Modern chemistry education in Russia: standards, textbooks, olympiads, exams. Prospects for school chemistry education Content of chemistry education in secondary school

Compounds, colloidal solutions, enthalpy and entropy) Innovation the introduction of new concepts in the school curriculum; (complex compounds, quantum numbers, complex reduction of hours for the study of chemistry; concentric structure of the subject and the creation of a generalizing course; the place of theoretical questions in new textbooks.

Results Reduction of hours for studying chemistry The specificity of chemical science requires deepening and a lot of study time. The patterns of memory work do not allow you to assimilate the material in a one-hour course. Inf time, day

The introduction of new concepts into the school course effect: they cut down the branch on which the higher school is based. With a decrease in hours, the assimilation of the traditional volume of material by students is difficult. The newly introduced concepts make it even more difficult to assimilate. The drafters of the 2004 state standards for chemistry counted on making it easier for students to learn, but received the opposite

Theoretical questions in new textbooks. Without a foundation, it is impossible to build a building of theoretical knowledge from the necessary concepts. The logic and consistency of educational material is associated with the principle of historicism. The principle of historicism shows in what sequence the human mind can comprehend knowledge about the surrounding world. In the most widespread textbook, theoretical material (the structure is close to the very beginning of the study of chemistry.atom, the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev, chemical bond)

Introduction of a specialized school. Students of specialized classes lose the opportunity to choose specialties that are related to chemistry (medicine, agriculture, metallurgy, ecology, pharmaceuticals and a number of others). The choice of a profile is possible if the students know the subjects between. which they choose.

Imperfection of textbooks Logic of presentation Mixing concepts with terms (listing terms in one paragraph, instead of forming concepts). Knowledge formalism. Foundations. Definition, composition, nomenclature, classification and structural formulas. Acids. Definition, composition, nomenclature, classification and structural formulas. Salt. Definition, composition, nomenclature, classification and structural formulas. Oxides. Definition, composition, nomenclature, classification and structural formulas. contradiction to the laws of thinking and psychology of knowledge assimilation; simple informativeness: enumeration of properties and equations; no material movement.

Actual errors "Absolute atomic mass" "Molar mass equivalent" 8g / mol О 2 M. (О 2) = 32g / mol; M (O) = 16 g / mol; 1.5 10 O 2 molecules - 0.25 mol 23 1 mol - 6 10 particles 23 8 g contains: 3 10 O atoms - 0.5 mol 23 Mass and other measurable physical quantities cannot be absolute, since how measurements are always carried out relative to the selected standard "The index shows the number of atoms in the formula"; which are the same as for the given substance. " “Molecules are the smallest particles of many substances, composition and properties

BaCl + H 2 SO 4 = Cl (SO 4) 2 + BaH 2 2MgCO 3 + 2HCl = 2MgClO 2 + H 2 O + C 2MgCO 3 + 2HCl = MgCClO 2 + 4H 2 O NHCl + NaH 2 O = NaCl + N ( OH) 2 KOH + H 2 SO 4 = KH 2 + HOSO 4 KOH + H 2 SO 4 = KOHSO 4 BaO + N 2 O 5 = BaN 2 O 5 KOH + P 2 O 5 = P (OH) 5 + H 2 O Al 2 O 3 + 6KOH = 2Al (OH) 3 + 3K 2 O + O 2 Cr (OH) 3 + 2NaOH = Cr (O Na 2) 3 + H 2 O Cr (OH) 3 + NaOH = Cr (OH ) 4 + Na 2Al 2 O 3 + 4KOH = 4Al + 3O 2 And even so Al + Cu = Au + Cl Errors of entrants and freshmen

State educational standards Formation of competencies. Activity approach. Educational and cognitive activity should be the genetic source of the student's knowledge. The student independently discovers knowledge for himself, and does not draw it from the teacher's explanation. Textbook Components Paragraph Content What to Teach? how to teach Didactic materials

“The activity approach in the construction of the educational standard allows us to highlight the main results of teaching and upbringing, expressed in terms of the key tasks of the development of students and actions, which, in turn, should form the basis for the selection and structuring of the content of education” of the formation of universal methods of educational and cognitive

4. Remove unnecessary subjects from the school course. 2. Replace concentric construction of programs and textbooks with a linear one. 3. Provide schoolchildren with equal opportunities to receive a full-fledged secondary education by eliminating profiles. 5. Switch to a new teaching technology: replace the explanatory method with an activity-based approach. 1. It is necessary to draw up a program in which the approximate order of study of the subject will be prescribed, excluding the "extremist approach".

Speech on the second
Moscow Pedagogical Marathon
subjects, April 9, 2003

The natural sciences around the world are going through difficult times. Financial flows are leaving science and education in the military-political sphere, the prestige of scientists and teachers is falling, and the ignorance of most of the society is growing rapidly. The world is ruled by ignorance. It comes to the point that in America, right-wing Christians are demanding the legal abolition of the second law of thermodynamics, which, in their opinion, contradicts religious doctrines.
Chemistry suffers more than other natural sciences. Most people associate this science with chemical weapons, environmental pollution, man-made disasters, drug production, etc. Overcoming "chemophobia" and mass chemical illiteracy, creating an attractive social image of chemistry is one of the tasks of chemical education, the current state of which in Russia we want to discuss.

