Russian language. Which word fits the phonetic description: sonorous, hard, consonant; unstressed vowel; voiced solid consonant; stressed vowel; sonorant Sonorant vowel unstressed consonant

Before proceeding to performing phonetic analysis with examples, we draw your attention to the fact that letters and sounds in words are not always the same.

Letters- these are writing, graphic symbols with the help of which the content of the text is conveyed or the conversation is outlined. Letters are used to convey meaning visually, we perceive them with our eyes. The letters can be read. When you read letters out loud, you form sounds - syllables - words.

The list of all letters is just the alphabet

Almost every student knows how many letters are in the Russian alphabet. That's right, there are 33 of them in total. The Russian alphabet is called the Cyrillic alphabet. The letters of the alphabet are arranged in a specific sequence:

Russian alphabet:

In total, the Russian alphabet is used:

• 21 letters for consonants;
• 10 letters - vowels;
• and two: b (soft sign) and b (hard sign), which indicate properties, but do not themselves determine any sound units.

You often pronounce sounds in phrases differently from how you write them down in writing. In addition, more letters can be used in a word than sounds. For example, "childish" - the letters "T" and "C" merge into one phoneme [c]. Conversely, the number of sounds in the word "blacken" is greater, since the letter "U" in this case is pronounced as [yu].

What is phonetic parsing?

We perceive the sounding speech by ear. Phonetic parsing of a word means the characteristic of the sound composition. In the school curriculum, such analysis is often called "sound-letter" analysis. So, in phonetic analysis, you simply describe the properties of sounds, their characteristics depending on the environment and the syllabic structure of the phrase, united by a common verbal stress.

Phonetic transcription

For sound-letter parsing, a special transcription in square brackets is used. For example, the spelling is correct:

• black -> [ч "О́рный"]
• apple -> [yablaka]
• anchor -> [yakar "]
• tree -> [yolka]
• sun -> [sontse]

The phonetic parsing scheme uses special characters. Thanks to this, it is possible to correctly identify and distinguish between the letter notation (spelling) and the sound definition of letters (phonemes).

• the phonetically parsed word is enclosed in square brackets -;
• a soft consonant is indicated by the transcription sign ['] - an apostrophe;
• shock [´] - stress;
• in complex word forms from several roots, the secondary stress sign [`] is used - gravis (not practiced in the school curriculum);
• the letters of the alphabet Y, Y, E, E, L and B are NEVER used in the transcription (in the curriculum);
• for doubled consonants, [:] is used - the sign of the longitude of the pronunciation of the sound.

Below are detailed rules for spelling, alphabetic and phonetic and parsing of words with examples online, in accordance with the school-wide norms of the modern Russian language. For professional linguists, the transcription of phonetic characteristics is distinguished by accents and other symbols with additional acoustic signs of vowels and consonant phonemes.

How to do phonetic parsing of a word?

The following scheme will help you carry out a letter analysis:

• Write out the necessary word and say it out loud several times.
• Count how many vowels and consonants it contains.
• Indicate a stressed syllable. (Stress with the help of intensity (energy) selects a certain phoneme in speech from a number of homogeneous sound units.)
• Divide the phonetic word by syllables and indicate their total number. Remember that the syllable section in differs from the hyphenation rules. The total number of syllables is always the same as the number of vowels.
• In transcription, sort the word by sound.
• Write the letters from the phrase in a column.
• In front of each letter in square brackets, indicate its sound definition (as it is heard). Remember that sounds in words are not always the same as letters. The letters "b" and "b" do not represent any sounds. The letters "e", "e", "yu", "i", "and" can mean 2 sounds at once.
• Analyze each phoneme separately and separate its properties with commas:
  • for a vowel we indicate in the characteristic: vowel sound; percussive or unstressed;
  • in the characteristics of consonants we indicate: consonant sound; hard or soft, voiced or voiceless, sonorous, paired / unpaired in hardness-softness and voiced-deafness.
• At the end of the phonetic analysis of the word, draw a line and count the total number of letters and sounds.

This scheme is practiced in the school curriculum.

An example of phonetic parsing of a word

Here is a sample of phonetic analysis for the word "phenomenon" → [yivl'en'n'iye]. In this example, there are 4 vowels and 3 consonants. There are only 4 syllables here: I-vle′-no-e. The stress falls on the second.

Sound characteristic of letters:

i [y] - acc., unpaired soft, unpaired voiced, sonorous [and] - vowel, unstressed in [v] - acc., paired hard, paired zv.l [l '] - acc., paired soft., unpaired ... sound, sonorous [e ′] - vowel, stressed [n '] - agree, paired soft., unpaired. zv., sonorous and [and] - vowel., unstressed [y] - acc., unpaired. soft, unpaired zv., sonorous [e] - vowel., unstressed ________________________ In total in the word phenomenon - 7 letters, 9 sounds. The first letter "I" and the last "E" stand for two sounds.

Now you know how to do sound-letter analysis yourself. Further, a classification of sound units of the Russian language is given, their interrelationships and the rules of transcription for sound-letter parsing.

Phonetics and sounds in Russian

What sounds are there?

All sound units are divided into vowels and consonants. Vowel sounds, in turn, are percussive and unstressed. The consonant sound in Russian words is: hard - soft, sonorous - deaf, hissing, sonorous.

How many sounds are there in Russian living speech?

The correct answer is 42.

Doing phonetic analysis online, you will find that 36 consonants and 6 vowels are involved in word formation. Many people have a reasonable question, why is there such a strange inconsistency? Why does the total number of sounds and letters differ in both vowels and consonants?

All this is easy to explain. A number of letters, when participating in word formation, can mean 2 sounds at once. For example, pairs of softness-hardness:

• [b] - vigorous and [b '] - squirrel;
• or [d] - [d ’]: home - to do.

And some do not have a pair, for example [h '] will always be soft. In doubt, try to say it firmly and make sure that this is impossible: stream, pack, spoon, black, Chegevara, boy, rabbit, bird cherry, bees. Thanks to this practical solution, our alphabet has not reached dimensionless scales, and the sound units are optimally complemented, merging with each other.

Vowel sounds in the words of the Russian language

Vowel sounds unlike the melodic consonants, they flow freely from the larynx, as it were, in a chant, without obstacles and tension of the ligaments. The louder you try to pronounce the vowel, the wider you will have to open your mouth. Conversely, the louder you try to pronounce the consonant, the more energetically you will close your mouth. This is the most striking articulatory difference between these classes of phonemes.

The stress in any word forms can only fall on the vowel sound, but there are also unstressed vowels.

How many vowels are there in Russian phonetics?

In Russian speech, fewer vowel phonemes are used than letters. There are six percussion sounds: [a], [and], [o], [e], [y], [s]. Let us remind you that there are ten letters: a, e, e, and, o, y, s, e, i, y. The vowels Е, Е, Ю, Я are not "pure" sounds and in transcription are not used. Often, when parsing words in letters, stress falls on the listed letters.

Phonetics: characteristics of stressed vowels

The main phonemic feature of Russian speech is the clear pronunciation of vowel phonemes in stressed syllables. Stressed syllables in Russian phonetics are distinguished by the strength of exhalation, increased duration of sound, and are pronounced undistorted. Since they are pronounced clearly and expressively, sound analysis of syllables with stressed vowel phonemes is much easier to carry out. The position in which the sound does not undergo changes and retain its basic appearance is called strong position. Only a stressed sound and a syllable can take this position. Unstressed phonemes and syllables remain in a weak position.

• The vowel in the stressed syllable is always in a strong position, that is, it is pronounced more clearly, with the greatest strength and duration.
• A vowel in an unstressed position is in a weak position, that is, it is pronounced with less strength and not so clearly.

In the Russian language, only one phoneme "U" retains its unchangeable phonetic properties: ku kura za, tablet, u chu si, u lov - in all positions it is pronounced clearly as [u]. This means that the vowel "U" does not undergo a qualitative reduction. Attention: on the letter, the phoneme [y] can also be denoted by another letter "U": muesli [m'u ´sl'i], key [kl'u ´ch ’], etc.

Parsing the sounds of stressed vowels

The vowel phoneme [o] occurs only in the strong position (under stress). In such cases, "O" is not subject to reduction: cat [ko' t'ik], bell [kalako' l'ch'yk], milk [malako '], eight [vo'c'im'], search [paisko' vaya], dialect [go' var], autumn [o's'in '].

An exception to the rule of a strong position for "O", when unstressed [o] is also pronounced clearly, are only some foreign words: cocoa [cocoa "o], patio [pa" tio], radio [ra "dio], boa [bo a "] and a number of service units, for example, union no. The sound [o] in writing can be reflected by another letter "ё" - [o]: turn [t'o'rn], fire [cas't'o'r]. It is also not difficult to parse the sounds of the remaining four vowels in the position under stress.

Unstressed vowels and sounds in the words of the Russian language

It is possible to make the correct sound analysis and accurately determine the characteristics of the vowel only after the stress is placed in the word. Do not forget about the existence in our language of homonymy: for "mok - zamo" to and about the change of phonetic qualities depending on the context (case, number):

• I'm home [ya to ma].
• New houses [but "vie da ma"].

IN unstressed position the vowel is modified, that is, pronounced differently than it is written:

• mountains - mountain = [go "ry] - [gara"];
• he is online = [o "n] - [a nla" yn]
• wit t flax = [s'id'e "t'i l'n'itsa].

Similar vowel changes in unstressed syllables are called reduction. Quantitative when the duration of the sound changes. And a high-quality reduction, when the characteristic of the original sound changes.

The same unstressed vowel can change its phonetic characteristics depending on the position:

• primarily with respect to the stressed syllable;
• at the absolute beginning or end of a word;
• in naked syllables (they consist of only one vowel);
• by the influence of neighboring signs (b, b) and a consonant.

So, it differs 1st degree of reduction... It is exposed to:

• vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable;
• an overt syllable at the very beginning;
• repetitive vowels.

Note: To make a sound-letter analysis, the first pre-stressed syllable is determined not from the "head" of the phonetic word, but in relation to the stressed syllable: the first to the left of it. In principle, it can be the only pre-shock: not-local [n'iz'd'e'shn'iy].

(uncovered syllable) + (2-3 pre-stressed syllable) + 1st pre-stressed syllable ← stressed syllable → stressed syllable (+2/3 stressed syllable)

• vpe-re -di [fp'ir'i d'i '];
• e-natural-nno [yi s't'e's't'v'in: a];

Any other pre-stressed syllables and all post-stressed syllables when parsing sound refer to 2nd degree reduction. It is also called “second degree weak position”.

• kiss [pa-tsy-la-wa't ’];
• to model [ma-dy-l'i'-ra-wat '];
• swallow [la'-sta -ch'ka];
• kerosene [k'i-ra-s'i'-na-yy].

The reduction of vowels in a weak position also differs in degrees: second, third (after hard and soft agree., This is outside the curriculum): study [uch'i'ts: a], become numb [atyp'in'et't '], hope [nad'e'zhda]. In literal analysis, the reduction of a vowel in a weak position in the final open syllable (= at the absolute end of the word) will appear very slightly:

• cup;
• goddess;
• with songs;
• turn.

Sound letter parsing: iotated sounds

Phonetically, the letters E - [ye], E - [yo], Yu - [yu], I - [ya] often denote two sounds at once. Have you noticed that in all the indicated cases, the additional phoneme is "Y"? That is why these vowels are called iotated. The meaning of the letters E, Y, Y, Y is determined by their positional position.

When parsing phonetically, the vowels e, e, yu, i form 2 sounds:

◊ Yo - [yo], Yu - [yu], E - [ye], I - [ya] in cases where there are:

• At the beginning of the word "Yo" and "Yu" always:
  • - hedgehog [yo' zhyts: a], Christmas tree [yo'lach'ny], hedgehog [yo' zhyk], capacity [yo' mkast '];
  • - jeweler [yuv 'il'i'r], yula [yu la'], skirt [yu' pka], Jupiter [yu p'i't'ir], briskness [yu ´rkas't '];
• at the beginning of the word "E" and "I" only under stress *:
  • - spruce [ye'l ’], I go [ye'w: y], huntsman [ye' g'ir’], eunuch [ye' vuh];
  • - yacht [ya'khta], anchor [ya'kar '], yaki [ya'ki], apple [ya' blaka];
  • (* to perform sound-literal analysis of unstressed vowels "E" and "I", a different phonetic transcription is used, see below);
• in the position immediately after the vowel "E" and "Yu" always. But "E" and "I" in stressed and unstressed syllables, except for cases when these letters are located behind the vowel in the 1st pre-stressed syllable or in the 1st, 2nd post-stressed syllables in the middle of words. Phonetic analysis online and examples for specified cases:
  • - the receiver [pr'iyo'mn'ik], singing t [payot], pecking t [klyuyo ´t];
  • -yu rveda [ayu r'v'ed'da], sing t [payu ´t], melt [t'yu t], cabin [kayu ´ta],
• after the dividing solid "b" the sign "E" and "U" - always, and "E" and "I" only under stress or at the absolute end of the word: - volume [ab yo'm], shooting [syo'mka], adjutant [adyu "ta'nt]
• after the dividing soft "b" sign "E" and "U" - always, and "E" and "I" under stress or at the absolute end of the word: - interview [intyrv'yu´], trees [d'ir'e´ v'ya], friends [druz'ya'], brothers [brat'ya], monkey [ab'iz'ya'na], blizzard [v'yu'ha], family [s'em'ya' ]

As you can see, in the phonemic system of the Russian language, stress is crucial. Vowels in unstressed syllables undergo the greatest reduction. Let's continue the sound analysis of the remaining iotated ones and see how they can still change characteristics depending on the environment in the words.

◊ Unstressed vowels"E" and "I" denote two sounds in phonetic transcription and are written as [YI]:

• at the very beginning of a word:
  • - unity [yi d'in'e'n'i'ye], spruce [yil'vy], blackberries [yizhiv'i'ka], his [yivo'], egoza [yigaza'], Yenisei [yin'is 'hey], Egypt [yig'i'p'it];
  • - January [yi nva'rskiy], core [yidro'], sarcastic [yiz'v'i't '], label [yirly'k], Japan [yipo'n'iya], lamb [yign'o'nak ];
  • (The only exceptions are rare foreign-language word forms and names: Caucasian [ye wrap'io'idnaya], Eugene [ye] vge'ny, European [ye wrap'e'yits], diocese [ye] par'archia, etc.).
• immediately after the vowel in the 1st pre-stressed syllable or in the 1st, 2nd post-stressed syllables, except for the location at the absolute end of the word.
  • timely [svayi vr'e'm'ina], trains [payi zda '], we will eat [payi d'i'm], run over [nayi w: a't'], Belgian [b'il'g'i´ yi ts], students [uch'a'sh'iyi s'a], sentences [pr'idlazhe'n'iyi mi'i], vanity [suyi ta'],
  • bark [la'yi t '], pendulum [ma'yi tn'ik], hare [z'yi ts], belt [po'yi s], declare [zayi v'i't'], manifest [prayi v 'l'u´]
• after the dividing hard "b" or soft "b" sign: - intoxicates [p'yi n'i't], express [izyi v'i't '], announcement [abyi vl'e'n'iye], edible [this is good].

Note: The St. Petersburg phonological school is characterized by “hiccups”, and for the Moscow school, “hiccups”. Previously, the iotrated "Yo" was pronounced with a more accented "ye". With the change of capitals, performing sound-letter analysis, they adhere to Moscow norms in orthoepy.

Some people in fluent speech pronounce the vowel "I" in the same way in syllables with a strong and weak position. This pronunciation is considered a dialect and is not literary. Remember, the vowel "I" under stress and without stress is sounded differently: fair [ya ´rmarka], but an egg [yi yzo´].

Important:

The letter "I" after the soft sign "b" also represents 2 sounds - [YI] in sound-letter analysis. (This rule applies to syllables in both strong and weak positions). Let's conduct a sample of sound-letter online parsing: - nightingales [salav'yi´], on chicken legs [on k'r'yi 'x "socks], rabbit [cro'l'ich'yi], no family [s'im 'yi´], judges [su´d'yi], nobody's [n'ich'yi´], streams [ruch'yi´], foxes [l´s'yi]. But: Vowel "O" after a soft sign "B" is transcribed as an apostrophe of softness ['] of the preceding consonant and [O], although when pronouncing the phoneme, iotation can be heard: broth [bul'o'n], pavilion n [pav'il'o'n], similarly: postman n , champignon n, chignon n, companion n, medallion n, battalion n, guillotine, karagno la, minion n and others.

