate of Tortosa to his son from his second marriage. There he included many lands from the kingdom of Valencia. However, the Valencians did not agree with this, because they did not want to obey the prince of Castilian blood. He inherited it from his mother, the sister of the Castilian king. This is explained by the fact that Valencia is a border region with Castile and they often had conflicts. As a result, Alfonso had to abandon his intentions. In 1335, the Aragonese throne was occupied by Alfonso's son, Pedro IV. He was a very energetic, cunning and cruel person. At the same time, he carefully observed all the requirements of etiquette, for which he received the nickname Pedro the Ceremonious.

He turned out to be more perspicacious in the fight against the Aragonese and Catalan nobility. Pedro IV emerged victorious from this struggle with the nobility and eliminated the threat of unrest. At the same time, Castile was shaken by constant internal strife. At the beginning of his reign, Pedro IV was constantly at war with the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula, as well as with the island of Majorca. He acted against the Moors together with the king of Castile. This protracted war ended with victory at Salado.

The war with Mallorca ended differently. King Jaime III of the island arrived in Barcelona in 1342 to take the fief oath to Pedro IV. He accused him of a state conspiracy to assassinate the King of Aragon and arrested him. In addition, the wife of Jaime III was arrested. He then organized a military campaign against Mallorca and achieved victory without difficulty. Soon after this he went on a campaign against Roussillon and was victorious. As a result, Mallorca and Roussillon were included in Aragon. On March 29, 1344, Peter the Fourth swore an oath to the Cortes never to seize these territories from the kingdom.

Relations between the king and the nobility were still tense and even hostile. Among the cities, some also supported nobles. The situation was such that even a small reason could lead to open civil war. Pedro IV had no sons. Therefore, his brother Jaime had to inherit the throne. But Pedro deprived him of the throne and the right of inheritance. At the same time, he forced Infanta Constanza to take an oath, considering her the future heir to the throne. The Aragonese and Valencian nobility rebelled over this, and Jaime returned to Aragon and organized the "Union of the Nobles." Pedro IV had to submit to their demands and satisfy their claims. In 1347, at a session of the Cortes, held in the city of Zaragoza, he restored the post of procurador. However, this success of the nobility was temporary, since Pedro IV was not one to give up after defeat.

Shortly after this, in November 1347, Jaime died. Pedro IV goes to Valencia to crack down on the union. But the rebellious people began to hold him in the position of a hostage. In 1348, he managed to escape and, at the head of the Catalan army, defeated supporters of the union in the city of Epile. After this, he comes with an army to Zaragoza and executes the rebels there. At the same time, he abolishes the privileges of the union. According to eyewitnesses, he cut the parchment with the charter with a dagger. After the defeat of the Union in Aragon, Pedro IV went to Valencia and defeated the rebel army there. Revenge did not take long to arrive. The king carried out mass executions of supporters of the Union. Moreover, the majority were subjected to severe torture. The bell that was created by the nobles at the Union meeting was melted down, and this molten metal was poured down the throats of the rebels.

It is worth noting here that not only the nobility, but also broad sections of the population opposed the Aragonese king. There is no reliable information about this, but historians suggest that the Uniate program contained not only the demands of the nobles for independence, but also some proposals from the cities for limiting centralization and the absolutist demands of the king. After the abolition of the Privilege of Union, absolutism and centralization of power in Aragon increased significantly. But, despite the strengthening of the throne, the nobility retained many of its privileges. Only their excessive demands were eliminated and the institution of khustisya was revised. Moreover, the Catalan nobility in this fight was on the side of the king. After solving internal problems in this way, Pedro IV returned to foreign policy.

The first thing Pedro IV had to do was solve problems on the island of Sardinia. There were constant uprisings there, provoked by the Genoese Republic. To solve this problem, Aragon declares war on the Genoese, concluding an alliance with the Venetians. Two victories were won in naval battles, but this did not help calm the situation in Sardinia. Therefore, in 1354, Pedro 4, at the head of a large army, went to Sardinia. There he captured all the key settlements, but some pockets of resistance still remained. At this moment he has to switch to the war with Pedro the Cruel.