Modernization program (reform)
education in Russia and its shortcomings

In the Soviet Union, there was a well-functioning system of chemistry education based on a linear approach, when the study of chemistry began in middle school and ended in senior. An agreed scheme was developed to ensure the educational process, including: programs and textbooks, training and advanced training of teachers, a system of chemistry Olympiads at all levels, sets of teaching aids ("School Library", "Teacher's Library" and
etc.), publicly available methodological journals ("Chemistry at school", etc.), demonstration and laboratory instruments.
Education is a conservative and inert system, therefore, even after the collapse of the USSR, chemical education, which suffered heavy financial losses, continued to fulfill its tasks. However, a few years ago, a reform of the education system began in Russia, the main goal of which is to support the entry of new generations into the globalized world, into the open information community. For this, according to the authors of the reform, communication, informatics, foreign languages, and intercultural learning should take the central place in the content of education. As you can see, there is no place for the natural sciences in this reform.
It was announced that the new reform should ensure the transition to a system of quality indicators and education standards comparable to the world one. A plan of specific measures has also been developed, among which the main ones are the transition to 12-year schooling, the introduction of a unified state examination (USE) in the form of universal testing, the development of new educational standards based on a concentric scheme, according to which, by the end of the nine-year period, students must have a holistic view about the subject.
How will this reform affect chemistry education in Russia? In our opinion, it is sharply negative. The fact is that among the developers of the Concept for the Modernization of Russian Education there was not a single representative of natural science, therefore, the interests of natural sciences in this concept are completely not taken into account. The Unified State Exam in the form in which the authors of the reform conceived it will spoil the system of transition from secondary school to higher education, which universities have so hard formed in the early years of Russia's independence, and will destroy the continuity of Russian education.
One of the arguments in favor of the Unified State Exam is that, according to the ideologists of the reform, it will provide equal access to higher education for various social strata and territorial groups of the population.

Our long-term experience of distance learning, associated with the Soros Olympiad in Chemistry and the correspondence course of admission to the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University, shows that distance testing, firstly, does not provide an objective assessment of knowledge, and secondly, it does not provide schoolchildren with equal opportunities. ... Over the 5 years of the Soros Olympiads, more than 100 thousand written papers in chemistry have passed through our faculty, and we are convinced that the general level of solutions depends very much on the region; in addition, the lower the educational level of the region, the more copied works were sent from there. Another significant objection to the USE is that testing as a form of knowledge testing has significant limitations. Even a correctly compiled test does not allow an objective assessment of the student's ability to reason and draw conclusions. Our students studied the USE materials in chemistry and found a large number of incorrect or ambiguous questions that cannot be used to test schoolchildren. We came to the conclusion that the USE can be used only as one of the forms of control over the work of secondary schools, but by no means as the only, monopoly mechanism of access to higher education.
Another negative aspect of the reform is associated with the development of new educational standards, which should bring the Russian education system closer to the European one. In the draft standards proposed in 2002 by the Ministry of Education, one of the main principles of science education was violated - objectivity... The leaders of the working group, who drafted the project, suggested that we think about abandoning separate school courses in chemistry, physics and biology and replacing them with a single integrated course "Natural Science". Such a decision, even if taken for the long term, would simply bury the chemical education in our country.
What can be done in these unfavorable internal political conditions to preserve traditions and develop chemical education in Russia? Now we are moving on to our positive program, much of which has already been implemented. This program has two main aspects - substantive and organizational: we try to determine the content of chemical education in our country and develop new forms of interaction between centers of chemical education.

New state standard
chemical education

Chemistry education starts at school. The content of school education is determined by the main normative document - the state standard of school education. Within the framework of the concentric scheme adopted by us, there are three standards for chemistry: basic general education(Grades 8-9), basic mean and specialized secondary education(Grades 10-11). One of us (N.E. Kuzmenko) headed the working group of the Ministry of Education on the preparation of standards, and by now these standards have been fully formulated and ready for legislative approval.
Undertaking the development of a standard for chemical education, the authors proceeded from the trends in the development of modern chemistry and took into account its role in natural science and in society. Modern chemistry – it is a fundamental system of knowledge about the world around it, based on rich experimental material and reliable theoretical principles... The scientific content of the standard is based on two basic concepts: "substance" and "chemical reaction".
"Substance" is the main concept of chemistry. Substances surround us everywhere: in the air, food, soil, household appliances, plants and, finally, in ourselves. Some of these substances are given to us by nature in a ready-made form (oxygen, water, proteins, carbohydrates, oil, gold), the other part was obtained by humans through a slight modification of natural compounds (asphalt or artificial fibers), but the largest number of substances that used to be in nature did not exist, man synthesized on his own. These are modern materials, medicines, catalysts. To date, about 20 million organic and about 500 thousand inorganic substances are known, and each of them has an internal structure. Organic and inorganic synthesis has reached such a high degree of development that it allows the synthesis of compounds with any predetermined structure. In this regard, it comes to the fore in modern chemistry
applied aspect which focuses on connection of the structure of a substance with its properties, and the main task is to find and synthesize useful substances and materials with desired properties.
The most interesting thing about the world around us is that it is constantly changing. The second main concept of chemistry is "chemical reaction". Every second, an innumerable number of reactions occur in the world, as a result of which some substances are converted into others. We can observe some reactions directly, for example, rusting of iron objects, blood clotting, combustion of automobile fuel. At the same time, the overwhelming majority of reactions remain invisible, but it is they that determine the properties of the world around us. In order to realize his place in the world and learn how to manage it, a person must deeply understand the nature of these reactions and the laws to which they obey.
The task of modern chemistry is to study the functions of substances in complex chemical and biological systems, to analyze the connection between the structure of a substance and its functions, and to synthesize substances with given functions.
Proceeding from the fact that the standard should serve as a tool for the development of education, it was proposed to unload the content of basic general education and leave in it only those elements of content, the educational value of which is confirmed by domestic and world practice of teaching chemistry at school. This is a minimum in volume, but functionally complete system of knowledge.
Basic General Education Standard includes six content blocks:

• Methods of cognition of substances and chemical phenomena.
• Substance.
• Chemical reaction.
• Elementary foundations of inorganic chemistry.
• Initial understanding of organic substances.
• Chemistry and Life.

Basic Secondary Standard education is divided into five content blocks:

• Methods of cognition of chemistry.
• Theoretical foundations of chemistry.
• Inorganic chemistry.
• Organic chemistry.
• Chemistry and Life.