Phonetic parsing of words when the vowels "U" "E" "E" "I" form 1 sound

According to the rules of phonetics of the Russian language, at a certain position in words, the indicated letters give one sound when:

• sound units "E" "U" "E" are under stress after an unpaired consonant in hardness: f, w, c. Then they denote phonemes:
  • ё - [o],
  • e - [e],
  • yu - [y].
  Examples of online parsing by sounds: yellow [yellow], silk [sho 'lk], whole [whole], recipe [r'itse'ft], pearl [zhe'mch'uk], six [she'st '], hornet [she´ rshen'], parachute [parashu´ t];
• The letters "I" "U" "E" "E" and "I" denote the softness of the preceding consonant [’]. The only exception is for: [w], [w], [c]. In such cases in striking position they form one vowel sound:
  • ё - [o]: voucher [put'o´ fka], easy [l'o´ hk'iy], honey mushroom [ap'o´ nak], actor [act'o'r], child [rib ' o'nak];
  • e - [e]: seal [t'ul'e'n '], mirror [z'e'rkala], smarter [umn'e' ye], conveyor [canv'e' yir];
  • I - [a]: kittens [kat'a'ta], softly [m'a'hka], oath [k'a'tva], took [v'a'l], mattress [t'u f'a ´ k], swan [l'ib'a´ zhy];
  • yu - [y]: beak [kl'u'f], people [l'u' d'am], gateway [shl'u'c], tulle [t'u'l '], costume [cas't 'mind].
  • Note: in words borrowed from other languages, the stressed vowel "E" does not always signal the softness of the previous consonant. This positional softening has ceased to be a mandatory norm in Russian phonetics only in the XX century. In such cases, when you make a phonetic analysis of the composition, such a vowel sound is transcribed as [e] without the preceding apostrophe of softness: hotel [ate'l '], shoulder strap [br'ite'l'ka], test [te'st] , tennis [te´ n: is], cafe [cafe´], mashed potatoes [p'ure´], amber [ambre´], delta [de´ l'ta], tender [te´ nder], masterpiece [shede´ vr], tablet [tablet 't].
• Attention! After soft consonants in pre-stressed syllables the vowels "E" and "I" undergo a qualitative reduction and are transformed into the sound [and] (excl. for [c], [g], [w]). Examples of phonetic parsing of words with similar phonemes: - zerno [z'i rno´], earth [z'i ml'a´], ve sely [v'i s'o'ly], ringing [z'v 'i n'i't], forest [l'i sleep'y], metitsa [m'i t'e'l'itsa], per po [p'i ro'], brought weak [pr' in'i sl'], knit [v'i z't '], la gat [l'i g't'], five grater [p'i t'o'rka]

Phonetic analysis: consonants of the Russian language

There is an absolute majority of consonants in the Russian language. When pronouncing a consonant sound, the air flow encounters obstacles. They are formed by the organs of articulation: teeth, tongue, palate, vibrations of the vocal cords, lips. Due to this, noise, hiss, whistle or sonority occurs in the voice.

How many consonants are there in Russian?

The alphabet is used to designate them 21 letters. However, when performing sound-letter analysis, you will find that in Russian phonetics consonants more, namely - 36.

Sound-letter analysis: what are the consonant sounds?

In our language, consonants are:

• hard - soft and form the corresponding pairs:
  • [b] - [b ’]: b anan - b tree,
  • [in] - [in ’]: in height - in yun,
  • [g] - [g ’]: city - duke,
  • [d] - [d ']: da acha - d dolphin,
  • [z] - [z ']: z von - z ethere,
  • [to] - [to ’]: to onfeta - to yangaroo,
  • [l] - [l ']: l odka - luks,
  • [m] - [m ’]: magic - dreams,
  • [n] - [n ']: new - n ectar,
  • [p] - [p ’]: p alma-p yosik,
  • [p] - [p ’]: pomashka - p poison,
  • [s] - [s ’]: s ovenir - yurprise,
  • [t] - [t ’]: t uchka - t yulpan,
  • [f] - [f ’]: f lag - f evral,
  • [x] - [x ’]: x nut - x seeker.
• Certain consonants do not have a hard-soft pair. Unpaired include:
  • sounds [f], [c], [w] are always solid (life, cycl, mouse);
  • [h ’], [sch’] and [th ’] are always soft (daughter, more often, yours).
• The sounds [w], [h ’], [w], [u’] in our language are called hissing.

The consonant can be voiced - deaf, as well as sonorous and noisy.

It is possible to determine voicedness-deafness or sonority of a consonant by the degree of noise-voice. These characteristics will vary depending on the method of formation and the involvement of the organs of articulation.

• Sonorous (l, m, n, p, d) are the most sonorous phonemes, they contain a maximum of voice and a little noise: lev, rai, nol.
• If, when pronouncing a word during sound parsing, both a voice and a noise are formed, then you have a voiced consonant (g, b, z, etc.): zavod, b people o, zn.
• When pronouncing voiceless consonants (p, s, t and others), the vocal cords do not tense, only noise is emitted: st opka a, f ishk a, kost yum, ts irk, zashit.

Note: In phonetics, consonant sound units also have a division according to the nature of the formation: bow (b, p, d, t) - gap (g, w, h, s) and the method of articulation: labial (b, p, m) , labiodental (f, v), front lingual (t, d, z, s, c, w, w, sch, h, n, l, r), middle lingual (d), posterior lingual (k, g, x) ... The names are given based on the organs of articulation that are involved in sound production.

Hint: If you are just starting to practice phonetic parsing of words, try pressing your palms to your ears and pronouncing the phoneme. If you managed to hear a voice, then the sound under study is a voiced consonant, if you hear noise, then it is deaf.

Hint: For an associative connection, remember the phrases: "Oh, we haven't forgotten a friend." - this sentence contains absolutely the entire set of voiced consonants (excluding soft-hardness pairs). “Styopka, do you want to eat some shchets? - Fi! " - similarly, these cues contain a set of all voiceless consonants.

Positional changes of consonants in Russian

The consonant, like the vowel, undergoes changes. One and the same letter phonetically can mean a different sound, depending on the position occupied. In the flow of speech, the sounding of one consonant is likened to the articulation of a consonant located next to it. This effect facilitates pronunciation and is called assimilation in phonetics.

Positional stunning / voicing

In a certain position, the phonetic law of deafness-voiced assimilation operates for consonants. A voiced paired consonant is replaced by a voiceless one:

• at the absolute end of the phonetic word: but w [no'sh], snow [s'n'e'k], vegetable garden [agaro't], club [klu'p];
• before voiceless consonants: forget-me-not a [n'izabu't ka], obh vatit [apkh vat'i't ’], tu ornik [ft o'rn'ik], pipe a [corpse a].
• doing sound literal parsing online, you will notice that a voiceless paired consonant in front of a voiced consonant (except for [y '], [v] - [v'], [l] - [l '], [m] - [m'] , [n] - [n '], [p] - [p']) also voiced, that is, it is replaced by its own sonorous pair: surrender [zda'ch'a], mowing [kaz'ba'], threshing [malad 'ba'], request [pro'z'ba], guess [adgada't'].

In Russian phonetics, a voiceless noisy consonant is not combined with the subsequent voiced noisy one, except for the sounds [в] - [в ']: whipped cream. In this case, the transcription of both phonemes [s] and [s] is equally permissible.

When parsing the sounds of words: total, today, today, etc., the letter "G" is replaced by the phoneme [v].

According to the rules of sound-literal analysis in the endings "-th", "-his" adjectives, participles and pronouns, the consonant "Г" is transcribed as a sound [in]: red [krasnava], blue [s'i'n'iva] , white [b'e'lava], sharp, full, former, that, this, whom. If, after assimilation, two consonants of the same type are formed, they merge. In the school curriculum on phonetics, this process is called consonant contraction: separate [hell: 'il'i't'] → the letters "T" and "D" are reduced to the sounds [d'd '], bessh clever [b'ish: u ´mny]. When parsing the composition of a number of words in the sound-letter analysis, dissimilation is observed - the process is the opposite of assimilation. In this case, the common feature of two adjacent consonants changes: the combination "GK" sounds like [xk] (instead of the standard [kk]): light [l'oh'kh'k'iy], soft [m'ah'kh ' k'iy].

Soft consonants in Russian

In the phonetic parsing scheme, the apostrophe ['] is used to indicate the softness of consonants.

• The softening of paired solid consonants occurs before "b";
• the softness of a consonant sound in a syllable in writing will help determine the following vowel letter (e, e, i, y, i);
• [u ’], [h’] and [th] are only soft by default;
• the sound [n] is always softened before the soft consonants "Z", "S", "D", "T": claim [pr'iten'z 'iya], review [r'iceen'z' iya], pension [pen 's' iya], ve [n'z'] fir, face [n'z '] iya, ka [n'd'] idat, ba [n'd '] it, and [n'd'] ivid , blo [n'd '] in, stipe [n'd'] ia, ba [n't '] ik, vi [n't'] ik, zo [n't '] ik, ve [n' t '] il, a [n't'] ichny, ko [n't '] text, rem [n't'] irovat;
• the letters "Н", "К", "Р" during phonetic analysis by composition can be softened before soft sounds [h '], [u']: glass ik [stack'n'ch'ik], change ik [sm'e ′ N'sh'ik], ponch ik [po'n'ch'ik], mason ik [kam'en'n'sh'ik], boulevard ina [bul'va'r'sh'ina], borsch [ Borsch'];
• often the sounds [z], [s], [p], [n] before a soft consonant undergo assimilation by hardness-softness: wall [s't'en'nka], life [zhyz'n '], here [ z'd'es'];
• in order to correctly perform sound-letter parsing, take into account the words of the exception, when the consonant [p] is pronounced firmly in front of soft teeth and lips, as well as before [h ’], [u’]: artel, feed, cornet, samovar;

Note: the letter "b" after a consonant unpaired in hardness / softness in some word forms performs only a grammatical function and does not impose a phonetic load: study, night, mouse, rye, etc. In such words, during literal analysis in square brackets, a [-] dash is put in front of the letter "b".

Positional changes in paired voiced-voiceless in front of hissing consonants and their transcription during sound-letter parsing

To determine the number of sounds in a word, it is necessary to take into account their positional changes. Paired voiced-voiceless: [d-t] or [z-s] before hissing (f, w, w, h) are phonetically replaced by a hissing consonant.

• Alphabetic analysis and examples of words with hissing sounds: come [pr'iye'zhzhii], rebellion [vash e'stv'iye], izzh elta [i'zhzh elta], squeeze [zh a'l'its: but].

The phenomenon when two different letters are pronounced as one is called complete assimilation in all respects. Performing a sound-letter parsing of a word, you must designate one of the repetitive sounds in the transcription with the longitude symbol [:].

• Combinations of letters with a hissing "szh" - "zzh" are pronounced as a double hard consonant [w:], and "ssh" - "zsh" - as [w:]: squeezed, sew, without a tire, climbed in.
• Combinations "zzh", "zzh" inside the root during sound-letter parsing is written in transcription as a long consonant [w:]: I drive, squeal, later, reins, yeast, burnt.
• The combinations "mid", "zh" at the junction of the root and the suffix / prefix are pronounced like a long soft [ш ':]: score [ш': о´т], scribe, customer.
• At the junction of the preposition with the next word in place of "mid", "zch" is transcribed as [uch'ch ']: without number [b'esh' h 'isla´], with something [uch'ch' emta] ...
• When parsing sound-lettering, the combinations "pt", "dch" at the junction of morphemes are defined as double soft [h ':]: pilot [l'o'ch': hik], molod ik [little'h ': ik], report [ach ': o´t].

Cheat sheet for the assimilation of consonants at the place of education

• nt → [ny ':]: happiness [ni': a's't'ye], sandstone [n'isch ': a'n'ik], peddler [different'sh': uk], cobbled, calculations, exhaust, clear;
• zch → [uch ’:]: carver [r’e’sch’: uk], loader [gr’sch ’: uk], storyteller [rask’sch’: uk];
• gh → [u ':]: defector [p'ir'ibe' u': uk], man [musch ': i'na];
• shh → [u ':]: freckled [v'isn'shch': wite];
• stch → [u ':]: tougher [jo'sh': e], whip, snap;
• zd → [u ':]: buster [abye'sh': uk], furrowed [baro'sh ': ity];
• ssch → [ny':]: split [rasch ': ip'i't'], generous [rasch ': edr'ils'a];
• vain → [h'ch ']: to split off [ach'sh' ip'it '], to snap off [ach'sh' o'lk'ivat '], in vain [ch'ch' etna], thoroughly [h ' sh 'at'el'na];
• pm → [h ’:]: report [ach’: o′t], homeland [ach ’:‘ zna], ciliated [r’is’n’ ’h’: it’s];
• dch → [h ’:]: underline [pach’: o'rk'ivat ’], stepdaughter [pach’: ir’itsa];
• squeeze → [f:]: compress [f: a't ’];
• zzh → [f:]: get rid of [ilh: y't ’], ignite [ro'zh: yk], leave [uyizh: a't’];
• ssh → [w:]: brought [pr'in'osh: th], embroidered [rush: y'ty];
• zsh → [w:]: lower [n'ish: y'y]
• thu → [pc], in word forms with “what” and its derivatives, making a sound-letter analysis, we write [pc]: so that [pc o'by], not at all [n'e ′ zasht a], something [ piece about n'ibut '], something;
• Thu → [h't] in other cases of literal analysis: dreamer [m'ich't a't'il '], mail [po'ch't a], preference [pr'itpach't' e'n ' iye] and TP;
• chn → [shn] in words-exceptions: of course [kan'eshn a ′], boring [sku'shn a ′], bakery, laundry, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse, bachelorette party, mustard plaster, rag, as well as in female patronymics ending in "-ichna": Ilyinichna, Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, etc .;
• chn → [ch'n] - alphabetic analysis for all other options: fabulous [ska'zach'n], dacha [da'ch'n th], strawberry [z'im'l'in'i'ch'n th], wake up, cloudy, sunny, etc .;
• ! zhd → in place of the literal combination "zhd", double pronunciation and transcription [ш ’] or [pcs’] in the word rain and in the word forms formed from it are permissible: rainy, rainy.

Unpronounceable consonants in the words of the Russian language

During the pronunciation of a whole phonetic word with a chain of many different consonant letters, one or another sound may be lost. As a result, in the orthograms of words there are letters devoid of sound meaning, the so-called unpronounceable consonants. To correctly perform phonetic parsing online, an unpronounceable consonant is not displayed in transcription. The number of sounds in such phonetic words will be less than the number of letters.

In Russian phonetics, unpronounceable consonants include:

• "T" - in combinations:
  • stn → [sn]: local [m'es'n'y], reed [trans'n''i'k]. By analogy, you can perform a phonetic analysis of the words flattering, honest, famous, joyful, sad, participatory, well-known, rainy, furious and others;
  • stl → [sl]: happy ive [sch ': asl ’and'vy"], happy ive, conscientious, boastful (exception words: bony and post, in them the letter "T" is pronounced);
  • ntsk → [nsk]: giant [g'iga'nsk'y], agency, presidential;
  • sts → [s:]: sixs from [shes: o´t], eat me [vyes: a], I swear [cl'a´s: a];
  • sts → [s:]: tourist cue [tur'i's: c'y], maximalist cue [max'imal'i's: c'y], racist [ras'is: c'y] , bests yeller, propaganda, expressionist, hindu, careerist;
  • ntg → [ng]: roentgen [r'eng 'e'n];
  • “–Sat”, “–sat” → [c:] in verb endings: smile [smile'ts: a], wash [my'ts: a], looks, fits, bows, shaves, suits;
  • ts → [c] for adjectives in combinations at the junction of the root and suffix: childish [d'e'ts k'iy], brotherly [bra'tskiy];
  • ts → [ts:] / [ts]: sports men [spark: m'en'n], send [acs yyl'at '];
  • tts → [ts:] at the junction of morphemes during phonetic parsing online is written as a long "ts": bratz a [bra'ts: a], father to drink [ats: yp'i't '], to father u [to ac: y´];
• "D" - when parsing the sounds in the following letter combinations:
  • zdn → [zn]: late [pos'z'n 'iy], starry [z'v'o'zniy], festive ik [pra'z'n' ik], free [b'izvazm ' e'zn th];
  • ndsh → [nsh]: mouthsh tuk [munsh tu'k], landsh aft [lansh a'ft];
  • ndsk → [nsk]: Dutch [gala'nsk'ii], Thai [thaila'nsk''ii], Norman [narma'nsk''ii];
  • zd → [ss]: under the bridle [pad usts'];
  • ndc → [nts]: Dutch [gala'ants];
  • rdc → [rts]: heart e [s'e'rts e], heart of evin [s'irtz yv'i'na];
  • rdch → [rh "]: heart ishko [s'erch 'and'shka];
  • dts → [c:] at the junction of morphemes, less often in the roots, are pronounced and, when parsing the sound, the word is written as double [c]: subtrip [pats: ep'i't '], twenty [two'ts: yt'] ;
  • ds → [c]: factory [zavats k'y], family [rats], means [sr'e'ts tva], Kislovods k [k'islavots k];
• "L" - in combinations:
  • lnts → [nts]: suns e [so'nts e], suns state;
• "B" - in combinations:
  • vstv → [st] literal parsing of words: hello [hello uyt'e], feelings about [h'u'stv a], feelings [ch'u'stv 'inas't'], pampering about [balls o´], virgin [d'e´stv 'in: th].