In the wars with Castile, the success of the Aragonese kingdom was ensured by the victory of Enrique of Trastamara. After this victory, Enrique II married his son Juan to the Infanta of Aragon, Eleanor. As a result, the House of Trastamara received rights to the throne of Castile. Therefore, in 1412, a representative of the House of Trastamara became the king of Aragon. In 1381, a delegation of Athenian nobility and citizens who depended on Sicily came to Pedro IV with a proposal to accept Athens into Aragon. He accepted their offer and gave them privileges, like those of the Barcelona lands. Pedro IV also made attempts to take possession of the island of Sicily.

The last years of his life, Pedro IV unsuccessfully tried to subjugate Tarragona and was engaged in family discord. He died in January 1387. By this time his wife and children had left him. During the reigns of Martin I and Juan I there were no achievements in foreign policy. The kingdom lost Neopatry and the Duchy of Athens. At this time, an uprising breaks out in Sicily, which is suppressed by force. There were also short-term wars with de Foix and Armagnac, who laid claim to the throne of Aragon.

During this period, Sicily was annexed to Aragon, which was prepared by Pedro IV. The king of Sicily at this time was Martin, who, after the death of Juan I in 1396, occupied the throne of the Aragonese kingdom. He died in 1410 without leaving any heirs. The issue of succession to the throne was resolved peacefully. There were many contenders for the crown of the Aragonese kingdom, who pointed to kinship with Martin I. The main ones were Fernando de Antequera (uncle of Juan II ─ King of Castile), Jaime (Count of Urgell ─ son of Martin I’s sister).

The grassroots of the people in Valencia and Catalonia spoke out for Jaime. And Fernando was supported by the Aragonese church, part of the nobility and cities, Castile and the great Hustisya. Fernando was not popular among the people because he was an outsider. There was no king in Aragon from 1410 to 1412. All this time there were serious unrest and clashes between noble houses. They used the situation to settle scores among themselves. At this time, Fernando de Antequera occupies part of Aragon in confirming his claim to the throne.

At this time, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia were governed by deputations issued by the Cortes. Therefore, the parliament in Catalonia initiated a discussion of the issue of the heir to the throne. The candidates for the throne appeared at the meeting to present the legal basis behind their claims. In February 1412, representatives of Aragon and Valencia, as well as the parliament of Barcelona, ​​reached an agreement to resolve the issue of succession to the throne. A commission was assembled, which did not include deputies from Sicily, Majorca and Sardinia. All these lands were part of Aragon. There were 9 commission members in total (three each from Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia). Four were lawyers, the other five were confessors.

The created commission discussed the issue in the city of Caspe for several days and on June 25, 1412, recognized the right of Fernando de Antequera to the royal throne. In Aragon this decision was accepted with jubilation, but in Catalonia and Valencia there were many dissatisfied. After Fernando arrived in Aragon, the Count of Urgell (Jaime) rebelled against him. On his side were many noble noble families who fought an armed struggle during the absence of the king.

The Count of Urgell was supported by many ordinary residents of Aragon, who were unhappy that Fernando surrounded himself with courtiers and troops from Castile. Jaime used mercenaries from England and Gascony for his purposes. But Fernando managed to defeat the Count of Urgell in the battle of Balaguer. After this, he announced a manifesto in which he guaranteed forgiveness to those who surrendered their weapons and stopped resistance. Jaime surrendered to Fernando, and he gave him life. Despite the sympathy among the Catalans, they reacted with indifference to Jaime's defeat.

After the issue of succession to the throne was resolved, it was time to turn attention to affairs outside the borders of the Aragonese kingdom. At this time, the struggle for the papal throne began. Three candidates applied for it. To end this turmoil, the German emperor demanded the abdication of all three popes. This was necessary so that the papal throne would be free until the council in Constance chose the appropriate candidate. The candidates Gregory XII and John XXII followed this request, but Benedict XIII (in the world Don Pedro de Luna) refused. He was an Aragonese to whom Fernando owed much of the crown. So he began to support him.

However, later, under pressure from European monarchies and the emperor, he refused Benedict XIII's patronage. He did not renounce the papal throne and locked himself in the Peniscole fortress. There he died in 1423. And Fernando died in 1416, leaving the throne to Alfonso V, his son. He earned the nickname Generous and Wise. Moreover, almost his entire reign was spent in wars.