Both standards are based on the periodic law of D. I. Mendeleev, the theory of the structure of atoms and chemical bonds, the theory of electrolytic dissociation and the structural theory of organic compounds.
The basic intermediate standard is designed to provide the high school graduate with an opportunity to navigate social and personal problems associated with chemistry.
IN profile level standard the system of knowledge has been significantly expanded, primarily due to ideas about the structure of atoms and molecules, as well as about the laws governing the course of chemical reactions, considered from the point of view of the theories of chemical kinetics and chemical thermodynamics. This ensures the preparation of secondary school graduates to continue their chemical education in higher education.

New program and new
chemistry textbooks

The new, scientifically grounded standard of chemical education paved the way for the development of a new school curriculum and the creation of a set of school textbooks based on it. In this report, we present the school curriculum in chemistry for grades 8-9 and the concept of a series of textbooks for grades 8-11, created by the team of authors of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University.
The program of the chemistry course of the basic general education school is designed for students in grades 8-9. It is distinguished from the standard programs currently operating in secondary schools in Russia by more verified interdisciplinary communications and accurate selection of the material necessary to create a holistic natural-scientific perception of the world, comfortable and safe interaction with the environment in production and in everyday life. The program is structured in such a way that it focuses on those areas of chemistry, terms and concepts that are somehow related to everyday life, and are not “armchair knowledge” of a narrowly limited circle of people whose activities are related to chemical science.
During the first year of teaching chemistry (8th grade), the main focus is on the formation of students' basic chemical skills, "chemical language" and chemical thinking. For this, objects were selected that are familiar from everyday life (oxygen, air, water). In the 8th grade, we deliberately avoid the concept "mole", which is difficult for schoolchildren to perceive, and practically do not use computational problems. The main idea of ​​this part of the course is to instill in students the skills of describing the properties of various substances, grouped into classes, and also to show the relationship between the structure of substances and their properties.
In the second year of study (9th grade), the introduction of additional chemical concepts is accompanied by a consideration of the structure and properties of inorganic substances. In a special section, the elements of organic chemistry and biochemistry are briefly considered in the amount stipulated by the state educational standard.

To develop a chemical view of the world, the course conducts broad correlations between the elementary chemical knowledge received by the children in the classroom and the properties of those objects that are known to schoolchildren in everyday life, but before that they were perceived only at the everyday level. On the basis of chemical representations, students are invited to look at precious and decorative stones, glass, faience, porcelain, paints, food, modern materials. The program has expanded the range of objects that are described and discussed only at a qualitative level, without resorting to cumbersome chemical equations and complex formulas. We paid great attention to the presentation style that allows the introduction and discussion of chemical concepts and terms in a vivid and visual form. In this regard, the interdisciplinary connections of chemistry with other sciences, not only natural, but also humanitarian, are constantly emphasized.
The new program is implemented in a set of school textbooks for grades 8-9, one of which has already been sent to print, and the other is being written. When creating textbooks, we took into account the changing social role of chemistry and public interest in it, which is caused by two main interrelated factors. The first is "Chemophobia", that is, the negative attitude of society towards chemistry and its manifestations. In this regard, it is important to explain at all levels that the bad is not in chemistry, but in people who do not understand the laws of nature or have moral problems.
Chemistry is a very powerful tool in the hands of a person; there are no concepts of good and evil in its laws. Using the same laws, you can come up with a new technology for the synthesis of drugs or poisons, or you can create a new medicine or a new building material.
Another social factor is progressive chemical illiteracy society at all its levels - from politicians and journalists to housewives. Most people have absolutely no idea what the world around them consists of, they do not know the elementary properties of even the simplest substances and cannot distinguish nitrogen from ammonia, and ethyl alcohol from methyl alcohol. It is in this area that a competent chemistry textbook, written in a simple and understandable language, can play a great educational role.
When creating textbooks, we proceeded from the following postulates.

The main tasks of the school chemistry course

1. Formation of a scientific picture of the surrounding world and the development of a natural-scientific worldview. Presentation of chemistry as the central science aimed at solving the pressing problems of mankind.
2. Development of chemical thinking, the ability to analyze the phenomena of the surrounding world in chemical terms, the ability to speak (and think) in a chemical language.
3. Popularization of chemical knowledge and introduction of ideas about the role of chemistry in everyday life and its applied significance in the life of society. Development of ecological thinking and familiarity with modern chemical technologies.
4. Formation of practical skills for the safe handling of substances in everyday life.
5. Awakening a keen interest among schoolchildren in the study of chemistry, both within the framework of the school curriculum and additionally.

The main ideas of the school chemistry course

1. Chemistry is the central science of nature, closely interacting with other natural sciences. The applied possibilities of chemistry are of fundamental importance for the life of society.
2. The surrounding world consists of substances that are characterized by a certain structure and are capable of mutual transformations. There is a connection between the structure and properties of substances. The task of chemistry is to create substances with useful properties.
3. The world around us is constantly changing. Its properties are determined by the chemical reactions that take place in it. In order to control these reactions, it is necessary to deeply understand the laws of chemistry.
4. Chemistry is a powerful tool for transforming nature and society. Safe use of chemistry is possible only in a highly developed society with stable moral categories.

Methodological principles and style of textbooks

1. The sequence of presentation of the material is focused on the study of the chemical properties of the surrounding world with a gradual and delicate (ie, unobtrusive) acquaintance with the theoretical foundations of modern chemistry. Descriptive sections alternate with theoretical sections. The material is evenly distributed throughout the training period.
2. Internal isolation, self-sufficiency and logical validity of the presentation. Any material is presented in the context of general problems of the development of science and society.
3. Constant demonstration of the connection between chemistry and life, frequent reminders of the applied value of chemistry, popular science analysis of substances and materials that students encounter in everyday life.
4. High scientific level and rigor of presentation. The chemical properties of substances and chemical reactions are described as they actually go. Chemistry in textbooks is real, not "paper".
5. A friendly, easy-going and impartial style of presentation. Simple, accessible and literate Russian. Using "plots" - short, entertaining stories linking chemical knowledge with everyday life - to facilitate comprehension. Extensive use of illustrations, which make up about 15% of the volume of textbooks.
6. Two-level structure of material presentation. “Large print” is the basic level, “small print” is for in-depth study.
7. Extensive use of simple and visual demonstration experiments, laboratory and practical work to study experimental aspects of chemistry and the development of practical skills of students.
8. Use of questions and tasks of two levels of complexity for a deeper assimilation and consolidation of the material.