Note: In some words of the Russian language, with the accumulation of consonants "stk", "ntk", "zdk", "ndk", the dropout of the phoneme [t] is not allowed: trip [payestka], daughter-in-law, typist, agenda, laboratory assistant, student , patient, bulky, irish, tartan.

• Two identical letters immediately after a stressed vowel are transcribed as a single sound and a longitude symbol [:] when parsing literally: class, bath, mass, group, program.
• Doubled consonants in pre-stressed syllables are indicated in transcription and pronounced as one sound: tunnel [tanël ’], terrace, apparatus.

If you find it difficult to perform a phonetic parsing of a word online according to the indicated rules, or you have an ambiguous analysis of the word under study, use the help of a reference dictionary. Literary norms of orthoepy are regulated by the publication: “Russian literary pronunciation and stress. Dictionary - reference book ". M. 1959

References:

• Litnevskaya E.I. Russian language: a short theoretical course for schoolchildren. - Moscow State University, Moscow: 2000
• Panov M.V. Russian phonetics. - Education, M .: 1967
• Beshenkova E.V., Ivanova O.E. Russian spelling rules with comments.
• Tutorial. - "Institute for Advanced Training of Educators", Tambov: 2012
• Rosenthal D.E., Dzhandzhakova E.V., Kabanova N.P. Reference book on spelling, pronunciation, literary editing. Russian literary pronunciation. - M .: CheRo, 1999

Now you know how to parse a word by sounds, make a sound-letter analysis of each syllable and determine their number. The described rules explain the laws of phonetics in the format of the school curriculum. They will help you phonetically characterize any letter.

In this chapter:

§one. Sound

Sound- the minimum unit of sounding speech. Each word has a sound shell, consisting of sounds. Sound correlates with the meaning of the word. Different words and forms of the word have different sound design. The sounds themselves do not matter, but they do an important role: they help us distinguish between:

• words: [house] - [volume], [volume] - [there], [m'el] - [m'el ']
• word forms: [house] - [lady´] - [house´ ma].

Note:

words written in square brackets are given in transcription.

§2. Transcription

Transcription is a special recording system that displays sound. The characters are accepted in the transcription:

Square brackets representing transcription.

[´] - stress. The stress is put if the word consists of more than one syllable.

[б ’] - the icon next to the consonant denotes its softness.

[j] and [th] are different meanings of the same sound. Since this sound is soft, these symbols are often used with an additional designation for softness:, [’’]. This site uses the designation [th '], which is more familiar to most guys. The softness icon will be used to make you more accustomed to the softness of the sound.

There are other symbols as well. They will be introduced gradually as you become familiar with the topic.

§3. Vowel and consonant sounds

Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
They have a different nature. They are pronounced and perceived differently, and also behave differently in speech and play different roles in it.

Vowels- these are sounds, when pronounced, the air freely passes through the oral cavity, without encountering obstacles in its path. Pronunciation (articulation) is not focused in one place: the quality of the vowels is determined by the shape of the mouth, which acts as a resonator. When articulating vowels, the vocal cords work in the larynx. They are close, tense and vibrate. Therefore, when pronouncing vowels, we hear a voice. Vowels can be pulled. You can shout them. And if you put your hand to your throat, then the work of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels can be felt, felt with your hand. Vowels are the basis of a syllable, they organize it. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. For example: he- 1 syllable, she- 2 syllables, guys- 3 syllables, etc. There are words that consist of one vowel sound. For example, unions: and, and and interjections: Oh !, Oh !, Ooh! and others.

In a word, vowels can be in stressed and unstressed syllables.
Stressed syllable the one in which the vowel is pronounced clearly and appears in its basic form.
IN unstressed syllables vowels are modified, pronounced differently. The change of vowels in unstressed syllables is called reduction.

There are six stressed vowels in Russian: [a], [o], [y], [s], [and], [e].

Remember:

Words that can only consist of vowels are possible, but consonants are also necessary.
In Russian, there are much more consonants than vowels.

§4. The way consonants are formed

Consonants- these are sounds, when pronounced, the air encounters an obstacle in its path. In Russian, there are two types of barriers: a slit and a bow - these are two main ways of forming consonants. The type of obstruction determines the nature of the consonant sound.

Slit formed, for example, when pronouncing sounds: [s], [h], [w], [g]. The tip of the tongue only approaches the lower or upper teeth. Slotted consonants can be pulled: [s-s-s-s], [w-w-w-w] . As a result, you will hear a good noise: when pronouncing [c] - whistling, and when pronouncing [sh] - hissing.

Bow, the second type of articulation of consonants is formed when the organs of speech are closed. The air flow abruptly overcomes this obstacle, the sounds are short, energetic. Therefore, they are called explosive. You won't be able to pull them. These are, for example, the sounds [n], [b], [t], [d] . This articulation is easier to feel, feel.

So, when pronouncing consonants, noise is heard. The presence of noise is a hallmark of consonants.

§five. Voiced and voiceless consonants

According to the ratio of noise and voice, consonants are divided into voiced and deaf.
When pronouncing voiced consonants are heard both voice and noise, and deaf- only noise.
Deaf people cannot be pronounced loudly. They cannot be shouted out.

Let's compare the words: House and cat. Each word has 1 vowel sound and 2 consonants. The vowels are the same, but the consonants are different: [d] and [m] are voiced, and [k] and [t] are voiceless. Voice-deafness is the most important sign of consonants in Russian.

pairs of voiced-deafness:[b] - [n], [h] - [c] and others. There are 11 such pairs.

Pairs for deafness-voicedness: [n] and [b], [n "] and [b"], [f] and [c], [f "] and [c"], [k] and [g], [k "] and [z], [t] and [d], [t"] and [d "], [w] and [g], [s] and [z], [s"] and [ h "].

But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of voicedness - deafness. For example, the sounds [p], [l], [n], [m], [y ’] do not have a voiceless pair, while [c] and [h’] have a voiced pair.

Unpaired in deafness-voiced

Voiced unpaired:[p], [l], [n], [m], [y "], [p"], [l "], [n"], [m "] . They are also called sonorous.

What does this term mean? This is a group of consonants (9 in total) with pronunciation features: when they are pronounced in the oral cavity, obstacles also arise, but such that the air stream, passing through an obstacle makes only a slight noise; air flows freely through an opening in the nasal cavity or mouth. Sonorous ones are pronounced using a voice with the addition of minor noise. Many teachers do not use this term, but everyone should know that these sounds are voiced unpaired.

Sonorants have two important features:

1) they are not stunned, like paired voiced consonants, before the deaf and at the end of the word;

2) in front of them there is no voicing of paired voiceless consonants (i.e., the position in front of them is strong in terms of voicelessness, as well as before vowels). For more information on positional changes, see.

Deaf unpaired:[c], [h "], [w":], [x], [x "].

What is the easiest way to memorize lists of voiced and voiceless consonants?

The phrases will help to remember the lists of voiced and voiceless consonants:

Oh, we didn’t forget each other!(There are only voiced consonants)

Foka, do you want to eat some chec?(There are only voiceless consonants here)

True, these phrases do not include hardness-softness pairs. But usually people can easily figure out that not only hard [s] sonorous, but soft [s "] too, not only [b], but also [b"], etc.

§6. Hard and soft consonants

The consonants differ not only in voicelessness, but also in hardness and softness.
Hardness-softness- the second most important sign of consonants in Russian.

Soft consonants differ from solid the special position of the language. When pronouncing hard, the entire body of the tongue is pulled back, and when pronouncing soft, it is shifted forward, and the middle part of the tongue is raised. Compare: [m] - [m ’], [z] - [z’]. Voiced soft sounds higher than hard ones.

Many Russian consonants form hardness-softness pairs: [b] - [b ’], [c] - [c’] and others. There are 15 such pairs.

Pairs of hardness-softness: [b] and [b "], [m] and [m"], [n] and [n "], [c] and [c"], [f] and [f "] , [h] and [h "], [c] and [c"], [d] and [d "], [t] and [t"], [n] and [n "], [l] and [l "], [p] and [p"], [k] and [k "], [z] and [z"], [x] and [x "].

But there are sounds that do not have a hard-soft pair. For example, the sounds [w], [w], [c] do not have a soft pair, while [y ’] and [h’] have no hard pair.

Unpaired in hardness-softness

Solid unpaired: [w], [w], [c] .

Soft unpaired: [th "], [h"], [w ":].

§7. Indicating the softness of consonants in writing

Let's digress from pure phonetics. Consider a practically important question: how is the softness of consonants in writing indicated?

There are 36 consonant sounds in Russian, among which there are 15 pairs of hardness-softness, 3 unpaired hard and 3 unpaired soft consonants. There are only 21 consonants. How can 21 letters represent 36 sounds?

For this, different methods are used:

• iotated letters e, e, y, i after consonants, except w, w and c, unpaired in hardness-softness, indicate that these consonants are soft, for example: aunt- [t'o't'a], uncle -[Yes Yes] ;
• letter and after consonants, except w, w and c... Consonants denoted by letters w, w and c, unpaired solid. Examples of words with a vowel and: no wea- [n'i' tk'i], sheet- [l'ist], cute- [cute'] ;
• letter b, after consonants, except w, w, after which the soft mark is an indicator of grammatical form. Examples of soft-signed words : request- [prose'ba], stranded- [m'el '], distance- [gave ’].

Thus, the softness of consonants in writing is conveyed not in special letters, but in combinations of consonants with letters and, e, e, u, i and b. Therefore, when parsing, I advise you to pay special attention to the adjacent letters after the consonants.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

School textbooks say that [w] and [w ’] - unpaired in hardness-softness. How so? We hear that the sound [sh ’] is a soft analogue of the sound [sh].
When I studied at school myself, I could not understand why? Then my son went to school. He had the same question. It appears in all children who are thoughtful about learning.

Confusion arises because school textbooks do not take into account that the sound [ш '] is also long, but the solid [ш] is not. Pairs are sounds that differ in only one sign. A [w] and [w ’] - two. Therefore, [w] and [w ’] are not pairs.

For adults and high school students.

In order to be correct, it is necessary to change the school tradition of transcribing the sound [ш ']. It seems that it is easier for the guys to use one more additional sign than to face an illogical, obscure and misleading statement. It's simple. So that generation after generation does not rack their brains, it is finally necessary to show that a soft hissing sound is long.

For this, in linguistic practice, there are two icons:

1) a superscript over the sound;
2) colon.

The use of a superscript is inconvenient because it is not provided for by a set of characters that can be used in computer typing. This means that the following possibilities remain: the use of a colon [ш ’:] or a grapheme denoting the letter [ш’] . It seems to me that the first option is preferable. First, the guys often mix sounds and letters at first. The use of a letter in transcription will create a basis for such a confusion, provoke an error. Secondly, the guys now start learning foreign languages ​​early. And they are already familiar with the [:] icon when using it to indicate the longitude of sound. Thirdly, transcription with the designation of longitude by the colon [:] will perfectly convey the features of the sound. [ш ’:] - soft and long, both signs that make it different from the sound [ш] are presented clearly, simply and unambiguously.

What advice do you have for the guys who are now studying using generally accepted textbooks? You need to understand, comprehend, and then remember that in fact the sounds [ш] and [ш ’:] do not form a pair in terms of hardness and softness. And I advise you to transcribe them as your teacher requires.

§eight. Place of consonant formation

Consonants differ not only according to the signs you already know:

• deafness-voicedness,
• hardness-softness,
• method of formation: bow-slit.

The last, fourth sign is important: place of education.
Articulation of some sounds is carried out by the lips, others - by the tongue, its different parts. So, the sounds [n], [n '], [b], [b'], [m], [m '] - labial, [v], [v'], [f], [f ' ] - labiodental, all the rest - lingual: front-lingual [t], [t '], [d], [d'], [n], [n '], [s], [s'], [s ], [z '], [w], [w], [w':], [h '], [q], [l], [l'], [p], [p '] , mid-lingual [th ’] and posterior lingual [k], [k’], [g], [g ’], [x], [x’].

§nine. Positional changes of sounds

1. Strong-weak positions for vowels. Vowel positional changes. Reduction

People don't use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it.
Speech is a stream of sound, but a stream, organized in a certain way. The conditions in which this or that sound is found are important. The beginning of a word, the end of a word, stressed syllable, unstressed syllable, position in front of a vowel, position in front of a consonant are all different positions. We will figure out how to distinguish between strong and weak positions, first for vowels, and then for consonants.

Strong position one in which sounds are not subject to positional changes and appear in their basic form. A strong position is allocated for groups of sounds, for example: for vowels, this is the position in the stressed syllable. And for consonants, for example, the position in front of the vowels is strong.

For vowels, the strong position is stressed, and the weak one is unstressed..
In unstressed syllables, the vowels undergo changes: they are shorter and are not pronounced as clearly as under stress. This change of vowels in a weak position is called reduction... Due to the reduction, fewer vowels are distinguished in the weak position than in the strong one.

Sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a], after hard consonants in a weak, unstressed position, sound the same. “Akane” is recognized as the normative language in the Russian language, i.e. nondiscrimination O and BUT in an unstressed position after hard consonants.

• under stress: [house] - [dam] - [o] ≠ [a].
• without stress: [d but ma´] -home´ - [d but la´] -dala´ - [a] = [a].

Sounds corresponding to stressed [a] and [e], after soft consonants in a weak, unstressed position, sound the same. Hiccup is considered to be the normative pronunciation. nondiscrimination NS and BUT in an unstressed position after soft consonants.

• under stress: [m'ech ’] - [mach’] - [e] ≠ [a].
• without stress: [m'ich'o'm] - sword 'm -[m'ich'o'm] - ball 'm - [and] = [and].
• But what about the vowels [and], [s], [y]? Why was nothing said about them? The fact is that these vowels in a weak position undergo only quantitative reduction: they are pronounced more briefly, weakly, but their quality does not change. That is, as for all vowels, an unstressed position for them is a weak position, but for a student these vowels in an unstressed position do not pose a problem.

[ly´ zhy], [in _lu´ zhu], [n'i' t'i] - both in the strong and in the weak positions, the quality of the vowels does not change. Both under stress and in an unstressed position, we clearly hear: [s], [y], [and] and write the letters with which these sounds are usually denoted.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after hard consonants?

Performing phonetic analysis and transcription of words, many guys express bewilderment. In long polysyllabic words, after hard consonants, not the sound [a] is pronounced, as school textbooks say, but something else.

They are right.

Compare the pronunciation of the words: Moscow - Muscovites... Repeat each word several times and listen to which vowel sounds in the first syllable. With the word Moscow everything is simple. We say: [maskva´] - the sound [a] is clearly audible. And the word Muscovites? In accordance with the literary norm, in all syllables, except for the first syllable before the stress, as well as the positions of the beginning and end of the word, we pronounce not [a], but another sound: less distinct, less clear, more like [s] than [ a]. In the scientific tradition, this sound is designated by the sign [b]. So, in reality we say: [мълаков´] - milk ,[xyrasho´] - Good ,[k'lbasa´] - sausage.