All conflicts under Alfonso V of Aragon were outside the Iberian Peninsula. At first, the reason for the war was that the Neapolitan Queen Juana recognized King Alfonso as her heir. In return, she hoped that Aragon would protect her from Louis of Anjou. Alfonso V accepted this proposal and began to pursue the standard policy of his kingdom. This policy was to increase their territories at the expense of Italian lands. Therefore, the old war between France and Argonne escalated again. Alfonso fought against several Italian states and French troops. At first, the war went according to a favorable scenario and Aragonese troops occupied Naples and Marseille.

In 1434, Juana dies and the war breaks out with renewed vigor. Now things went very badly for Alfonso V. In 1435, at the naval battle of Ponza, his fleet was defeated and he was taken prisoner. He received his freedom only after 2 years and continued to fight the enemy. Now his army again took Naples, and then the entire territory of the Neapolitan kingdom. After this, peace negotiations began. Alfonso declared Fernando heir to the Neapolitan throne. This was his natural son. In 1447, he inherited the Duchy of Milan, which strengthened Aragon's position in Italy.

As for domestic political life, at the court of Alfonso V there were many poets and scientists widely known in European countries. At the end of his reign, Alfonso V fought against Genoa and earned military glory. The wars he waged contributed to the expansion of Aragon's territory. But in general, all this had a bad effect on the management system, which gradually became upset. The king's brothers and his wives began to manage state affairs. The Cortes urged the king to return to Aragon in order to eliminate civil strife and the willfulness of the infantes. But he was constantly on the territory of Italy and planned new campaigns of conquest.

Alfonso V moves his residence to Naples from ancient Zaragoza. Thus, he tried to shift the center of the Aragonese kingdom to Southern Italy. He dies in 1458 and after his death Naples is separated from Aragon. His younger brother, who was named Juan II the Faithless, ascends to the throne in Zaragoza, and the illegitimate son of Alfonso 5, Ferdinand I, puts on the Neapolitan crown.

Unification of Spain

Spain began to form in the 15th century with the merger of two states - Castile and Aragon, thanks to the marriage of Princess Isabella of Asturias and Prince Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469. Spain also included Leon, part of Catalonia (the northern regions went to France), Navarre, part of the lands of the Cordoba Caliphate (the western lands went to Portugal).

Attempts to unite several Spanish states into one were made before. For example, the marriage of Alfonso I of Aragon and Princess Urraca of Castile united both kingdoms until 1127. And the marriage of Raymond Berengar II of Barcelona with Petronilla, heiress of Aragon, united Aragon and Catalonia. But these alliances turned out to be temporary.

Birth of Isabella of Castile

"); w.show();" alt="Isabella of Castile - Portrait" title="Isabella of Castile - Portrait"> !} In the 15th century, Castile and Leon were part of Asturias. Until 1464, Asturias was ruled by King Juan II of the Trastámara family. On August 4, 1420, he married his cousin Maria of Aragon. On January 25, 1425, their son was born, the future King Enrique IV the Powerless. In 1445, Maria of Aragon died, and on August 17, 1447, Juan II remarried the Portuguese Infanta Isabella. From the second marriage there was a daughter, Isabella (1451-1504), the future Queen Isabella I of Castile, and a son, Alfonso (1453-1468).

Enrique IV the Powerless

"); w.show();" alt="Portrait, Enrique IV the Powerless" title="Portrait, Enrique IV the Impotent"> !} On July 20, 1454, Juan II died near Valladolid. His successor was Enrique IV. In 1440, Enrique married Infanta Blanca of Navarre. But after 13 years, Pope Nicholas V annulled the marriage, because... he was not consummated (the spouses were not in an intimate relationship). This gave rise to rumors about Enrique's impotence, which led to him being nicknamed the Impotent.

In 1455 he married again. His wife, Juana of Portugal (1439-1475), is the sister of the Portuguese king Alfonso V. In 1461, having learned that his wife was pregnant, Enrique decides to transfer his closest rivals Alfonso and Isabella to his castle in order to control their actions. In 1462, Enrique IV and Juana of Portugal had a daughter, Juana. Some believed that her father was the court favorite of the king, Beltran de la Cueva, so the girl was called Juana Beltranija. The official version was fertilization using mechanical devices.