We intend to include in the set of tutorials:

• chemistry textbooks for grades 8-11;
• teaching guidelines for teachers, thematic lesson planning;
• didactic materials;
• a book for students to read;
• chemistry reference tables;
• computer support in the form of CDs containing: a) an electronic version of the textbook; b) reference materials; c) demonstration experiments; d) illustrative material; e) animation models; f) programs for solving computational problems; g) didactic materials.

We hope that the new textbooks will allow many students to take a fresh look at our subject and show them that chemistry is an exciting and very rewarding science.
In the development of schoolchildren's interest in chemistry, apart from textbooks, chemistry olympiads play an important role.

Modern system of chemical olympiads

The system of chemical olympiads is one of the few educational structures that survived the disintegration of the country. The All-Union Chemistry Olympiad was transformed into the All-Russian Olympiad, while retaining its main features. Currently, this Olympiad is held in five stages: school, district, regional, federal district and final. The winners of the final stage represent Russia at the International Chemistry Olympiad. The most important from the point of view of education are the most massive stages - school and district, for which school teachers and methodological associations of cities and regions of Russia are responsible. The Ministry of Education is responsible for the entire Olympiad as a whole.
Interestingly, the former All-Union Chemistry Olympiad has also survived, but in a new capacity. Every year, the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University organizes an international Mendeleev Olympiad, in which the winners and prize-winners of chemical Olympiads of the CIS and Baltic countries participate. Last year, this Olympiad was held with great success in Alma-Ata, this year - in the town of Pushchino, Moscow Region. The Mendeleev Olympiad allows talented children from the former republics of the Soviet Union to enter Moscow State University and other prestigious universities without exams. The communication of chemistry teachers during the Olympiad is also extremely valuable, which contributes to the preservation of a single chemical space on the territory of the former Soviet Union.
In the past five years, the number of subject Olympiads has increased sharply due to the fact that many universities, in search of new forms of attracting applicants, began to conduct their own Olympiads and count the results of these Olympiads as entrance exams. One of the pioneers of this movement was the Chemistry Department of Moscow State University, which annually holds extramural Olympiad in chemistry, physics and mathematics. This Olympiad, which we called "MSU Entrant", is already 10 years old this year. It provides equal access to all groups of schoolchildren to study at Moscow State University. The Olympiad is held in two stages: correspondence and full-time. first - correspondence- the stage is for informational purposes. We publish assignments in all specialized newspapers and magazines and send assignments to schools. The decision takes almost six months. We invite those who have completed at least half of the tasks to second stage - full-time tour, which takes place on the 20th of May. Written assignments in mathematics and chemistry allow us to determine the winners of the Olympiad, who will benefit from admission to our faculty.
The geography of this Olympiad is unusually wide. Every year it is attended by representatives of all regions of Russia - from Kaliningrad to Vladivostok, as well as several dozen "foreigners" from the CIS countries. The development of this Olympiad has led to the fact that almost all talented children from the provinces come to study with us: more than 60% of the students of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University are from other cities.
At the same time, university Olympiads are constantly under pressure from the Ministry of Education, which is pursuing the ideology of the USE and strives to deprive universities of independence in determining the forms of admission of applicants. And here, oddly enough, the All-Russian Olympiad comes to the aid of the ministry. The idea of ​​the ministry is that only participants in those Olympiads that are organizationally merged into the structure of the All-Russian Olympiad should have advantages in admission to universities. Any university can independently conduct any Olympiad without any connection with the All-Russian, but the results of such an Olympiad will not be counted for admission to this university.
If such an idea is legalized, it will deal a fairly strong blow to the system of admission to universities and, most importantly, to high school students, who will lose many of the incentives to enter the university of their choice.
However, this year admission to universities will be held according to the previous rules, and in this regard, we would like to talk about the entrance exam in chemistry at Moscow State University.

Entrance exam in chemistry at Moscow State University

The entrance exam in chemistry at Moscow State University is taken at six faculties: chemistry, biology, medicine, soil, materials science and the new faculty of bioengineering and bioinformatics. The exam is written and lasts 4 hours. During this time, schoolchildren have to solve 10 problems of different levels of complexity: from trivial, that is, "comforting", to rather difficult ones that allow differentiating grades.
None of the tasks requires special knowledge that goes beyond what is taught in specialized chemical schools. Nevertheless, most problems are structured in such a way that their solution requires thinking based not on memorization, but on mastery of theory. As an example, we want to cite several such problems from different branches of chemistry.

Theoretical chemistry

Problem 1(Department of Biology). The rate constant of the isomerization reaction A B is 20 s –1, and the rate constant of the reverse reaction B A is 12 s –1. Calculate the composition of the equilibrium mixture (in grams) obtained from 10 g of substance A.

Decision
Let B become x g of substance A, then the equilibrium mixture contains (10 - x) г A and x d B. In equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction:

20 (10 – x) = 12x,

from where x = 6,25.
Equilibrium mixture composition: 3.75 g A, 6.25 g B.
Answer... 3.75 g A, 6.25 g B.

Inorganic chemistry

Task 2(Department of Biology). What volume of carbon dioxide (n.u.) must be passed through 200 g of a 0.74% solution of calcium hydroxide so that the mass of the precipitate formed is 1.5 g, and the solution above the precipitate does not give a color with phenolphthalein?

Decision
When carbon dioxide is passed through a calcium hydroxide solution, a calcium carbonate precipitate is first formed:

which can then dissolve in excess CO 2:

CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O = Ca (HCO 3) 2.

The dependence of the sediment mass on the amount of CO 2 substance is as follows:

With a lack of CO 2, the solution above the sediment will contain Ca (OH) 2 and give a violet color with phenolphthalein. According to the condition, this coloration is absent, therefore, CO 2 is in excess
compared to Ca (OH) 2, ie, first all of Ca (OH) 2 is converted into CaCO 3, and then CaCO 3 is partially dissolved in CO 2.