I understand that by giving this material in the textbooks, the authors tried to simplify it. Simplified. But many children with good hearing, hearing clearly that the sounds in the following examples are different, cannot understand why the teacher and the textbook insist that these sounds are the same. Actually:

[in but Yes ] - water '-[in b d'inoy '] - watery:[a] ≠ [b]
[dr but wha '] - firewood´ -[dr b in'ino'th '] - wood burning:[a] ≠ [b]

A special subsystem is made up of the realization of vowels in unstressed syllables after hissing ones. But in the school course, this material is not presented at all in most textbooks.

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after soft consonants?

I have the greatest sympathy for the guys who study from textbooks that offer on-site BUT,NS, O after soft consonants, hear and transmit the sound "and, inclined to e" in transcription. I think it is fundamentally wrong to give schoolchildren as the only option the outdated norm of pronunciation - "ekane", which is much less common today "hiccup", mainly among deeply elderly people. Guys, feel free to write in an unstressed position in the first syllable before the stress in place BUT and NS- [and].

After soft consonants in other unstressed syllables, in addition to the position of the end of the word, we pronounce a short weak sound reminiscent of [and] and denoted as [b]. Speak the words eight, nine and listen to yourself. We pronounce: [in 's'm'] - [b], [d'e' v''t '] - [b].

Do not confuse:

Transcription marks are one thing, but letters are quite another.
The transcription sign [b] denotes a vowel after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ъ is a solid sign.
The transcription sign [b] denotes a vowel after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ь is a soft sign.
Transcription characters, unlike letters, are given in square brackets.

End of word- a special position. There is a clarification of vowels after soft consonants. The system of unstressed endings is a special phonetic subsystem. In it NS and BUT differ:

Building[building n'iy'e] - building[zda'n'iy'a], opinion[m'e' n'iy'e] - opinions[mn'e'n'iy'a], sea[mo're] - seas[mo'ra], in 'la[vo'l'a] - on the outside[na_vo'l'e]. Keep this in mind when doing phonetic parsing of words.

Check:

How your teacher requires you to designate vowels in an unstressed position. If he uses a simplified transcription system, that's okay: it's widely accepted. Just don't be surprised that you actually hear different sounds in an unstressed position.

2. Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants

For all consonants without exception, the strong position is position before vowel... Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, when doing phonetic analysis, do not be afraid to make a mistake when characterizing a consonant in a strong position: [dach'a] - country house,[t'l'iv'i' zur] - television,[s'ino'n'ims] - synonims,[b'ir'o'zy] - birch,[karz "i´ us] - baskets... All consonants in these examples are before vowels, i.e. in a strong position.

Strong positions in voice deafness:

• before vowels: [there] - there,[I will] - I will,
• before unpaired voiced voices [p], [p ’], [l], [l’], [n], [n ’], [m], [m’], [th ’]: [dl’a] - for,[tl'a] - aphid,
• Before [in], [in ’]: [your’] - mine,[ringing] - ringing.

Remember:

In a strong position, voiced and voiceless consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in deafness-voicedness:

• before paired by deafness-voicedness: [weak] - sweet,[zu' pk'i] - zu'bki.
• in front of deaf unpaired: [aphva 't] - girth, [fhot] - entrance.
• at the end of a word: [zup] - tooth,[dup] - oak.
  

Positional changes of consonants for deafness-voicedness

In weak positions, the consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced speakers become deaf, i.e. are deafened, and the deaf are voiced, i.e. voiced. Positional changes are observed only in paired consonants.

Stunning-voicing of consonants

Stunning voiced happens in positions:

• before paired deaf: [fsta 'v'it'] - in turn,
• at the end of a word: [clath] - treasure.

Ozonification of the deaf happens in position:

• before paired voiced: [kaz'ba'] - NS with wha '

Strong positions in hardness-softness:

• before vowels: [mate ’] - mother,[m'at '] - crumple,
• at the end of a word: [out] - out,[out ’] - stench,
• before the labial-labial: [b], [b '], [p], [p'], [m], [m '] and posterior lingual: [k], [k'], [g], [g ' ], [x [, [x '] for sounds [s], [s'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [d], [d '], [n ], [n '], [p], [p']: [sa' n'k'i] - Sa'nky(genus pad.), [s'anq'i] - sled,[boo'ka] - boo 'lka,[boo l'kat '] - boo lkat,
• all positions for sounds [l] and [l ']: [forehead] - forehead,[pal'ba] - firing.

Remember:

In a strong position, hard and soft consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in hardness-softness and positional changes in hardness-softness.

• before soft [t ’], [d’] for consonants [c], [z], which are necessarily softened:, [z’d’es ’],
• before [h ’] and [w’:] for [n], which is necessarily softened: [by 'n'ch'ik] - donut,[ka 'm'n'sh': uk] - ka 'the messenger.

Remember:

In a number of positions today, both soft and hard pronunciation are possible:

• before soft front lingual [n '], [l'] for front lingual consonants [c], [h]: snow -[s'n'ek] and, to piss off -[z'l'it '] and [evil']
• before soft front-lingual, [z '] for front-lingual [t], [d] - raise 't -[pad'n'a't ’] and [pad'n'a't’] , take away -[at'n'a't ’] and [atn'a't’]
• before the soft front-lingual [t "], [d"], [s "], [z"] for the front-lingual [n]: vi' ntik -[v'i'n "t" uk] and [v'i' nt'ik], pe´ nsya -[p'e' n's'iy'a] and [p'e' ns'iy'a]
• before soft labial [v ’], [f’], [b ’], [p’], [m ’] for labial: enter -[f "p" isa 't'] and [fp "is'at '], ri´ fme(date pad) - [r'i' f "m" e] and [r'i' fm "e]

Remember:

In all cases, positional softening of consonants is possible in a weak position.
Writing a soft sign with positional softening of consonants is wrong.

Positional changes of consonants based on the method and place of formation

Naturally, in the school tradition it is not customary to present the characteristics of sounds and the positional changes occurring with them in full detail. But the general laws of phonetics need to be learned. Without this, it is difficult to do phonetic parsing and complete test tasks. Therefore, below is a list of position-related changes in consonants according to the characteristics of the method and place of formation. This material is a tangible help for those who want to avoid mistakes in phonetic analysis.

Assimilation of consonants

The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by the assimilation of sounds, if they are similar in some way and at the same time turn out to be close.

Learn the list:

[c] and [w] → [w:] - sew

[h] and [f] → [f:] - squeeze

[s] and [h ’] - at the root of words → [NS':] - happiness, account
- at the junction of morphemes and words → [w ’: h’] - comb, dishonorable, with what (a preposition followed by a word is pronounced as one word)

[s] and [w ’:] → [w’:] - split

[t] and [c] - in verb forms → [c:] - smiles
-at the junction of the prefix and the root → [cs] - pour out

[t] and [c] → [c:] - unhook

[t] and [h ’] → [h’:] - report

[t] and [t] and [w ’:] ← [c] and [h’] - Countdown

[d] and [w ’:] ← [c] and [h’] - counting

Assign consonants

Assimilation is a process of positional change, the opposite of assimilation.

[g] and [k'] → [x'k '] - easy

Simplifying consonant groups

Learn the list:

vstv - [stv]: hello feel
zdn - [zn]: late
zd - [ss] : under the bridle
lnts - [nts]: Sun
ndc - [nts]: Dutch
ndsh - [nsh:] landscape
ntg - [ng]: x-ray
pdc - [rts]: a heart
rdch - [rh ’]: heart
stl - [sl ’]: happy
stn - [sn]: local

Pronunciation of groups of sounds:

In the forms of adjectives, pronouns, participles, there are letter combinations: wow, him. IN a place G in them is pronounced [in]: him beautiful blue.
Avoid reading letter by letter. Say the words him, blue, beautiful right.

§10. Letters and Sounds

Letters and sounds have different purposes and nature. But these are related systems. Therefore, the types of ratio need to be known.

Types of ratio of letters and sounds:

1. The letter denotes a sound, for example vowels after hard consonants and consonants before vowels: weather.
2. The letter does not have its own sound meaning, for example b and b: mouse
3. The letter denotes two sounds, for example, iotated vowels e, e, y, i in positions:
   • the beginning of a word,
   • after the vowels,
   • after dividing b and b.
4. A letter can denote the sound and quality of the preceding sound, such as iotated vowels and and after soft consonants.
5. The letter may indicate the quality of the preceding sound, for example b in words shadow, stump, firing.
6. Two letters can denote one sound, more often a long one: sew, compress, rush
7. Three letters correspond to one sound: smile - yes -[c:]

Test of strength

Check your understanding of the content of this chapter.

Final test

1. What determines the quality of a vowel sound?

   • From the shape of the oral cavity at the time of pronouncing the sound
   • From the obstacle formed by the organs of speech at the time of pronouncing the sound

2. What is called reduction?

   • pronunciation of vowels under stress
   • unstressed vowel pronunciation
   • special pronunciation of consonants

3. For what sounds does the air stream meet an obstacle on its way: a bow or a gap?

   • Vowels
   • Consonants

4. Can voiceless consonants be pronounced loudly?

5. Are the vocal cords involved in pronouncing voiceless consonants?

6. How many pairs of voiceless consonants form?

7. How many consonants do not have a deaf-voiced pair?

8. How many pairs do Russian consonants form in terms of hardness and softness?

9. How many consonants have no hard-softness pair?

10. How is the softness of consonants conveyed in writing?

    • Special badges
    • Combinations of letters

11. What is the name of the position of sound in the stream of speech, in which it appears in its basic form, without undergoing positional changes?

    • Strong position
    • Weak position

12. What sounds have strong and weak positions?

    • Vowels
    • Consonants
    • For all: both vowels and consonants

Right answers:

1. From the shape of the oral cavity at the time of pronouncing the sound
2. unstressed vowel pronunciation
3. Consonants
4. Combinations of letters
5. Strong position
6. For all: both vowels and consonants

In contact with

The syllable is divided into even smaller units - sounds, which are the smallest units of sounding speech, pronounced in one articulation.

The sounds of speech are created by vibrations of the air and the work of the speech apparatus. Therefore, they can be considered as physiological phenomena, since they arise as a result of human articulatory activity, and physical (acoustic), i.e. audible. However, these two aspects cannot be limited to characterizing speech sounds; linguistics studies sounds as special units of language that perform a social function, i.e. the function of communication between people. For linguistics, it is important to find out to what extent sounds are associated with distinguishing the meaning of words and their forms, whether all sounds are equally important for language as a means of communication. Therefore, at the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. linguists began to study precisely the functional side of sounds, as a result of which a new department of linguistics appeared - phonology.

The sound composition of the Russian language

All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.

Vowels and consonants differ in acoustic and articulatory features: 1) vowels are tonal sounds, consonants are formed with the participation of noise; 2) vowels are sounds that are formed without the participation of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, all consonants are formed with the help of an obstacle (closed lips - [b], [n], a gap between the tongue and a hard palate - [x], etc. ); 3) vowels are not differentiated by the method and place of formation; for consonants, the place and method of formation are very significant grounds for their classification; 4) during the formation of vowels, the organs of speech are tense evenly, during the formation of consonants, the organs of speech are most tense in the place where there is an obstacle; 5) the air stream when pronouncing vowels is weak, and when pronouncing consonants it is strong, since it needs to overcome the obstacle that exists on its way; 6) all vowel sounds can be syllabic, consonants (except for sonorants) cannot independently form a syllable.

In this opposition of vowels and consonants of speech, an intermediate position is occupied by sonorant consonants, which partly of the signs approach the consonants (formation with the help of an obstacle, differentiation by the method and place of formation, the presence of noise), and partly with vowels (the predominance of tone, the ability to form a syllable) ...

There are six vowel sounds (phonemes) in Russian: [and], [s], [y], [e], [o], [a]. Their classification is based on articulatory signs: the degree of tongue lift, the row, the participation of the lips.

There are 37 consonants (phonemes) in modern Russian. Their formation and classification is much more complicated than vowels.

Intonation

Each phrase is intonationally framed.

Intonation- this is a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional sides and manifested in successive changes in pitch (melody - raising or lowering the tone), speech rhythm (the ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and slowing down in the course of speech), the strength of sound (intensity of speech), intraphrasal pauses (which is reflected in the rhythm of the phrase) and the general timbre of the utterance, which, depending on the target setting, can be “cheerful”, “playful”, “frightened”, "Gloomy", etc. Intonation performs important functions: it not only forms phrases, sentences and various syntactic constructions, but also participates in the expression of thoughts, feelings and the expression of the will of people. Indeed, the same segment of a sounding speech, depending on how, with what intonation it will be pronounced, can have a different meaning: He came. - He came! - He came? The intonation of narrative speech is characterized by an increase in tone at the beginning of a phrase and a decrease in tone at the end of a phrase, in indentation; an interrogative phrase is characterized by a sharp increase in indentation; the intonation of the exclamation phrase is smooth and high.

It is difficult to convey intonation differences in writing. In addition to the period, colon, dash, comma, brackets, exclamation, question marks and ellipsis, we have no way to convey the character of intonation in writing. And even with the help of these signs, it is far from always possible to reflect the intonation pattern of a phrase. For example:

Who does not know that he was the first to express this idea? - there is a question mark at the end of the sentence, but the phrase has an affirmative, not interrogative, meaning.

Intonation also performs one more important function - with its help, the sentence is divided into semantic-syntactic units - syntagmas.

Variety of sounds and their difference

There are quite a few sounds in each language. Moreover, in different languages, their number is different, as well as the ratio between vowels and consonants.

Each sound has its own acoustic characteristics, characteristics to which modern phonologists are paying more and more attention, since they believe that acoustic classification is a truly linguistic classification concerned with figuring out what a sound is, while the articulatory classification of sounds (the most common) is aimed at figuring out how the sound is made.

Sounds differ from one another in pitch, length, strength and timbre. Therefore, any two sounds that have different pitch, strength and timbre are acoustically different. In addition, there are subjective and objective differences between sounds. 1. Individual differences between sounds are associated with the peculiarities of the pronunciation of individual people. Each person pronounces sounds to some extent in their own way. For linguistics, only such differences between sounds are important, which make changes in the meanings of words. If two people (for example, a student and a professor) uttered the word student, then we notice that this word was pronounced by them differently, but at the same time we assert that they pronounced the same word. But if the same person utters two words, for example, garden and judgment, then we will without the slightest difficulty learn that these are different words, since they have two different sounds [a, y] that distinguish their sound appearance and indicate differences in meaning.

Thus, individual differences in the pronunciation of the same sound are not linguistically significant. Conversely, linguistically important are different sounds as units of the language system, regardless of their different pronunciation by individuals.

2. When we say the word city[gort], in the post-stressed syllable in place of the sound [o] there is a very vague sound, since there is reduction(from the Latin reducere - return, bring back) - weakening of sound under the influence of those phonetic conditions in which the sound was(unstressed position). Here the sound [o] not only loses some of its sonority, but also loses its quality - it turns into sound [b]. In the same word, the final sound [d] is deafened, pronounced as [t] - this is a characteristic law of the modern Russian language (voiced consonants in the position of the end of the word are deafened). Stunned or make voices consonants can also be in the middle of a word under the influence of a subsequent voiceless or voiced consonant: dubok - dupka [dupka], ask - request [prose "ba]. These phenomena indicate that in certain phonetic conditions (voiced before the deaf, voiceless before the voiced, voiced at the end of a word, a vowel in an unstressed position, etc.) the influence of one sound on another and their changes or other sound processes are possible. phonetically determined... They also do not have a linguistically significant meaning, since the word and its meaning do not change.

3. In words WHO and university after the consonant [v] we pronounce different sounds. These sounds in these words serve discriminators their meaning. The difference in sounds is not positionally determined, since both act in the same position (stressed - strong for vowel sounds), there is also no influence of neighboring sounds here. Differences between sounds, which are not due to either individual peculiarities of pronunciation, or the position of the sound, or the influence of one sound on another, are called functional. Functional differences between sounds are linguistically significant.

Consequently, two sounds, the difference between which is not due to the position or influence of neighboring sounds, but is associated with a change in the meaning of the word, are functionally different.

onetic transcription

To record sounding speech, a special system of signs is used - phonetic transcription. Phonetic transcription is based on the principle of one-to-one correspondence between a sound and its graphic symbol.

The transcribed sound (word, sentence, text) is usually enclosed in square brackets: [we] we. Speech recording is carried out without capital letters and punctuation marks, but with pauses.