Talk about his wife's infidelity haunted Enrique, and he exiled her to Coca Castle. There, from the cardinal's nephew, Pedro de Castilla and Fonseca, she gave birth to twins - Pedro and Andres.

The pressure exerted on Enrique IV by the Cortes led to the fact that Enrique was forced to recognize his half-brother Alfonso as his heir. But in 1468 Alfonso dies.

The Becoming of Isabella

On October 19, 1469, the secret wedding of Isabella and Ferdinand took place.
This worsened the relationship between Isabella and her half-brother. Enrique recognized his daughter Juana Beltranija as his heir. Since Isabella and Ferdinand were relatives, permission from the Pope was required for this marriage. The permit was forged, and the real document was received much later.
On December 11, 1474, Enrique IV died. A civil war broke out between supporters of Isabella and those of Juana Beltranija, which ended only in 1479 with the recognition of Isabella as the rightful queen of Spain.

Back in 1475, Juana was married to her maternal uncle, King Alfonso V of Portugal. It was he who supported his wife’s claims to the Castile throne. But after the defeat in 1479, Pope Sixtus IV annulled their marriage due to their close relationship. However, until her death, Juana considered herself a queen and signed all letters La Reina (queen). She died in 1530.

Children of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon

"); w.show();" alt="Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon" title="Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon"> !} According to the marriage contract, Isabella of Castile and her husband Ferdinand of Aragon were supposed to live in Castile, but only Isabella could rule the country, and Ferdinand was the king consort (husband of the reigning queen). Castile and Aragon were governed as two independent states, independent of each other.
Isabella I and Ferdinand II had five children: Isabella of Aragon (1470-1498), Juan of Aragon (1478-1497), Juana the Mad (1479-1555), Maria of Aragon (1482-1517), Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536).

But Ferdinand also had illegitimate children (bastards). Two of them were born before their marriage to Isabella (Alfonso of Aragon - became the bishop of Zaragoza; Juana of Aragon - married the constable of Castile Bernardino Fernandez de Velasco). Two sisters with the same name, Maria of Aragon, were placed in the convent of Santa Maria de Grazia near Madrid.

Time of reign

During the reigns of Isabella I and Ferdinand II, many important historical events took place. The Inquisition received great powers. Over the course of several years, about 9,000 people were burned alive at the stake, and thousands of Jews were expelled from Spanish lands. In 1492 Granada was conquered, a little later Roussillon. Isabella I provided financial support for the expedition of Christopher Columbus, thanks to which he reached the shores of previously unexplored lands - America.

Death of Isabella

In 1504, Isabella of Castile died and was buried in the Royal Chapel in Granada. The heiress of Castile was her daughter Juana the Mad.

In the same year, Naples was conquered by Ferdinand, Oran in 1509, and Navarre annexed to Spain in 1512.

Ferdinand married for the second time. His chosen one was the daughter of the Viscount of Navarre, Germaine de Foix. In 1509 they had a son, but he did not live long. They had no other children.

Heirs of Isabella and Ferdinand

Initially, the hope of the Castile and Aragonese thrones was the son of Ferdinand II and Isabella I, Juan, but he died at the age of 19, leaving no heirs. His older sister, Isabella, married the son of King Juan II of Portugal, Prince Alfonso, in 1490. But a year later she was widowed. In 1497, she was married to the new king of Portugal, the brother of Juan II's wife, Manuel I. However, a year later, Isabella died during childbirth, and her son Miguel lived only two years. In 1500, a marriage alliance was concluded between Manuel I and the sister of his late wife Isabella, Maria of Aragon. Over the years of her marriage, Maria gave birth to 10 children, including the heir to Portugal, Juan III. But her children could no longer claim the crown of Castile. Maria died in 1517.

The youngest daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, Catherine of Aragon, was given in marriage to Prince Arthur of Wales, son of King Henry VII of England, in 1501. But a year later, Prince Arthur died of illness. His brother, Henry VIII, having become king of England on their father's death in 1509, married Catherine that same year. In 1533, Henry VIII annulled their marriage, citing the wife's inability to produce a male heir. Three years later, Catherine died. From her marriage to Henry VIII there was a daughter, Mary Tudor (1516-1558), the future Queen of England, who went down in history as Mary I Bloody.