(Ca (OH) 2) = 200 0.0074 / 74 = 0.02 mol, (CaCO 3) = 1.5 / 100 = 0.015 mol.

In order for all of Ca (OH) 2 to pass into CaCO 3, 0.02 mol of CO 2 must be passed through the initial solution, and then another 0.005 mol of CO 2 must be passed through so that 0.005 mol of CaCO 3 dissolves and 0.015 mol remains.

V (CO 2) = (0.02 + 0.005) 22.4 = 0.56 liters.

Answer... 0.56 l CO 2.

Organic chemistry

Problem 3(chemical faculty). The aromatic hydrocarbon with one benzene ring contains 90.91% carbon by weight. During the oxidation of 2.64 g of this hydrocarbon with an acidified solution of potassium permanganate, 962 ml of gas are released (at 20 ° C and normal pressure), and during nitration, a mixture containing two mononitro derivatives is formed. Establish the possible structure of the initial hydrocarbon and write the schemes of the mentioned reactions. How many mononitro derivatives are formed during the nitration of the hydrocarbon oxidation product?

Decision

1) Determine the molecular formula of the desired hydrocarbon:

(C) :( H) = (90.91 / 12) :( 9.09 / 1) = 10:12.

Therefore, the hydrocarbon is C 10 H 12 ( M= 132 g / mol) with one double bond in the side chain.
2) Find the composition of the side chains:

(C 10 H 12) = 2.64 / 132 = 0.02 mol,

(CO 2) = 101.3 0.962 / (8.31 293) = 0.04 mol.

This means that two carbon atoms leave the C 10 H 12 molecule during oxidation with potassium permanganate, therefore, there were two substituents: CH 3 and C (CH 3) = CH 2 or CH = CH 2 and C 2 H 5.
3) Let us determine the relative orientation of the side chains: two mononitro derivatives during nitration gives only the paraisomer:

When nitrating the product of complete oxidation, terephthalic acid, only one mononitro derivative is formed.

Biochemistry

Problem 4(Department of Biology). With the complete hydrolysis of 49.50 g of the oligosaccharide, only one product was formed - glucose, with alcoholic fermentation of which 22.08 g of ethanol was obtained. Set the number of glucose residues in the oligosaccharide molecule and calculate the mass of water required for hydrolysis if the yield of the fermentation reaction is 80%.

N / ( n – 1) = 0,30/0,25.

From where n = 6.
Answer. n = 6; m(H 2 O) = 4.50 g.

Problem 5(Faculty of Medicine). Upon complete hydrolysis of the pentapeptide Met-enkephalin, the following amino acids were obtained: glycine (Gly) - H 2 NCH 2 COOH, phenylalanine (Phe) - H 2 NCH (CH 2 C 6 H 5) COOH, tyrosine (Tyr) - H 2 NCH ( CH 2 C 6 H 4 OH) COOH, methionine (Met) - H 2 NCH (CH 2 CH 2 SCH 3) COOH. Substances with molecular weights of 295, 279, and 296 were isolated from the products of partial hydrolysis of the same peptide. Establish two possible amino acid sequences in this peptide (in abbreviations) and calculate its molar mass.

Decision
The molar masses of peptides can be used to determine their composition using the hydrolysis equations:

dipeptide + H 2 O = amino acid I + amino acid II,
tripeptide + 2H 2 O = amino acid I + amino acid II + amino acid III.
Molecular weights of amino acids:

Gly 75, Phe 165, Tyr 181, Met 149.

295 + 2 18 = 75 + 75 + 181,
tripeptide - Gly-Gly-Tyr;

279 + 2 18 = 75 + 75 + 165,
tripeptide - Gly-Gly-Phe;

296 + 18 = 165 + 149,
dipeptide - Phe – Met.

These peptides can be combined into a pentapeptide in this way:

M= 296 + 295 - 18 = 573 g / mol.

The opposite sequence of amino acids is also possible:

Tyr – Gly – Gly – Phe – Met.

Answer.
Met – Phe – Gly – Gly – Tyr,
Tyr – Gly – Gly – Phe – Met; M= 573 g / mol.

Competition for the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University and other chemical universities in recent years has remained stable, and the level of training of applicants is growing. Therefore, summing up, we affirm that, despite difficult external and internal circumstances, chemical education in Russia has good prospects. The main thing that convinces us of this is the endless stream of young talents, passionate about our beloved science, striving to get a good education and benefit their country.

V. V. REMIN,
Associate Professor, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow State University,
N.E. KUZMENKO,
Professor, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow State University
(Moscow)

(Materials from the book by S. I. Gilmanshin, S. S. Kosmodemyanskay "METHODOLOGICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF TEACHING CHEMISTRY IN THE CONTEXT OF FGOS OO")

Modern requirements for the activity of a chemistry teacher

Currently, school chemistry education is based on the study of 5 basic theoretical concepts:

Atomic-molecular teaching;

Theory of electrolytic dissociation;

Mechanism and conditions of chemical reactions;

DI Mendeleev's periodic law and periodic system of chemical elements;

The theory of the structure of organic compounds A.M. Butlerov. The professional activity of a modern chemistry teacher begins with correctly defined tasks of the learning process, which are a defining component of the entire process, contributing to the selection of content, the choice of structure, the implementation of methods and means of teaching. Therefore, at each lesson, the teacher must clearly and reasonably articulate the main goals and objectives of the lesson. A continuation of this consistency is the teacher's definition of the sub-goal of each of the stages of the lesson. Only by defining the general goal and the logically following sub-goals of the teaching process, the chemistry teacher will be able to complete the process of teaching and education. The content of the school course includes familiarizing students with the basics of science, laws, theories, concepts; promotes the formation of a scientific picture of the world among students, the all-round development of the personality, the upbringing of industriousness, interest in the subject, a careful attitude towards nature; ensures the intellectual development of students. The final component of the learning process is learning outcomes.