In words consisting of more than one syllable, the place of stress should be indicated: [z'imá] winter. If two words (for example, a preposition and a noun) are characterized by a single stress and are pronounced together, then they are connected by a league: [in_dom].
In Russian phonetic transcription, the letters of the Russian alphabet are mainly used. The recording of consonants is carried out using all the corresponding letters, except for u and d. Special superscript or subscript characters can be placed next to the letter. They indicate some of the features of the sound:

[n '] - soft consonant ([n'] yobo palate);

[n:] - long consonant (bath); may be indicated by a superscript or [n:].

The letter u in most cases corresponds to the sound that is transmitted by the sign [ш ’:]: у [ш’:] élye, [ш ’:] etina. A voiced parallel to [w ’:] will be the sound [f’:], appearing, for example, in the word dró [f ’:] and yeast (another pronunciation is allowed - dró [f:] and).

The Latin letter [j] in the transcription denotes the consonant "iot", which sounds in the words blocko apple, water reservoir, b'ji´] sparrows, tongue language, sara [j] barn, má [j] ka mike, cha [ j] nickname teapot, etc. Please note that the consonant "iot" is not always conveyed in writing by the letter y.

Vowel sounds are recorded using various kinds of signs.

Stressed vowels are transcribed using six characters: [and] - [p'ir] feast, [s] - [ardor] ardor, [y] - [ray] ray, [e] - [l'es] forest, [o ] - [house] house, [a] - [garden] garden.
Unstressed vowels undergo various changes depending on the place in relation to stress, from the proximity of hard or soft consonants, from the type of syllable. To write unstressed vowels, the symbols [y], [and], [s], [a], [b], [b] are used.

Unstressed [y] occurs in any syllable. In quality, it is similar to the corresponding stressed vowel: m [y] zykalny, r [y] ká, vod [y], [y] dár.
Unstressed vowels [and], [s], [a] are pronounced in the syllable that immediately precedes the stressed one (such a syllable is called the first pre-stressed): [r'i] du rows, mod [s] lier fashion designer, d [a] ská plaque ... The same vowels, with the exception of [s], also appear in the absolute beginning of the word: [and] ckursant excursionist, [a] to search.
Unstressed [and], [s], [a] are similar in quality to the corresponding percussive sounds, but not identical to them. So, unstressed [and] turns out to be a vowel, the middle between [and] and [e], but closer to [and]: [l'i] sá fox - cf .: [l'i'] fox itself. The pronunciation of other vowels is also different. The use of the symbols [and], [s], [a] to denote unstressed sounds is associated with a certain degree of convention.

So, the unstressed vowels listed above are characteristic of the positions of the 1st pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word. In other cases, the sounds [b] and [b] are pronounced.

The sign [b] ("ep") conveys a very short sound, in terms of its quality average between [s] and [a]. Vowel [b] is one of the most frequent sounds in Russian speech. It is pronounced, for example, in the 2nd pre-stressed syllables and in the post-stressed syllables after the hard ones: n [b] rokhod steamer, in [b] doz a water carrier, zad [b] l set, gór [b] d city.

In similar positions, after soft consonants, a sound is recorded that resembles [and], but is shorter. This vowel is conveyed by the sign [b] ("er"): [m'm] world world, [m'm] fishing chalk, for [m'm] r froze, for [l'l] zhi deposits.

Organs of speech. Formation of vowels and consonants

Sounds are made during exhalation. The flow of exhaled air is a prerequisite for the formation of sounds.

The stream of air leaving the trachea must pass through the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. If the ligaments are tense and close, then the exhaled air will cause them to vibrate, resulting in a voice, that is, a musical sound, tone. Tone is required when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants.

The pronunciation of consonants is necessarily associated with overcoming the obstacle created in the oral cavity in the path of the air stream. This obstacle arises as a result of the convergence of the speech organs to the boundaries of the slit ([f], [v], [z], [w]) or full articulation ([p], [m], [d], [k]).

Various organs may be close or closed: the lower lip with the upper lip ([p], [m]) or upper teeth ([f], [v]), certain parts of the tongue with a hard and soft palate ([h], [e ], [w], [k]). The organs involved in the creation of the barrier are subdivided into passive and active. The former remain motionless, the latter make certain movements.

The air jet overcomes a gap or bow, as a result of which a specific noise is generated. The latter is an obligatory component of the consonant sound. In voiced voices, noise is combined with tone; in deaf people, it turns out to be the only component of sound.

When pronouncing vowels, the vocal cords oscillate, and a free, unobstructed passage through the oral cavity is provided for the air stream. Therefore, the vowel sound is characterized by the presence of tone and the complete absence of noise. The specific sound of each vowel (what distinguishes [i] from [s], etc.) depends on the position of the tongue and lips.

The movements of the pronunciation organs during the formation of sounds are called articulation, and the characteristics of sounds corresponding to them are called articulation characteristics.

caressing sounds
Stressed vowels: classification signs
The classification of vowel sounds is based on signs that describe the work of the organs of speech: 1) movement of the tongue forward - backward (row);
2) movement of the tongue up - down (rise);
3) the position of the lips (labialization).

On the basis of a number, vowels are divided into three main groups. When articulating the front vowels ([and], [e]), the tongue is concentrated in the front of the mouth. When articulating back vowels ([y], [o]) - in the back. The middle vowels ([s], [a]) occupy an intermediate position.
The lift sign describes the position of the tongue when moving up or down. Vowels of the upper rise ([and], [s], [y]) are characterized by a high position of the tongue in the oral cavity. The articulation of the lower vowel ([a]) is associated with the low position of the tongue. The vowel of the middle rise ([e], [o]) is assigned a place between the named extreme groups.
The vowels [y] and [o] are labialized (or rounded), because when pronouncing them, the lips are pulled forward and rounded. The rest of the vowels are pronounced with a neutral lip and are non-labialized: [and], [s], [e], [a].

The table of stressed vowel vowels is as follows:

climb:
upper i´ s´ ý (labial)
middle e´ ó (labial.)
lower á

Unstressed vowels: classification signs
In unstressed syllables, sounds other than under stress are pronounced. They turn out to be shorter and articulated with less muscular tension of the speech organs. This change in the sound of vowels is called reduction. So, all unstressed vowels in Russian are reduced.
Unstressed vowels differ from stressed vowels both quantitatively and qualitatively. On the one hand, unstressed vowels are always shorter than stressed vowels (compare: s [a] d´ sady´ - s [á] dik sádik, n [i] lá pilá - n [i´] lit púlit). This feature of the sound of vowels in an unstressed position is called quantitative reduction.
On the other hand, not only the duration but also the quality of the vowels changes. In this regard, they speak of a qualitative reduction of vowels in an unstressed position. Paired with [b] the sadovod argument - with [á] dik sádik unstressed [b] is not just shorter - it differs from the shock one [á].
Any unstressed vowel experiences quantitative and at the same time high-quality reduction. When pronouncing unstressed, the language does not reach the extreme points of advancement and tends to take a more neutral position.

The most "convenient" in this regard is the sound [b]. This is a vowel of the middle row, medium rise, unlabialized: with [b] the plane is flying, b [b] is spreading a furrow.

The articulation of all unstressed vowels is shifted towards the "central" [b]. When pronouncing unstressed [s], [and], [y], [a], the force of change turns out to be not very significant: cf. r [s] buk rybák - r [s´] bar ry´ba, [s'i] net blue - [s' and´] niy suniy, r [u] ká ruká - r [ý] kiryki, l [ a] skát fondle - l [á] skovy tender .. Unstressed [s], [and], [y], [a] can be left in the same cells of the table as percussion, slightly shifting them to the center.
Unstressed [b] ([s'ь] neva blue) should take an intermediate position between unstressed [and] and "central" [b].
The sound "er" is characterized as a front-middle vowel, upper-middle rise, non-labialized.
The reduction can be stronger or less strong. Among the listed unstressed vowels, the sounds [b] and [b] stand out for their brevity. The rest of the vowels are pronounced more clearly.
The vowel table, supplemented with unstressed sounds, looks like this:
row: front middle back
climb:
upper i´ s´ y (labial) y
u u
b
average
e´ b ó (labial.)
lower a
á

Features of pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions (positional distribution of vowels)

The pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions depends on a number of conditions:
1) places in relation to the stressed syllable,
2) positions at the absolute beginning of a word,
3) hardness / softness of the preceding consonant.
The place in relation to the stressed syllable determines the degree of vowel reduction. In phonetics, it is customary to name syllables not by their order in the word, but by the place occupied with respect to the stressed syllable. All unstressed syllables are divided into pre-stressed and post-stressed. The numbering of pre-stressed syllables is carried out in the direction from the stressed syllable, that is, from right to left.
In the first pre-stressed syllable, four vowels are possible - unstressed [y], [and], [s], [a]: n [y] awa need, [ch'i] s'hours, w [s] lká silk, n [a] chnóy night.
In the rest of the unstressed syllables (the second, third pre-stressed and in the post-stressed) strongly reduced vowels [b], [b], as well as the sound [y], are pronounced. In the second pre-stressed syllable: d [b] moovy smoke and brownie, [me] sorbka meat grinder, [ch’u] half-doodily miraculous.
In the post-stressed syllables: bolt [b] m swamps and swamps, tender and gentle, si [n] m blue and blue, pó [l'l] m field, horse horse.
In the post-stressed syllables at the absolute end of the word, along with the sounds [b], [b] and [y], the vowel [s] is fixed, only very short: nut [s] notes, nut [b] note, nó [t'y] nut , nut [y] nut.
The position at the absolute beginning of a word after a pause also affects the features of vowel reduction. In this position, the sounds [y], [and], [a] are pronounced regardless of their distance from the stressed syllable: [y] remove the birát, [and] exporter exporter, [a] speak to stipulate.

The features of the distribution of unstressed vowels in a word can be presented in the form of a table.

In the stressed syllable: percussion [ý], [and´], [s´], [e´], [ó], [á]
In the 1st pre-stressed syllable, at the absolute beginning of the word: unstressed [y], [and], [s], [a]
In the 2nd, 3rd pre-stressed syllable,in post-stressed syllables: unstressed [b], [b], [y] + [s](at the abs. end of the word)
The hardness / softness of the preceding consonant is an important factor that determines the possibility of the appearance of certain vowels:

1) after solid can appear[y], [s], [a], [b]: [lu] say meadow, [ly] net bald, [la] rets casket, [lъ] shady horses;
2) after soft are pronounced[y], [and], [b]: [l'u] bob to admire, [ch'i] to blacken, [l'l] dorib an ice ax;
3) pre-shock[a] and [b] after soft ones are impossible: [p'i] d'rows, [p'i] ti'five, [p''y] next private, [p''] five-year ticket;
4) [b] after soft appears only in return, in endings and formative suffixes. Such pronunciation is possible, not mandatory and is associated with the task of conveying grammatical information about case, number, etc .:
got y'l [s''] turned out - from the baby [s''] from the grandmother;
káp [l'ъ] drop - káp [l'l] drop;
honey [d'y] m bears - bear [d'y] m bear;
when you land, when you land, land.
All the features of vowel pronunciation analyzed above relate to the phonetics of commonly used significant words. Conjunctions, prepositions, particles, interjections, rare borrowings may not obey the described patterns. They admit, for example, such a pronunciation of non-upper ascent vowels: slept, n [o] not for long, b [o] á, andánt [e] .ct

It is easy to see that the expression of the thought contained in this phrase requires a mandatory pause after the word weapon. The presence of a pause creates two speech measures in a phrase. Thus, a speech tact is a part of a phrase, limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness. Pauses between speech measures are shorter than between phrases.

A speech tact, like a phrase, is directly related to the expression of content in a language. Depending on where one speech bar ends and the next one begins, sometimes the whole meaning of the phrase changes: How he was struck // by the words of his brother. - How he was struck by the words // of his brother. The arbitrariness of dividing a phrase into speech beats can lead to the complete destruction of thought.

As a rule, the phrase consists of several speech bars: In the hour of testing // bow to the fatherland // in Russian // at the feet (D. Kedrin). A measure can be the same as a single word. But usually several words are combined in a speech bar.

onetic alternations of vowels. The designation of unstressed vowels in writing

A vowel belonging to a certain morpheme can be stressed in some words, and unstressed in others. So, the unstressed [and] in the word [d'i] shevy cheap correlates with the stressed labialized [ó], which sounds at the same root in the word [d’ó] shevo cheap.

Sounds belonging to one morpheme (root, prefix, suffix, ending) and replacing each other in different phonetic positions form a phonetic alternation. The above example fixes the phonetic alternation [ó] // [and].

In Russian, the following are possible alternating percussive and unstressed sounds:

1. [ý] // [y] s [ý] would, s [y] bnóy: teeth, dental.

2. [and '] // [and] // [b] [p'i'] shet, [p'i] sat, [p'y] san'ina: writes, write, scribble.

3. [s´] // [s] // [b] w [s'] re, w [s] rock, w [b] rock: wider, wider, wider.

4. [and´] // [s´] // [and] // [s] [and´] games, with [s´] grains, [and] grating, with [s] grating: games, played, play, play.

5. [e´] // [s] // [b] sh [e] st, sh [s] stá, sh [b] stow: pole, pole, pole.

6. [e'] // [and] // [b] [p'e'] shy, [p'i] shkom, [p'y] shehud: on foot, on foot, pedestrian.

7. [ó] // [a] // [ъ] d [ó] mik, d [a] masny, d [b] move: house, home, brownie.

8. [ó] // [and] // [b] [p'ó] strut, [p'i] strut, [p'y] strota: motley, dazzle, variegation.

9. [ó] // [s] // [ъ] sh [ó] lka, sh [s] lká, sh [ъ] lkov and'sty: silk, silk, silky.

10. [á] // [a] // [b] tr [á] vka, tr [a] vá, tr [b] vyanoy: grass, grass, herbal.

11. [á] // [and] // [b] [p'á] ty, [p'i] tak, [p'y] tachok: fifth, penny, patch.

Please note that the quality of unstressed sound is not indicated in writing. The fact that a vowel is unstressed is a signal spelling... In the roots of words walking, dazzling, dime, pronounced with unstressed [and], the letter is not written. When choosing the correct letter in these examples, you need to focus on the stressed version of the pronunciation of the root: [p'e'] shiy, [p'ó] str, [p'á] thy.

Such a check underlies the leading principle of Russian spelling - morphematic (more precisely, phonemic). The morpheme gets a graphical representation in which. positionally alternating sounds are written in one letter in accordance with the strong variant (the vowel is checked by stress, the consonant is put before the vowel).

Spelling of unstressed vowels, not checked by stress, falls under the influence of another principle of spelling - the traditional one. In dictionary words with [a] báka, p ['and] chal, p [' and] b and'na, it is customary to write the letters o, e, i, in examples like um ['u] pla / um [' u] rála - letters e and and. The last two examples are related to the operation of the rules, which in all reference books are given under the heading "Alternating vowels at the root". It should be borne in mind that in this case we are not talking about any phonetic alternations.

It is extremely rare that unstressed vowels are indicated in writing in accordance with the phonetic principle of spelling. The prefix ras- / ras- / ros- / ros- has four graphic options, correlating with the peculiarities of its pronunciation in different words, and not with the situation of the check: p [a] confuse to unravel, p [a] to ruin destroy, p [ó] list the list in the presence of p [ó] rally rally (it is the last option that would be a test, since in it the vowel is under stress, and the consonant is in front of the vowel).

voiced sounds

Consonants: classification signs.
When classifying consonants, it is customary to take into account a number of features:
1) the ratio of noise and tone (noise / sonority),
2) participation or non-participation of the voice (voicedness / deafness),
3) hardness / softness,
4) place of education,
5) the way of education.

The properties of deafness / voiced pairing and hardness / softness pairing are especially stipulated.

Noisy and sonorous, voiceless and voiced consonants

Noisy and sonorous consonants differ in the ratio of noise and tone.

Nine sounds are sonorous in Russian: [m], [m ’], [n], [n’], [l], [l ’], [p], [p’], [j]. As with all consonants, an obstacle is created in the oral cavity when articulating the sonorants. However, the friction force of the air jet against the close / closed speech organs is minimal: the air jet finds a relatively free outlet to the outside and no noise is generated. Air rushes either through the nose ([m], [m ’], [n], [n’]), or into the passage between the lateral edges of the tongue and cheeks ([l], [l ’]). The absence of noise can be associated with the instantaneousness of the obstacle ([p], [p ’]) or with the rather wide nature of the gap itself ([j]). In any case, no noise is generated and the main source of sound is the tone (voice) created by the vibration of the vocal cords.