The only heir to whom the Castilian throne could pass was Juana the Mad. In 1496, she was married to the son of the King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, Duke Philip of Burgundy from the Habsburg family. They had four daughters and two sons. After the death of Isabella I, Juana became Queen of Castile. Since by this time she had already developed mental disorders, her husband Philip, nicknamed Handsome, actually began to rule the country. This categorically did not suit Juana's father, Ferdinand. A year later, Philip suddenly died. Some blame the King of Aragon for his death. Due to the death of her husband, the queen's mental illness worsened. For several weeks she did not allow her husband to be buried; she traveled with his embalmed body all over the country, sometimes lifting the lid of the coffin to look at it. Juana the Mad was then placed in the Castle of Tordisellas, where she remained until her death. However, she was still considered the queen. But in fact, Castile and Aragon were ruled by her father until 1516.

The rise of Charles V - grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella

"); w.show();" alt="Charles V - Portrait" title="Charles V - Portrait"> !} After the death of Ferdinand, the crown of Aragon passed to his grandson, the son of Juana the Mad, Charles V (1500-1558). Charles inherited a lot of lands from his titled relatives. But even this seemed to him not enough. He wanted to officially become the ruler of Castile. And on March 14, 1516, he declared himself king of Castile and Aragon. This event responded with the uprising of the Comuneros of 1520-1522. As a result, Charles only recognized the regency under his mother. He became King of Castile only after her death in 1555.

First King of Spain

Charles V was simultaneously the king of Aragon, Leon, Castile, Valencia, Granada, Seville, Galicia, Mallorca, Sicily, Navarre, Sardinia, Hungary, Corsica, Croatia, Germany, Italy, the titular king of Jerusalem, etc. Despite the fact that Charles V was the king of the Spanish states, only his son Philip II was the first to bear the title “King of Spain”.

Relying on an alliance with the church, cities and minor nobility, with large incomes from maritime trade, the royal power of both Castile and Aragon in the XIV-XV centuries. launched a decisive attack on the political rights of large feudal lords and deprived them of a significant share of independence. By the end of the 15th century. she deprived large feudal lords of the right to mint coins, wage private wars, and confiscated many lands from them. The king also took possession of the lands of the spiritual knightly orders.

In 1479 Aragon, and. Castile united into a single state under the rule of a married couple - Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. This event was one of the important stages in the strengthening of royal power in Spain. In crushing the power of large feudal lords, the royal authorities were supported by the cities. In 1480, the cities of Castile entered into an alliance with each other - the “holy hermandada”, which organized its own militia to fight the feudal lords. But, having used the military forces of the cities to curb the feudal lords, the royal power gradually curtailed the independence of the cities themselves. The church also provided enormous support to royal power, especially the Inquisition, introduced in Spain in 1480.

Fighting all kinds of anti-church heresies, the Inquisition thereby persecuted all social and political opposition to the existing system. In Spain, according to Marx, “thanks to the Inquisition, the church became the most indestructible weapon of absolutism.” The first to lead the Spanish Inquisition was the ferocious Torquemada, whose name became a household name.

Having strengthened their positions within the country, the Spanish kings directed their attack on the Emirate of Granada - the last possession of the Arabs in Spain. After a long siege in 1492, Granada capitulated. With its fall, the entire Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal, fell into the hands of the Spanish kings. The Moors surrendered Granada on the condition that they and the Jews retained property and freedom of religion. But these promises were not kept. The persecuted Muslims launched a series of uprisings. They were faced with a dilemma: either be baptized or leave Spain. A significant part of the Muslims and Jews who lived in the south of the country moved to Africa. Thus, most of the trade and craft population, who played an important role in the economic development of the country, left Spain. The Moors (Moriscos) who remained in Spain and converted to Christianity were subjected to constant persecution by the church.

Under Ferdinand and Isabella, an absolute monarchy is established in Spain. Large feudal lords lost their political independence and turned into a court aristocracy. The Cortes are losing their former importance and are convened less and less often. Management takes on a bureaucratic character, concentrating at the center in the hands of royal councils, and locally in the hands of royal officials (corregidors). However, the provincial and class disunity of Spain that has developed over centuries is reflected in the extreme cumbersomeness and lack of coordination of the administrative apparatus.