The selection of the content and construction of a school chemistry course is based on the following principles:

Scientificness;

Consistency and consistency;

Accessibility, visibility;

Links between theory and practice.

The school chemistry course is formed by two main systems of knowledge - a system of knowledge about substances and a system of knowledge about chemical reactions.

From a huge variety of substances, the following have been selected for study: having great cognitive value (hydrogen, oxygen, inputs, bases, salts); of great practical importance (mineral fertilizers, ion exchangers, soaps, synthetic detergents, etc.); playing an important role in inanimate and living nature (silicon and calcium compounds, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.); by the example of which it is possible to give an idea of ​​technological processes and chemical production (ammonia, sulfuric and nitric acid, ethylene, aldehydes, etc.); reflecting the achievements of modern science and production (catalysts, synthetic rubbers and fibers, plastics, artificial diamonds, synthetic amino acids, proteins, etc.). The domestic school course is based on the study of the concept of a substance. A modern chemistry teacher should not only possess subject knowledge, methodological techniques and modern pedagogical technologies, but also apply them in practice, modeling and analyzing various pedagogical situations.

For a long time, the document defining the criteria for a teacher of chemistry was the professiogram, focusing on the following main tasks of the teacher.

1. To formulate general, specific and particular goals and objectives of chemical education in basic and complete secondary (general and vocational) schools of a modern type.

2. To carry out the selection and implementation of the content of educational material in chemistry in accordance with the goals and objectives of chemical education, taking into account the most important functions of teaching chemistry, as well as the characteristics of this school, educational groups, individual students.

3. To structure the content of teaching chemistry into a variety of types and forms of lessons, extracurricular activities and extracurricular activities.

4. To choose and implement in the process of modern technology of teaching chemistry the optimal traditional and innovative methods, means and forms of education.

5. Design and skillfully use various learning conditions (educational material, sanitary and hygienic, moral and psychological, economic, ergonomic, etc.).

6. To predict and organize, in accordance with the scientific organization of labor (NOT), the cognitive activity of students, the work of the classroom, laboratory assistant, as well as the teacher's own pedagogical activity of chemistry.

7. To mobilize students to solve educational, upbringing and developmental problems by using methods of motivation and stimulation of students in the process of teaching chemistry.

8. To manage the educational and cognitive activities of students in the process of teaching chemistry in different types of schools (lyceum, college, etc.).

9. Correct the process of teaching chemistry, taking into account the expected and actual course of it.

10. To organize not only the process of educational knowledge and labor, but also communication between the subjects of educational activity. 22

11. To create in the process of educational, extracurricular and extracurricular classes in chemistry, partially search and research situations necessary for the formation of a creatively active personality.

12. To educate students in the process of teaching chemistry intersocial personality traits: humanity, the need for knowledge and work, value attitude to material and spiritual culture, to nature, creative activity, self-reflection.

13. To develop students' ideas about the chemical objects of the surrounding world, various types of memory, an integrative style of thinking, emotional and volitional qualities, socially positive motives and needs, cognitive interest in chemistry.

14. Evaluate the results of teaching chemistry (levels of formation of chemical knowledge, specific subject skills and value relationships to chemical science, chemical education, nature, chemical technology, chemical production and other objects).

15. Study and use the innovative experience of chemistry teachers, carry out self-analysis of their activities, self-control, self-improvement and self-education in order to achieve pedagogical excellence, a high level of professionalism. In the federal component of the state standard for general education, the main tasks of Russian education are defined as increasing its accessibility, quality and efficiency. This presupposes not only large-scale structural, organizational and economic changes, but, first of all, a significant renewal of the content of education, primarily general education, bringing it in line with the requirements of the time and the tasks of the country's development. In order to achieve success in teaching chemistry, a chemistry teacher must have a good understanding of the learning process itself at all stages, starting with propaedeutic courses and ending with specialized training in grades 10-11. The main components of the process of teaching chemistry include the following: goals and objectives of teaching, the content of the academic subject of chemistry, methods and means of teaching, teaching (the activity of a chemistry teacher), teaching (the activity of a student studying chemistry).

Functional components of the modern school teacher model

1. Gnostic (cognitive) function:

the ability to easily navigate the content of the taught subject "chemistry" (highlight the main, essential; see problematic topics for schoolchildren; anticipate difficulties, etc.);

the ability to take into account the individual psychological characteristics of the assimilation of educational material by students;

the ability to diagnose the developmental processes of students, both cognitively and in general psychological terms.

2. Constructive function:

the ability to formulate the goals and objectives of the pedagogical process;

the ability to plan systems of pedagogical activity in chemistry in the classroom and in extracurricular work;

the ability to select the content, forms and methods of implementing the plan.

3. Communicative function:

the ability to use the psychological laws of transmission, perception and assimilation of educational material in chemistry;

the ability to optimally present information for the perception of students, taking into account its content and nature;

the ability to organize a space for communication;

the ability to regulate the forms of information presentation (use of technical teaching aids, tables, diagrams, etc.);

the ability to form an emotional-value attitude to information;

the ability to work in a dialogue mode;

the ability to stimulate communication processes;

the ability to use expressive means of communication (verbal and non-verbal).

4. Organizational function:

the ability to organize the work of students in a chemistry lesson;

the ability to delegate some of the functions to students;

the ability to distribute functions and responsibilities in the classroom;

the ability to "feel" the learning situation;

the ability to objectively assess the progress and results of work;

the ability to organize not formal, but work discipline;

the ability to control the plan for performing work in the lesson, in a quarter, for a year.

5. Self-realization function:

the ability to track, analyze and summarize personal professional and pedagogical experience;

the ability to adapt successful methodological techniques of other teachers into their pedagogical system;

the ability to comprehensively reflect on the dynamics of one's own “I-concept”.