In the formation of noisy consonants ([b], [c], [d], [d], [g], [h], etc.), on the contrary, noise plays the main role. It occurs as a result of overcoming an obstacle with an air jet. The tone component of the sound is minor and can either be absent altogether (for voiceless consonants), or supplement the basic component (for voiced consonants).
Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation / non-participation of the tone (voice) in the formation of a consonant sound.

The tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced ones, their articulation presupposes the obligatory work of the vocal cords. Voiced, therefore, are all sonorous: [m], [m ’], [n], [n’], [l], [l ’], [p], [p’], [j]. Among noisy consonants, the following sounds are voiced: [b], [b '], [c], [c'], [g], [g '], [d], [d'], [g], [ w: '], [h], [h'].

[b] - [n] [b ’] - [p’] [h] - [c] [h ’] - [c’]

[in] - [f] [in ’] - [f’] [f] - [w] [f: ’] - [w:’]

[d] - [t] [d ’] - [t’] [g] - [k] [g ’] - [k’]

The listed sounds are respectively either voiced paired or deaf paired. The rest of the consonants are characterized as unpaired. All sonorous ones are referred to voiced unpaired, sounds [c], [h ’], [x], [x’] are referred to as voiceless unpaired.

onetic alternations of consonants for voicelessness / voicedness. Deafness / voicedness of consonants in writing

Deafness / voicedness of consonants remains an independent, independent feature in the following positions:
1) before the vowels: [su] d court - [zu] d itching, [ta] m there - [yes] dam;
2) before the sonorants: [sl] oh layer - [evil] oh evil, [aphid '] I aphid - [dl'] I am for;
3) before [in], [in ’]: [sv’] er beast - [star] er beast.

In these positions, there are both voiceless and voiced consonants, and these sounds are used to distinguish words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness / voicedness.

In other cases, the appearance of a dull / voiced sound is predetermined by its position in the word or the neighborhood of a particular sound. Such deafness / voicedness turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this occurs are considered weak according to the indicated attribute.

In the Russian language, there is a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of a word, compare: dý [b] and oak - du [n] oak, má [z ’] and ointments - ma [s’] ointment. In the above examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants according to voicelessness / voicedness is recorded: [b] // [n] and [z '] // [s'].

In addition, positional changes relate to situations when voiceless and voiced consonants are side by side. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants before the deaf are necessarily likened to them in deafness, as a result, a sequence of deaf sounds arises, cf.: ló [d] point boat - ló [tk] a boat (ie [d] // [t] in front of the deaf), goto [in '] it prepares - goto [f't'] do not cook (ie [in '] // [f'] before the voiceless).

Voiceless consonants standing in front of voiced noisy (except for [v], [v ']) change to voiced, there is an assimilation in voicing, cf .: mol [t'] and 'to thresh - young [d'b] á threshing ( [t '] // [d'] before the voiced one), about [s '] and' to ask for - pró [z'b] and a request (ie [s '] // [z'] before the voiced) ...

Articulatory assimilation of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from Latin assimilatio ‘assimilation’). Thus, above was described assimilation by deafness and assimilation by voicing.

The designation of deafness / voicedness of consonants in writing is associated with the use of the corresponding letters: t or d, p or b, etc. However, only independent, independent deafness / voicedness is indicated in the letter. Sound signs that turn out to be "forced", positionally determined in writing are not indicated. Thus, phonetically alternating sounds are written in one letter, the morphematic principle of spelling is at work: in the word du [n] oak, the letter b is written, as in the test dý [b] a oak.

An exception will be the spelling of some borrowed words (transcription [p] ration transcription in the presence of transcription [b '] and transcribe) and prefixes on s / s (and [s] use if available and [s] teach learn). The graphic appearance of such examples is subject to the phonetic principle of spelling. True, in the case of prefixes, it does not work to the end, combining with the traditional: ra [w:] move = ra [w] wiggle wiggle.

The traditional principle of spelling obeys the choice of a letter in vocabulary words such as в [г] hall station, and [в] best asbestos. Their spelling does not depend on verification (it is impossible) or on pronunciation.

hard and soft consonants

Hard and soft consonants differ in the position of the tongue.

When pronouncing soft consonants ([b ’], [in’], [d ’], [z’], etc.), the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This movement of the tongue is called palatalization. Palatalization is considered an additional articulation: it is superimposed on the main one associated with the formation of an obstacle.

When pronouncing hard consonants ([b], [c], [d], [h], etc.), the tongue does not move forward and its middle part does not rise.

The consonants form 15 pairs of sounds opposed in terms of hardness / softness. All of them are either hard paired or soft paired:

[b] - [b ’] [n] - [p’] [m] - [m ’]

[v] - [v ’] [f] - [f’] [n] - [n ’]

[g] - [g ’] [k] - [k’] [p] - [p ’]

[d] - [d ’] [t] - [t’] [l] - [l ’]

[h] - [h ’] [c] - [c’] [x] - [x ’]

Solid unpaired consonants include [c], [w], [w], and soft unpaired consonants [h ’], [w:’], [w: ’] and [j].

The consonants [w] and [w: ’], [w] and [w:’] do not form pairs, since they differ in two features at once: hardness / softness and brevity / longitude.

It should be noted that the sound [w: '] is rare. It is possible only in a limited circle of words: ride, reins, yeast, splashes, and later some others. Moreover, [w: ’] is increasingly being replaced by [w:].

The sound [j] occupies a very special position among soft consonants. In the rest of the soft consonants, the raising of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate is, as noted above, additional articulation. In the consonant [j], the indicated articulation is basic, since there are no other obstacles in the pronunciation of [j]. Therefore, the sound [j], in principle, is not able to have a paired solid.

onetic alternations of consonants in terms of hardness / softness. Designation of hardness / softness of consonants in writing. Letters b and b

The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent, and not arising from positional changes, sign is fixed in the following strong positions:

1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu] to bow - [l'u] to hatch, [but] from the nose - [n'o] from carried, pas [t e´] l pastel - pos [t 'e´] eh bed;
Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired hard consonants - in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings were no longer recognized as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, both hard and soft pronunciation of the consonant before [e] became possible in common words.

2) at the end of a word: ko [n] kon - ko [n '] horse, zha [p] heat - zha [r'] heat;

3) for sounds [l], [l '], regardless of their position: in [l] ná wave - in [l ’] is free;

4) consonants [c], [c '], [h], [z'], [t], [t '], [d], [d'], [n], [n '], [ p], [p '] (in front-lingual)
- in a position before [k], [k '], [g], [g'], [x], [x '] (before the back-lingual): gó [p] ka gorka - gó [p'] to bitter, bá [n] ka bank - ba [n '] ka bath;
- in the position before [b], [b ’], [p], [p’], [m], [m ’] (before the labial): and [z] bá izba - re [z’] bá carving;

In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence of sounds on each other.

Comparison in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of a combination of soft [n '] with hard [s], compare: kó [n'] horse - kó [ns] cue horse, Spain [n '] ia Spain - Spain [ns] cue (ie [n '] // [n] before hard). A pair of june [n'] June - yu' [n's] cue June does not obey the specified pattern. But this exception is the only one.

Similarity in terms of softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not observed by all speakers. Only the replacement of [n] with [n '] before [h'] and [w: '] does not know any deviations, cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n'ch'] ik drum, gó [n] ok gónok - zó [n 'w:'] ik racer (ie [n] // [n '] before soft).

In accordance with the old norms, one should say: l '[m'k'] and straps, [v'b '] to drive; [d'v ’] er door; [s'j] eat eat; [s't '] ena wall. In modern pronunciation, there is no obligatory softening of the first sound in these cases. So, the word la´ [mk ’] and straps (similarly to shaking [pk’] and rags, lá [fk ’] and benches) is pronounced only with solid, other sound combinations allow for variability of pronunciation.

The designation in writing applies only to cases of independent, and not positionally determined, hardness / softness of paired consonants. At the literal level, the soft sound quality [n '] in the words drum and racer is not graphically captured.

In contrast to voicelessness / voicedness, the independent softness of paired consonants is conveyed not by the letter corresponding to the consonant sound, but by the letter following it - by the letters and, e, yu, i: face, ice, hatch, clang;
In modern language, the letter e has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant. The combination of letters ... those ... cannot be read if you do not see which word it belongs to - dough or test.

2) at the end of a word with a letter a soft sign: horse, heat, dust;

3) in the middle of the word before the consonant letter is a soft sign: darkness, very, bathhouse.

The independent hardness of paired consonants is transmitted by such means:

Letters y, o, y, a, e: bast, boat, bow, weasel, karate;

At the end of the word, the absence of a soft sign: end_, heat_, py_l;

In the middle of a word before a consonant without a soft sign:
t_ min, s_ looks, ban_ ka.

The hardness / softness of unpaired consonants does not require a separate designation. The spelling u / s, e / o, u / u, z / a after the letters w, w, h, sch, c, corresponding to unpaired ones, is dictated by tradition: life, number, chicken, burn, burn, joke, brochure, cup. The same applies to the use / disuse of the letter soft sign in a number of grammatical forms: rye, marriage _, quiet, baby_, thing, comrade_, can, brick_.

Note that the names of the letters b and b turn out to be insidious. The letter "hard mark" never denotes hardness, its use is associated with a separation function, i.e. indicating the presence of [j] before the next vowel: st will eat, and [d'ju] tant adjutant.

The functions of the letter "soft sign" are broader. First, it can also be used in the separating function, but not after the prefixes: [вjý] ha blizzard, bu [l'jó] n broth. In this case, the letter ь does not indicate the softness of the consonant. Secondly, the soft sign can, by tradition, be written in a number of grammatical forms after the letters corresponding to unpaired consonants (see above). Again, the letter ь does not convey the softness of sounds with this use. And finally, in a number of situations, the letter denotes the softness of consonants in writing. This function extends to examples with independent softness of paired consonants at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above).

Where and how consonants are formed

The place of formation of a consonant sound is a sign showing where in the oral cavity the air stream meets an obstacle.

This characteristic is given with the obligatory indication of the active (moving) and passive (immobile) organs. So, consonants, the articulation of which is associated with the movement of the lower lip, are labial ([n], [n '], [b], [b'], [m], [m ']) and labiodental ([ ф], [ф '], [в], [в']). The consonants formed with the active participation of the language are subdivided into the front-lingual dental ([s], [s '], [s], [s'], [t], [t '], [d], [d'], [ ts], [l], [l '], [n], [n']), front lingual anterior palatine ([w], [w '], [g], [g'], [h '], [p ], [p ']), middle lingual middle palatine ([j]), dorsal lingual mid palatine ([k'], [r '], [x']) and dorsal lingual dorsal palatine ([k], [r], [x]) ... All the listed groups of sounds are reflected in the consonant table (see below).

Considering the table (Appendix to the publication), be sure to pronounce the sounds given in it. The work of your own speech organs will help you understand why each sound is placed in one or another cell.

The method of forming a consonant is a characteristic with the help of which the type of obstruction in the oral cavity and the way of overcoming it are simultaneously indicated.

There are two main ways of forming an obstacle - either the complete closure of the speech organs, or their convergence to the distance of the slit. Thus, stop and gap consonants are distinguished.

When articulating the slotted stream of exhaled air comes out in the middle of the oral cavity, producing friction against the adjacent organs of speech: [f], [f '], [in], [in'], [s], [s'], [s], [ z '], [w], [w¯'], [g], [x¯ '], [j], [x], [x'].

Pronunciation of occlusive consonants includes the moment of complete shutter of the speech organs, when the exit of the air stream to the outside is blocked. The method of overcoming the bond can be different, depending on what the further division into classes is carried out.

Bow explosives imply the removal of the obstacle with a strong and short push of air, which quickly comes out: [n], [n '], [b], [b'], [t], [t '], [d], [d' ], [k], [k '], [z], [z'].

In occlusive affricates, the organs of speech that are tightly adjacent to each other do not open abruptly, but only slightly open, forming a slit for air outlet: [c], [h ’].

The nasal concavities do not require breaking the bow at all. Thanks to the lowered palatine curtain, the air does not rush to the place of the shutter, but freely leaves through the nasal cavity: [m], [m ’], [n], [n’].

During the formation of occlusive lateral [l] and [l '], the air also does not come into contact with the obstacle, bypassing it along its trajectory - between the lowered lateral part of the tongue and the cheeks.

In some textbooks, nasal and lateral sounds are described as stop-passing.

The tremors are characterized by periodic closing and opening of the speech organs, that is, by their vibration: [p], [p ’].

Sometimes tremors are considered not as a kind of stop, but as a separate, third type of consonants along with stop and slot.

Phonetic alternations of consonants according to the place and method of formation. Phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound

The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other.

Before the anteropalatine noisy teeth are replaced by the anteropalatine ones. There is a positional assimilation according to the place of formation: [s] playing with a game - [w w] slaughter with a fur coat (ie [s] // [w] in front of the anterior palatine), [s] playing with a game - [w: 'h' ] a championship with a championship (ie [s] // [w: '] before the anterior palatine).

Explosive consonants in front of slit and affricates alternate with affricates, i.e. with sounds closer in articulation. Assimilation is carried out according to the method of education: o [t] play to win back - o [cs] to pour out (that is, [t] // [c] in front of the slot).

In many cases, several signs of consonants undergo positional change at once. So, in the above example with the championship, the comparison affected not only the sign of the place of education, but also the sign of softness. And in the case of [d] playing under the game - by [h 'w:'] under the cheek ([d] // [h '] in front of the deaf, soft, anterior palatal, slit [w:']) there was an assimilation in all four signs - deafness, softness, place and method of education.

In the examples, le [r] ok is light - le [x'k '] ith light, me´ [g] ok is soft - me´ [x'k'] ith soft, where [r] alternates with [x '], and not with [k '] before [k'], the dissimilation of sounds according to the method of formation is noted. At the same time, assimilation (dissimilation) according to this feature is combined with assimilation (assimilation) in terms of deafness and softness.

In addition to the phenomena described above, in Russian speech, a phonetic alternation of consonants with a zero sound can be recorded.

Usually not pronounced [t] / [t '] and [d] / [d'] between the teeth, between [p] and [h '], between [p] and [c], also does not sound [l] before [ nts]. So, consonant loss is presented in the following combinations:

Stl: happy [t '] ye happiness - happy happy, i.e. [T'] // ;

Stn: més [t] about places - local local, i.e. [T] // ;

Zdn: uez [d] and county - uezny uezdny, ie [d] //;

Zdc: uz [d] á bridle - under the knots´ under the bridle, i.e. [d] //; dutch [d '] ets dutch - dutch dutch, i.e. [d '] //;

Rdc: heart [d'] échko heart - heart heart, i.e. [d '] //;

Rdch: ser [d ’] échko heart - sérchishko heart, i.e. [d '] //;

Лнц: só [l] nyshko sun - the sun is the sun, i.e. [l] //.

Loss [j] is akin to the indicated phenomenon. It occurs when iota is preceded by a vowel, followed by [and] or [b]: mo my - [mai´] mine, i.e. [j] //.

Please note that not a single phonetic phenomenon associated with the assimilation of consonants in place / method of formation or with the fact of replacing them with a zero sound is indicated in the letter. According to the morphematic (phonological) principle of Russian spelling, positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the check. Example [w] with a fur coat is written as with a fur coat, since there is [with] a game with a game. The unpronounceable consonant in happy happy is graphically reconstructed based on the test happy [t '] th happiness, etc.

Syllable

A syllable can consist of one or more sounds. In each syllable, only one syllable sound is distinguished, which makes up the core, the top of the syllable. Other sounds are adjacent to it - non-syllable.

The types of syllables are characterized by their initial and final sounds. According to the initial sound, syllables can be:

1) covered - starting with a non-syllable sound: [ru-ká] hand,

2) naked - starting with a syllable sound: [á-ist] stork.

According to the final sound, syllables are divided into:
1) closed - ending in a non-syllable: [ball-kón] balcony;

2) open - ending in a syllable sound: [ва-зъ] vase.

In modern linguistics, there are several definitions of a syllable. The definition of a syllable is widespread as a set of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The most sonorous is the syllable sound; it represents the top of the syllable. With this understanding, the syllable is built according to the law of ascending sonority.

This law predetermines the following features of syllabus division.

1. Non-finite syllables strive for openness. Most open syllables: [na-ý-kъ] science, [a-pa-zdá-l] was late.

2. Closed syllables in a word can appear only in three cases:

1) at the end of a word: [pl-tok] shawl, [rash: ’ót] calculation;

2) at the junction of the sonorant and noisy in the non-initial syllable. The sonorous one goes to the previous syllable, the noisy one - to the next one: [zam-shy] suede, [bal-kon] balcony;

3) at the junction of [j] and any consonant. The sound [j] goes to the previous syllable, the consonant to the next one: [vaj-ná] war, [máj-kъ] T-shirt.

Learning to divide words into syllables, it should be remembered that the rules do not fully correspond to linguistic facts and still remain arbitrary, meaningful primarily within the framework of a specific theory.

In conclusion, we note that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure of the word and the rules of hyphenation in writing.
Let's compare:
Phonetic syllables Morphemic division Word hyphenation
[ma-jór] major may-or
[sa-glá-sn] co-voice-n-a co-voice-on / co-la-sleep

which are indicated in the letter 10 letters:

A

I

O

Yo

E

NS

Have

YU

NS

AND

1. The use of vowels in a word has some peculiarities in Russian:

As a rule, the vowel [s] at the beginning of words does not appear; initial [s] is possible in rare borrowed proper nouns.

Y'ya, Y'nykgan.

after [w], [w], [c];

Gesture[zhest], six[shas't '], prices[prices].

in some foreign words;

Test[test], pace[temp].

in some compound words.

HPP, VTEK.

2. A characteristic feature of Russian pronunciation is the different sounding of vowels under stress and without stress.

The vowel in the stressed position is in strong position, that is, it is pronounced most clearly and with the greatest strength. An unstressed vowel is in weak position, that is, pronounced with less force and less distinctly.

3. In an unstressed position (in a weak position), all vowel sounds are pronounced with less strength, but some of them retain their qualitative characteristics, while others do not:

vowel sounds [i], [s], [y] (letters i, s, y, yu) do not change the sound quality in an unstressed position;

Mil[m'il] - mila[m'ila], lived[zhyl] - lived[жила́], jester[shut] - (no) jester[jester].

An exception makes up a sound [and]: at the beginning of a word, if in a stream of speech the word merges with the previous word ending in a solid consonant, [s] sounds in place;

In and knowledge[in sgnan'ii].

vowels [a], [o], [e] (letters a, i, o, e, e, e) change the sound quality in an unstressed position.

4. The Russian literary pronunciation is usually called "akaym" and "hiccough".

In a pre-stressed syllable after hard consonants in place of the vowels [a], [o], [e] (in the position after solid, this sound is rarely found in Russian) usually sounds like a sound close to [a]. In the school version of the transcription, it is customary to denote it as [a], although this sound is not so open, therefore in linguistics a special sign [Λ] is used to denote it.

My[moj] - my[мΛjа́] or [majа́], yes l[dal] - yes la[длла́] or [дала́].

In a pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants in place of the vowels [a], [o], [e], a sound close to [and] sounds. In the school version of the transcription, it is customary to denote it as [and], although this sound sounds more like [and] with the sound of [e] - [and e].

Wed: taking l[vz'al] - took la[vz'i e la] or [vz'ila], not since[nose] - not weak[n'i e slá] or [n'islaла], white[b'el] - white[b'i e la] or [b'ila].

It is with these features of Russian pronunciation that the need to check unstressed vowels with the help of related words in which this vowel is stressed, that is, in a strong position, is associated.

The position of the vowel in the first pre-stressed syllable is called I weak position: the force of exhalation when pronouncing a pre-stressed syllable is about one and a half times less than when pronouncing a stressed syllable.

5. Exception can make up some words with vowels [a], [o], [e] in the I weak position after the hissing [w], [w] and after the sound [c]:

after hard [w], [w], [c] before a soft consonant in place [a], there is usually a sound between [s] and [e] (denoted by [s e]);

Ms. fly[zhy e l'et ’], losha day[лъшы e д'э́j], twenty[d'tsy et'i].

in place of the letter e, after [w], [w], [c], a sound sounds, the middle between [s] and [e], - [s e];

Wife[жыен́], sixth[шыэсто́j], price[tsyená].

after solid [w], [w] in place of [a] sounds a sound close to [a] - [Λ], as well as after other solid consonants.

Sha p[ball] - balls[шлры́].

6. In other unstressed syllables (second, third pre-stressed syllables, post-stressed syllables) the vowels [a], [o], [e] sound even weaker and more indistinct.

The position of the vowel in other unstressed syllables (not in the first pre-stressed) is usually called II weak position: the force of exhalation when pronouncing such syllables is three times less compared to the stressed syllable.

In the school course, these sounds are not specifically mentioned.

In linguistics, such sounds are usually called reduced, that is, "weakened". For their designation, the following signs are most often used: "ep" [b] - after hard consonants, "er" [b] - after soft consonants. (This resource uses a simplified version of vowel transcription, that is, it does not take into account the pronunciation of vowels [o], [a], [e] in closed and open post-stressed syllables, the difference in pronunciation [o], [a], [e] in post-stressed syllable, etc.)

For example:

after hard consonants: home[дъ маво́j], fish[fish], roof[roof], whole[ts l'ikom];

after soft consonants: row[r''yavo'j], field[pol'l], tea maker[ch'slfsh'ik].

7. An exception constitutes II weak position of vowels at the absolute beginning of the word [a], [o]. In place of these vowels at the beginning of the word, there is not a reduced "ep" [b], but a sound close to [a] - [Λ], as in the I weak position after hard consonants.

Cucumber[Λgur'ets]; monkey[Lb'iez'jan].

Algorithm for analysis when transcribing a word

1.	Break the word into syllables and put emphasis. Regret - so-madam-le-ni-e.
2.	Underline the stressed vowel with two strokes. So-zha-leni-e. The stressed vowel does not change its sound. Please note only that the letters e, e, yu, i can mean: or one sound [e], [o], [a], [y] - after soft consonants (as in the word regret); or two sounds: consonant [j] + vowel [e], [o], [a], [y] - at the beginning of the word, after the vowel and after the dividing ones ъ and ь. Explicit - explicit, developing - pro-ya-vka, shooting - shooting m-ka.
3.	Place the number of the weak position above the unstressed vowels: the first pre-stressed syllable - I weak position; other unstressed syllables - II weak position. With II - Ms I - lе́ - nor II - e II. If among these vowels there are sounds [and], [s], [y] (letters and, s, y, y), then underline them with one line: they do not change their sound in an unstressed position. With II - Ms I - lе́ - nor II - e II - in a stressed syllable nor the vowel [and] sounds.
4.	Establish what vowel sounds sound in the I weak position (the first pre-stressed syllable) in place of the letters e, e, o, a: after hard consonants - [Λ]; after soft consonants - [and e]; after w, w, c may sound [s e]. With II - Ms I - lе́ - nor II - e II - in a syllable Ms the vowel [s e] sounds. Note that if the letters e, i denote two sounds: consonant [j] + vowel [e], [a], then these vowels also change according to the general rules: j is a soft consonant, which means that after it the letters e, i the sound [and uh] will sound. Appeared - oh II - bya I - vil-sya II - the first pre-stressed syllable bya I will sound like [b'ji].
5.	Establish which vowel sounds sound in the II weak position (any unstressed syllable, except for the first pre-stressed syllable) in place of the letters e, e, o, a: after hard consonants - [b]; after soft consonants - [b]; at the absolute beginning of the word in place of the letters o and a - [Λ]. Please note that if the letters e, i denote two sounds: consonant [j] + vowel [e], [a], then these vowels also change according to the general rules: j is a soft consonant, which means that after it the letters e, i the sound [s] will sound. With II - Ms I - lе́ - nor II - e II - syllable with with a strong consonant sounds like [s]; syllable e([j] + vowel) sounds like [b]; o II - bya I - vil-sya II - O at the absolute beginning of the word will sound like [Λ], the syllable Xia with a soft consonant will sound like [s'ь].

Phonetics(from the Greek. phone - "sound", phonetikos - "sound, voice") - the sound structure of the language in all its manifestations and functions.

Language is realized, materially embodied, physically expressed in sounding speech. The speech stream is divided using pauses, intonation and stress on speech units. The largest unit of spoken speech is phrase... Phrases are separated in the speech chain by pauses and are formed by intonation, that is, they have a special melodic pattern (raising or lowering the voice tone).

The phrase is divided into smaller phonetic units - phonetic words, or bars. Phonetic word Is a group of syllables united by stress (emphasizing the vowel sound of one of the syllables with more intense or prolonged pronunciation). Sometimes several separate grammatical words can be combined with a common stress into one phonetic word: three go "yes, not for what etc.

The phonetic word is divided into syllables... A syllable consists of one sound (vowel) or of a combination of several sounds (vowel and consonant), while the vowel sound is the top of the syllable or, in other words, performs a syllable-forming function. It is much easier for speakers to pronounce a syllable than a separate sound, therefore a syllable is considered the minimum pronunciation unit.

The syllable is divided into sounds. The basic unit of spoken speech (minimum segment of spoken speech) is a separate sound, which has certain articulatory and acoustic properties. The sounds of speech differ from each other by different phonetic characteristics: sounds can be voiced or dull, long or short, etc.

In the flow of speech, various sounds combine with each other, forming syllables, morphemes, words, while they adapt to each other, affect each other, significantly changing the phonetic characteristics of their “neighbors”. In addition, sounds can alternate with each other as part of a word or morpheme, changing the meanings of words (for example, whale and cat; dry and dry etc.) - the rules of such alternations are determined by the sound system of the modern language and the peculiarities of the historical development of the language (see. Alternating sounds).

Stress and intonation are prosodic means of language, they organize sounding speech, highlight and form phonetic units. For example, the transfer of stress in a Russian word from one syllable to another can change the lexical meaning of the word (mu? ka - flour, castle - deputy? k) or the grammatical meaning of the word (ruku - ryki, fill? pat - fill)... Different intonation design can also change the meaning of the entire phrase: "What day is today!"(intonation of admiration) or "What day is today?"(interrogative intonation). Placing pauses within a phrase can also radically change the meaning of the entire statement: “Execute cannot be pardoned” or “Execute cannot be pardoned”.

A phonetic word and a phrase are not a meaningless set of sounds, they are associated with meaning, have meaning. By their meaning, language units reflect the world of concepts, that is, the idea of ​​speakers about the surrounding reality, and their form (material shell) refers to the world of utterances and sounds. Sounds have no independent meaning. Nevertheless, it cannot be said that these phonetic units are just a means of material embodiment of the language and in no way, even indirectly, are connected with meaning. Sounds are aimed at meaning, with the help of sounds, the meaning of words and morphemes changes: house - tom - lump - som - scrap, house - smoke - dum - dam, house - dolly - dock, at home - to house, etc. Such a minimal sense-distinguishing unit of the sound structure of the language is called phoneme.

Sounding speech is the original, main form of speech communication, but often in society, a graphic image of sounding speech is also used. Thus, questions of writing are closely related to the doctrine of sounds.

Speech sounds- the minimum insignificant units of sounding speech (the shortest segments of sounding speech), which are formed by the movement of the organs of articulation and are characterized by acoustic features.

The stream of sounding speech is divided by means of prosodic design into phonetic units of various lengths. Sound is the smallest, shortest, not further divisible unit of speech. Unlike other linguistic units (morphemes, words, sentences), the sound itself does not matter. However, morphemes and words are composed (composed) of sounds, in addition, sounds can distinguish different words.

Sounding speech is produced by the speaker and is perceived by the listener. Sound is an articulatory-acoustic unity. From the point of view of the speaker, sound is the result of the work of the organs of speech (articulatory apparatus), that is, an articulatory gesture. The complex structure of the human articulatory apparatus makes it possible to form an infinite variety of different sounds presented in various languages ​​of the world. From the point of view of the listener, the sound of speech is characterized by physical parameters (acoustic) - pitch, strength, duration and timbre.

The articulation and acoustic characteristics of sounds are closely related. The sounds of speech are formed when you exhale air from your lungs. A jet of air in the larynx passes through the glottis formed by the vocal cords. If the vocal cords are tense and hesitant, a voice is formed; with relaxed vocal cords, the voice is not formed. In the first case, the source of sound formation is the voice, which characterizes vowel sounds, sonorous and voiced consonants.

The specific characteristics of sounds depend on the size and shape of the oral cavity (see. Vowel sounds), from the place of formation of the obstacle and the way of overcoming it with a stream of air (see. Consonant sounds).

Vowel sounds- the sounds of speech, which are characterized by the following most important acoustic and articulatory features: firstly, they consist only of tone (voice), and secondly, when they are formed, there is no obstacle in the path of the air stream.

Acoustically speaking, vowel sounds consist of only one tone, and different ratios of tone and noise characterize consonants. Thus, if only the voice participates in the formation of sound, this is a vowel, and if noise (only noise or voice and noise) is a consonant.

So, when pronouncing vowel sounds, as a result of vibrations of tense vocal cords in the larynx, a voice, or musical tone, is formed. The resulting sound is transformed, enriched with additional tones formed in the supraglottic cavities (pharynx, nasal and oral cavity). These resonant tones give the sound a specific timbre, a special quality that distinguishes one vowel sound from another. Since the timbre of any sound, its quality depends on the volume and shape of the resonator (compare different volumes and shapes of resonators in musical instruments: violin, cello and double bass; domra, balalaika, guitar), the timbre of vowel sounds is formed by the position of the tongue and lips, which can change the size and shape of the mouth.

The tongue is the most mobile organ of articulation, it can be displaced horizontally and vertically in the oral cavity, while different vowels are formed.

The varying degree of raising the tongue to the palate provides a difference in vowel sounds in ascent: the uppermost position of the tongue forms the vowels of the upper ascent ( and, s, y), middle position - vowels of medium rise ( e, oh), and the lower one is the lower-rise vowels ( but). The vowels of the upper lift are called closed (narrow), and the vowels of the lower lift are called open (wide), since when the tongue is in the lower position, the mouth opens wider and the lower jaw drops below. If we pronounce vowels in sequence and, e, a, we can feel the vertical movement of the tongue.

The body of the tongue can also move horizontally - move closer to the teeth or move deeply back, to the root of the tongue, forming the front vowels ( and, e), middle ( but) and rear ( y, oh). If we pronounce vowels in sequence and, s, y, we can notice the movement of the tongue horizontally.

Lips can also participate in the formation of vowels. When pronouncing rounded vowels ( y, oh) the lips are somewhat rounded and extended forward.

When articulating vowels, the air stream does not encounter obstacles in the oral cavity, it passes freely. The stronger, the more intense we pronounce the vowel, the wider we open our mouth. Vowel sounds are mouth openers.

The functional difference between vowels and consonants is their role in word formation. A vowel forms the top of a syllable (there is no syllable without a vowel sound), and a consonant usually accompanies a vowel.

Stressed vowel - a stressed vowel (in a stressed position), pronounced without weakening articulation, that is, without reduction. This means that the stressed vowel is longer and more intense, pronounced with greater force, that is, louder and more intensely than the vowel in the unstressed position. The tension and length of articulation contribute to the fact that the individual color of the sound, its timbre becomes more definite, clear. Thanks to this, the position under stress is a strong position for vowels, that is, the position in which the vowels are most different from each other, they cannot be confused. For example: catfish - itself, forest - fox.

Unstressed vowel (reduced) - a vowel pronounced with more or less weakening of articulation. In an unstressed position, vowels are characterized by less strength, more sluggish (less energetic) articulation, and usually also more brevity. These qualities of unstressed vowels are called reduction. Vowels that are pronounced with a reduction are called reduced vowels. The unstressed vowel position is weak, since in this position vowels that are pronounced less intensely usually lose their individual differences (in row and ascent). With this pronunciation, we sometimes stop distinguishing the meanings of different words. For example: I myself [myself] caught the catfish [myself] or I saw a fox [l'isu] in the forest [l'isu].

Consonant sounds- speech sounds, which are characterized by the following most important acoustic and articulatory features: firstly, they consist only of noise or the ratio of tone and noise, and secondly, when they are formed, an obstacle arises in the path of the air stream.