In accordance with the basic requirements for graduates of the new

school chemistry teacher must:

Understand the role of educational institutions in society, the main

problems of disciplines that determine a specific area of ​​his activities;

Know the main legislative documents concerning the public education system, the rights and obligations of the subjects of the educational process (teachers, leaders, students and their parents);

Understand the conceptual foundations of the subject, its place in the general system of knowledge and values ​​and in the school curriculum;

Take into account individual differences in teaching activities, including age, social, psychological and cultural;

Possess knowledge of the subject, sufficient for analytical assessment, selection and implementation of an educational program corresponding to the level of preparedness of students, their needs, as well as the requirements of society.

A chemistry teacher should know:

 the essence of the processes of education and upbringing, their psychological foundations; general questions of the organization of pedagogical research, research methods and their capabilities, methods of generalization and presentation of research search results;

 ways of improving teacher skills and their ways of self-improvement;

 methodology of teaching your subject;

 content and structure of school curricula, programs and textbooks;

 requirements for the minimum content and level of training of students in the subject, established by the state educational standard;

 questions of private methods of school courses in the subject;

 different approaches to the study of the main topics of the school course, new teaching technologies;

 methods of forming skills of independent work, development of creative abilities and logical thinking of students;

 scientific foundations of a separate course of the subject, history and methodology of the corresponding branch of science;

 methods of computer processing of information.

A chemistry teacher should be able to:

 design, construct, organize and analyze their teaching activities;

 plan training sessions in accordance with the curriculum and based on its strategy;

 ensure the consistency of the presentation of the material and interdisciplinary links of the subject with other disciplines;

 to develop and conduct classes of various forms of teaching, the most effective in studying the relevant topics and sections of the program, adapting them to different levels of training of students;

 select and use appropriate teaching tools to build teaching technology;

 analyze educational and educational literature and use it to build your own presentation of program material;

 organize the learning activities of students, manage it and evaluate its results;

 apply the main methods of objective diagnostics of students' knowledge of the subject, make adjustments to the learning process, taking into account diagnostic data;

 use service programs, packages of applied programs and tools for the preparation of educational and methodological materials, master the methodology of conducting classes using a computer;

 create and maintain a supportive learning environment conducive to the achievement of learning objectives;

 develop student interest and motivation for learning, generate and maintain feedback.

So, summarizing all of the above, it should be noted that modern requirements for the activity of a chemistry teacher are determined by the components of the federal state educational standard of general education, the introduction of specialized education with the mandatory introduction of elective courses and the variability of school curricula.

Questions discussed at the lecture Goals and objectives of the school
chemical education
Content and structure
school chemistry
education

The purpose of school chemistry education:

personality formation,
knowledgeable of the basics
chemical science as a foundation
modern natural science,
convinced of the material
the unity of the world of substances and
objectivity of chemical
phenomena,
understanding
need to save
nature - the basis of life on Earth,
ready to work and able
organize your work

The tasks of school chemistry education:

personality development of students:
their thinking, hard work,
accuracy and composure,
building their experience
creative activity
system formation
chemical knowledge (the most important
factors, concepts, laws,
theories and language of science) as
component of natural science
pictures of the world

forming perceptions of
methods of cognition characteristic of
natural sciences, -
experimental and theoretical
developing students' understanding
social development needs
chemistry, the formation of
treating chemistry as possible
areas of future practical
activities

shaping
ecological culture
schoolchildren, literate
behavior and skills
safe handling
substances in daily
life content chemical
education is a system, functionally
complete with t eye glasses solution
tasks of training, education and
student development

The system includes knowledge:

about substance and chemical reaction
on the use of substances and
chemical transformations, as well
the resulting
environmental problems and ways
their decisions
vision of development
chemical knowledge and objective
the need for such development

Stages of studying chemistry in a secondary school:

1. Propedeutic
2. Main
3. Profile

The prophetic stage of obtaining chemical knowledge
should cover the period from 1st to 7th
basic school classes
initial knowledge of chemistry
students get when studying
integrated courses "Natural Science",
"The World Around", "Natural Science",
systematic courses in biology,
geography, physics
at the expense of the school or regional
component it is possible to study the chemical
propaedeutic course under conditional
titled "Introduction to Chemistry"

The chemical knowledge obtained at the propaedeutic stage of training serves to solve the problem of formation in schoolchildren

the initial
a holistic view of the world

As a result, the prophetic
chemistry training students
should get:
understanding of the composition and
properties of some substances
initial information about
chemical elements, symbols
chemical elements,
chemical formulas, simple and
complex substances, chemical
phenomena, compound reactions and
decomposition

The study of chemistry at the level of basic general education is aimed at achieving the following goals:

mastering essential knowledge of basic
concepts and laws of chemistry, chemical
symbolism
mastering the ability to observe
chemical phenomena, conduct
chemical experiment, produce
calculations based on chemical formulas
substances and equations of chemical reactions

development of cognitive interests and
intellectual abilities in
chemical
experiment, independent
knowledge acquisition in accordance with
emerging life
needs
fostering an attitude towards chemistry as
one of the fundamental
components of natural science and element
common human culture

application of the knowledge gained and
skills for safe use
substances and materials in everyday life, rural
farm and production, solutions
practical tasks in everyday
life, prevention of phenomena,
harmful to human health and
environment

Chemical knowledge at the main stage
learning generated by studying the course
chemistry (grades YIII-IX) are
foundation as to continue
profile study of the subject in the senior (XXI) grades of secondary (complete) school, and for
mastering a minimum of chemical knowledge (in
according to the standard) in the classes
non-chemical profile
The normative volume of the course in accordance with
Federal basic curriculum
is 2 hours per week in each class in
for 3 years

The content of chemical education on
its main stage is intended to provide
the formation of students' perceptions:
about the variety of substances
on the dependence of the properties of substances on their
buildings
about material unity and genetic
the relationship of organic and inorganic
substances
on the role of chemistry in the knowledge of the phenomena of life
on solving environmental problems

Chemistry course content for basic
general education is grouped into blocks:
methods of cognition of substances and chemical
phenomena
substance
chemical reaction
elementary bases of inorganic
chemistry
initial ideas about
organic matter
chemistry and life