From the point of view of acoustics, consonants are characterized either only by noise, or by different ratios of tone and noise. On the scale of sonority (sonority), consonants are divided into sonorous (more tone and less noise), voiced (tone and noise) and deaf (only noise).

From the point of view of articulation, the most important sign of consonants is the presence of an obstacle in the path of the air stream. When consonants are formed, the tension is localized at the place of formation of the obstacle, a strong air jet overcomes the obstacle, forming noises, which constitute the acoustic characteristic of the consonant.

Since the obstacle is the main articulatory characteristic of consonants, the main signs of consonants are associated with the place of formation of the obstacle and the way of overcoming it.

Consonants are different from each other place of education obstacles. The place of formation (consonant) is a place in the oral cavity where an obstacle (bow) or a gap is formed in the path of exhaled air when pronouncing a particular sound. An obstruction can form in different places in the oral cavity, while one of the speech organs that form the obstruction is active, and the other is passive. So, for example, the lower lip can form a bow with the other lip - in this case, labial-labial sounds are formed ( m, b), and may approach the upper teeth - labiodental sounds ( f, in). The tongue is the most active organ of articulation, so it is important to consider which part of the tongue - front, middle or back - works when pronouncing a sound. Depending on this, sounds are front-lingual ( t, n, l), middle-language ( th) and dorsal ( k, r, x).

The consonants differ from each other not only in the place of formation of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, but also in the way of overcoming this obstacle. By way of education all consonants can be divided into slotted and occlusive... Slotted (or fricative) consonants are formed by bringing the organs of articulation closer together, as a result of which a gap is formed through which a stream of air passes with noise and friction. Depending on the configuration of the slit (the slit can be round or flat) and the place of its formation in the oral cavity, whistling ( with and s) or hissing ( NS and f) sounds.

In occlusive consonants, a full bow is formed on the way of the air stream, which is overcome by the air stream. The syllable consonants, in turn, differ in how exactly the obstacle is overcome. When articulating explosive consonants ( t, k, n) there is a sharp opening of the organs of articulation, "explosion". Affricates(sounds of complex education - c, h) are stop-gap consonants, since the air stream first overcomes the obstacle, like in explosive ones, and then a gap is formed, like in gap ones. When articulating nasal consonants ( m, n) the obstacle in the oral cavity is not overcome, and the air passes into the nasal cavity, when pronouncing trembling sounds ( R) is alternately formed and overcome by the bow of the tip of the tongue with the palate, forming vibration.

Noise is involved in the formation of any consonant, but the ratio of voice and noise for different types of consonants is not the same. Depending on this, the consonants are divided into sonorous, voiced and voiceless.

In order to pronounce a consonant sound more intensively, it is necessary to increase the tension of the organs of articulation, which form an obstacle, that is, consonant sounds - mouth interceptors.

A consonant sonorant (sonant) is a consonant sound in the formation of which the voice predominates or occupies a significant place. Sonorous consonants, like all consonants, are formed with the participation of noises, however, sonorants are characterized by the predominance of a musical tone over noises. This feature acoustically brings sonorant consonants closer to vowel sounds.

Sonorants are not only acoustically, but also functionally close to vowel sounds - just like vowels, sonorants perform a syllable-forming function.

When sound sounds are generated, the air stream encounters an obstacle, but finds various ways to bypass this obstacle - it passes through the nasal cavity ( m, n), or bypasses the bow on the sides ( l), or the bow is repeatedly formed and interrupted ( R), which allows air to pass relatively freely through the mouth or nose. However, the presence of an obstacle in the path of the air stream creates additional noises that are superimposed on the main tone of the sound.

Sonorous consonant th similar in education to a vowel and, however, with the formation of a consonant sound, there is a greater narrowing in the path of the air stream, which contributes to the formation of insignificant noise, and localization of muscle tension at the place of formation of the consonant.

In Russian, sonorant consonants are sounds m, n, l, p, d... Sounds l and R- smooth, and the sounds m and n- nasal. Sonorous consonants do not have a voiceless pair.

Voiced consonant- a consonant sound, in the formation of which, along with noise, a voice tone participates. The vibrating vocal cords create a tone overlaid by the noise generated by various obstructions in the mouth. Voiced consonants: d, b, d, h, g, c. Voiced consonants have a voiceless pair, that is, if, when pronouncing a voiced consonant, we retain the place and method of articulation, but pronounce a sound without a voice (without the work of the vocal cords), we will get a voiceless sound. In Russian, there are 11 pairs of consonants based on voicedness-voicelessness: 6 pairs of solid consonants g - k, d - t, h - s, b - p, c - f, w - w and 6 pairs of corresponding soft consonants.

A voiceless consonant is a consonant sound that is formed without a voice tone, that is, without the participation of the vocal cords. A jet of air on its way meets an obstacle, which overcomes with noise. Thus, the deaf are pronounced with a lot of noise, that is, with a more energetic air stream than the voiced ones. Voiceless consonants: k, n, t, s, w, f, x, c, h, sch. Some voiceless consonants have paired voiced consonants, that is, consonants pronounced with the participation of a voice. For example: k - g, p - b and others (6 pairs of hard and 6 pairs of soft consonants). However, among the voiceless consonants, there are sounds that do not have a paired voiced one. These are the sounds x, c, h, u.

A soft consonant is a consonant sound, during the formation of which the tongue moves forward and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This articulatory gesture is an additional articulation that accompanies the main one - the place and way of forming a consonant sound.

Consonants in Russian form 15 pairs, opposed by hardness / softness: b - b ', c - c', g - g ', d - d', h - z ', k - k', l - l ', m - m', n - n ', p - p', p - p ', s - s', t - t', f - f ', x - x'. Unpaired soft sounds are h, u, d as well as a long sound f ' which can be pronounced in words yeast, reins.

In addition, a soft unpaired consonant is th[j]. Indeed, when a soft consonant is formed, the language occupies a position close to that in which it happens when pronouncing and or th... Therefore, the consonant th softness is not an additional, but its main articulation.

Solid consonant- a consonant sound, during the formation of which the body of the tongue moves back, the back of the back of the tongue rises to the soft palate. This is additional articulation - the movement that accompanies the main articulation of a consonant sound - the place and way of forming a particular consonant sound. In Russian, 15 hard consonants have a paired soft sound (see. Consonant soft) and unpaired solid consonants: c, w, z.

Alternation sounds - interchange of sounds within the same morpheme.

Alternations are found when comparing different sounds of the same morpheme (root, suffix, prefix, or ending) or one word. For example, the last consonant in a word oak deafens, and we hear [dup], and when the form of the word changes, the same root sounds differently [oaks]. In this case, the alternation of voiced and voiceless consonants (b / n) is presented. Or in a word water under stress we hear the sound [o], and in an unstressed position in the same root we hear the sound [a]: [wada]. Moreover, the stunning of consonants at the end of a word, like the reduction of a vowel sound in an unstressed position, always occurs, without exception. This is the rule of Russian orthoepy. Such alternations of sounds depend on the position at which the sound occurs. Phonetic position is the conditions for the use of sounds in speech: at the end of a word or in the middle, before or after any sound, under stress or without stress, etc.

The alternations of sounds that in a certain position are carried out without exception (depending on the position) are called positional alternations... Sounds that in Russian are the result of positional alternations are combined into one phoneme (see. Phoneme).

The alternations of sounds that do not always occur sporadically are called non-positional. For example, friend - I am friends, hand - tame, spirit - soul - sincere... Most of such alternations arose in previous periods of language development, they can be understood taking into account the historical changes in the sounds of the language, that is, this is an example historical alternations.

Sometimes the alternation of sounds in the composition of a morpheme can change the grammatical meaning of a word: collect - collect(sound [and] alternates with zero). This changes the meaning of the form of the verb: gather- imperfective verb, to collect- a perfect verb. Such alternations are called grammatical.

Phoneme - the minimum unit of language capable of distinguishing between words and morphemes (sound shells of words and morphemes).

Sounding speech consists of a huge variety of sounds. These sounds have the subtlest shades of pronunciation, however, we often do not notice these shades, and if we hear them, we do not pay attention, because such shades of sounds are not considered important, they do not distinguish between words and morphemes in the language (they are not meaningful). But there are other differences in sounds that are recognized by speakers as extremely important, they do not mix with each other, they are clearly opposed in the language system, allow speakers to distinguish words from each other (meaningful).

As you can see, not every sound can distinguish the meanings of words. Those sounds that are capable of performing a meaningful function in a given language are called phonemes.

For example, the sound of words House and volume differ in the first consonant sound: voiced [d] in the word House and voiceless [t] in the word volume. Also the words horse and horse differ in the last consonant sound: hard [n] and soft [n ']. In Russian, voiced and voiceless, hard and soft consonants are different sound units that are able to distinguish the meanings of words. These are different phonemes.

It is important to note that the pronunciation of a voiced or deaf, hard or soft sound in this case does not depend on the position in which the sound is used (does not depend on the environment or stress), because in words House and volume the same contexts for the use of initial sounds.

However, often the different pronunciation of sounds depends on the position in which a given sound occurs, that is, on neighboring sounds or stress. In this case, the speaker unites, identifies different sounds in one linguistic unit.

For example, in a stream of speech, a sonoric consonant at the end of a word can be stunned mole(although, according to the rules, sonorants should not be stunned - they do not even have a deaf pair). We will pronounce sonorously [l '] loudly or softly - it doesn't matter, those who speak Russian will combine these two sounds into one unit. The same identification of the voiced and the deaf will occur in the minds of the speakers when pronouncing oak [n] and oak [b]. This alternation of sounds is due to position (see. Alternating sounds).

Positionally alternating sounds are combined in the consciousness of the speakers into one phoneme, which can be represented in speech by different sounds. Language warns: do not pay attention to the fact that you hear different sounds, you have one language unit in front of you.

But it may be the other way around. Different phonemes in a particular position can sound the same. For example, the sound [ko "t] will match two words cat with a finite phoneme<т>and code(with phoneme<д>), because in the position of the end of the word, the voiced consonant is deafened. Hearing the sound of [cat], we cannot know which word is spoken. Two phonemes<d> and<t> coincided in a single sound [t]. To define a phoneme, you need to change the shape of the word: cat - coda... In the position before the vowel sound, the consonants are clearly opposed by voicelessness - voiced. This exchange of sounds occurs regardless of position (sounds are in the same environment). The language warns: do not pay attention to the same sound, behind it there are different units that can distinguish between words, that is, different phonemes.

Syllable- one vowel sound or a combination of a vowel with one or more consonant sounds, pronounced with one push of exhaled air. A syllable is the minimum pronunciation unit - with a slow, extended pronunciation, the speech stream is divided into syllables (chanting).

There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels (there cannot be several vowels in one syllable). It is the vowel that is the top of the syllable or the syllable (syllable) sound, all other sounds in the syllable are non-syllable. The top of a syllable is the peak of sonority (sonority), therefore vowels are syllabic as the most sonorous, but sometimes sonorant consonants can act as the top of a syllable (if there is no vowel nearby). For example, Kremlin or a life:

I considered kisses in childhood
I have a happy life ...

(Lermontov)

The rhythm of the verse shows that the word a life pronounced with a syllable sonorant consonant.

Syllables are stressed and unstressed (see. Stress).

The division of a word into syllables is made taking into account the peculiarities of the structure of a syllable in a given language. In Russian, most syllables end in a vowel sound (open syllable). However, there are also closed syllables: railway carriage. If a closed syllable occurs in the middle of a word, then syllable splitting is governed by special rules: howl-na, lam-pa, boo-dka... The phonetic syllable does not always coincide with the hyphenated syllable when writing. For example, you cannot hyphenate or leave one vowel on a line, although sometimes this vowel is a phonetic syllable: pit or era.

Stress- highlighting one of the syllables in sounding speech - pronouncing one of the syllables (namely, a vowel sound in a syllable) with greater strength or duration. In Russian, stress is power (increased muscle tension and pressure of the air stream) and quantitative (prolonged pronunciation).

An stressed vowel is pronounced more intensely and for a long time than an unstressed vowel. If the top of the syllable is a stressed vowel, then the entire syllable is called stressed, if the top of the syllable is an unstressed vowel, then the syllable is called unstressed. In a stream of speech, there are usually several unstressed syllables per stressed syllable. Such a phonetic highlighting of one syllable against the background of other unstressed syllables forms a phonetic word, contributes to the rhythmic design of sounding speech.

In Russian, the stress is different and flexible. If the stress can fall on any syllable in a word, then it is misplaced: to "miki, doro" ha, milk"... If the stress in the forms of one word can move from the stem to the ending, then it is mobile: but "gi - nogu.

In Russian, the transfer of stress from one syllable to another can change the lexical or grammatical meaning of words (see. Phonetics).

Orthoepy- (from the Greek orthos - "direct, correct" and epos - "speech") a set, a system of pronunciation rules that correspond to the norms of literary pronunciation, ensuring the unity of the sound design of the language.

Russian orthoepy includes the rules for pronunciation of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, hard and soft consonants, consonant combinations, peculiarities of pronunciation of borrowed words, questions of correct stress in words.

Some basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation:

1) akane, that is, the pronunciation of the sound [a] in place of the letter O in unstressed syllables: in [a] da, s [a] ro "ka;

2) stunning voiced consonants at the end of a word, as well as before voiceless consonants: sleep [k], lo [t] ka, [f] tornik "

3) consonants w, w, c are always pronounced firmly, and h ’ and SCH' always softly: [tsy] phra, [zhy] knowledge, [shy] na, ovo [sch ’] noy.

Orthoepy rules regulate the setting of stress in Russian words (since the stress in Russian is mobile and different), for example, the word to call in the forms of the present tense has an emphasis on the ending: calling, calling.

Over time, the pronunciation of some words can change significantly, which leads to a change in the rules of spelling.

Transcription- recording of oral speech, which is based on a strict correspondence between the sounds of the language and the special designations of these sounds. In this case, the transcription reflects the peculiarities of the pronunciation of sounds, positional changes of sounds in the stream of speech. Phonetic transcription allows you to more or less accurately fix the sounding speech in writing.

Each sign of phonetic transcription more or less accurately denotes a certain sound. For example, the stunning of a voiced consonant is transmitted by its voiceless variant: pillar[pillar], vowels in an unstressed position are conveyed by a letter that denotes a sound similar in sound to an unstressed vowel: dog[sabaqa] or forest[fox "th]. Depending on how accurately we want to convey the sounding speech in writing, more or fewer special transcription symbols are used. If we want, for example, to indicate that the percussive sounds in Russian are pronounced with greater reduction than the first pre-stressed syllable, we can use additional signs for the front and back vowels: [b] (er) and [b] (ep): dog[sabaq]. Also, with a special icon (dot), we can denote the advancement of non-front vowels under the influence of neighboring soft consonants: pulls[t'an'et]. In this example, above the icon but there are two dots, because the sound [a] is between soft consonants.

Transcription characters are enclosed in square brackets. The softness of a consonant is indicated by a special sign - an apostrophe [’], which is placed after a soft consonant: [б’] - a soft consonant b.

Sample phonetic transcription:

Why did you miss the boat?

[INTO "w you miss" tku "tku].

Phonetic parsing - analysis of the sound of a word (combination of words), namely: determining the sound composition of a word, articulatory and acoustic characteristics of individual sounds of a word, dividing the analyzed word into syllables, determining the place of stress, indicating the ratio of the sound of a word (sounds) and spelling of a word (letters).

Phonetic analysis is carried out according to the following scheme:

1. Make a phonetic transcription of the word, put stress.

2. In the transcription, put down the signs of the syllable section (hyphen or vertical bar), determine the number of syllables in the word, mark the stressed syllable.

3. Write down the letters of the word in a column, next to them - sounds, indicating the correspondence of sounds and letters. Indicate the number of letters and sounds in the word.

4. Give each sound a phonetic characteristic: for a vowel sound, indicate a stressed or unstressed sound; for a consonant sound - a sonorous, voiced or dull sound, hard or soft (indicating pairing).

Sample phonetic parsing:

Pit- 2 syllables, first stressed.

I- - consonant, sonorous, soft unpaired.

- [a] - stressed vowel.

m- [m] - consonant, sonorous, solid pair.

but- [a] - unstressed vowel.

This word has 3 letters and 4 sounds.

To be continued

O. A. VOLOSHINA,
Moscow city