In the structure of the content of the chemistry course
distinguish the following didactic
units ::
laws, theories and concepts
chemical language
methods of chemical science
scientific facts
historical and
polytechnic knowledge
special, general scientific and
intellectual skills

Graduate
basic school:
should be able to apply:
theoretical knowledge
factual knowledge
knowledge of ways of doing things,
relevant to the study
chemistry
should be able to carry out:
chemical experiment in strict
according to the rules of technology
security

Students should also exercise
learning activities of varying degrees
difficulties:
name
determine
characterize
explain
use (contact
laboratory equipment)
conducting an experiment
make the necessary calculations
comply with the relevant regulations
safety engineering

The third stage of school chemistry education falls on the X-XI grades The study of the subject is carried out differentially in two

option ah -
basic and profile level
At this stage, the study of chemistry
carried out within
systems of mathematics courses, including
invariant core of content,
but differing in volume and depth
presentation of the material, as well as
applied focus

Faculty courses as a component
school chemistry system
education:
implement a differentiated approach
to teaching students
provide conditions for the formation
sustained interest of schoolchildren in
chemistry, the development of their creative
abilities

prepare primary school students for
choosing a further education profile
in high school, and senior students
classes - to study in higher education
institutions

Chemistry as a science belongs to the fundamental areas of natural science. In the constantly changing material world, a person interacts with a variety of materials and substances of natural and anthropogenic origin. The practical activity of people has long turned into a factor commensurate in scale with the evolution of nature itself. This factor is unavoidable as long as humanity exists.

The results of human activity are largely determined by that specific component of culture that forms chemical knowledge. This knowledge reflects a complex complex of relations "person-substance" and further, through the obvious connection - "substance-material-practical activity" to a large extent determine rational behavioral skills, the possibility of a conscious choice by young people of the way of life and sphere of activity.

Chemistry as a component of culture fills with content a number of fundamental ideas about the world: the relationship between the structure and properties of a complex system; probabilistic concepts and ideas about symmetry, chaos and order; conservation laws; evolution of matter. All this finds clarity on the factual material of chemistry, gives food for thought about the world around us for the harmonious development of the personality.

Differentiation in teaching opens up opportunities for students to choose a training profile, and with it the level of theoretical and practical training in chemistry. However, with all the variety of types of differentiation in teaching, the goals of teaching chemistry are the same and meet the general goals of a modern school. The study of chemistry should contribute to the formation of a scientific picture of the world among students, their intellectual development, the education of morality, humanistic relations, and readiness for work.

Occupying a place between physics and biology among the natural sciences, chemistry makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the modern picture of the world. Like other natural sciences, chemistry not only studies nature, but also provides a person with knowledge for the practical development of material production.

The study of chemical processes should lead to the understanding that the direction of reactions is not accidental, but due to the structure of substances, that reactions proceed according to certain laws, knowledge of these laws allows you to control them.

Experiment in its accessible forms for every age group of students should take an important place in the school teaching of chemistry. Laboratory experiments, practical exercises enable students to come into direct contact with substances, experimentally study their properties, and get acquainted with the laws governing the course of chemical reactions.

The role of a chemical experiment should not be limited to an illustration of theoretical principles and properties of substances of various classes. It is important that a chemical experiment be used to acquire new knowledge by schoolchildren and to pose cognitive problems to them. Solving them using an experiment puts students in the position of researchers, which, as practice shows, has a positive effect on the motivation for studying chemistry.

The task of the development of students is common to all courses in chemistry. No matter with what theoretical content the subject is studied, the growth of independent search activity of schoolchildren, the fulfillment of tasks leading from reproductive activity to creative activity, should become an immutable principle for organizing classes. Along with the orientation towards the development of individual inclinations and capabilities of students, forms of organizing collective educational activities and mutual assistance of schoolchildren should find widespread use.

The system of school chemistry education is an integral part of the system of general natural science education, the structure of which corresponds to the structure of the school and its main stages. Already in elementary school (I stage of education) in the course "The World Around", students get acquainted with various natural phenomena that will form the core of the study of nature in basic and high schools.

Basic school (stage II of education) is designed to ensure the formation of students' initial natural science, including chemistry, knowledge, the requirements for which are determined by the level of training - the basic level.

In high school (stage III), students are given the right to choose the direction of general education. At this stage, the idea of ​​a differentiated approach to teaching schoolchildren is realized to the greatest extent. Depending on the chosen direction, training profile, they will be able to acquire chemical knowledge of different levels.

Thus, the system of chemical education consists of three links - propaedeutic, general (basic) and specialized (advanced), the composition and structure of which covers primary, basic and high schools.

Pupils' propedeutic chemical training is carried out in primary school and in grades 5-7 of basic school. Elements of chemical knowledge at these stages of training can be included in the integrated courses "The World Around" (primary school), "Natural Science" (grades 5-7), or in systematic courses in biology and physics. The chemical knowledge introduced at these stages of education serves to solve the problem of forming an initial holistic view of the world in schoolchildren. In the process of propaedeutic training, students should get an idea of ​​the composition and properties of certain substances, as well as initial information about chemical elements, symbols of chemical elements, chemical formulas, simple and complex substances, chemical phenomena, compound and decomposition reactions. Acquaintance of students with these issues in primary and secondary schools will allow in the general education systematic course to reduce the time for studying chemistry at the empirical level, to quickly move to the consideration of chemical phenomena based on the theory of the structure of matter.

The basic component of chemistry education (grades 8-9) is compulsory for all students. It is presented in basic school in the form of a systematic chemistry course. From it, students will receive knowledge, the volume and theoretical level of which will determine the compulsory chemical training of schoolchildren in basic school. Since this knowledge will become the basis for further chemical education, both at school and in other educational institutions, the compulsory level of mastering them, fixed in the State Standard of Secondary Chemical Education (the concept of school chemistry education, can be called basic.

All students who graduate from basic school must achieve a basic level of chemical training, regardless of what specialty they want to acquire in the future.

In principle, the content of a basic level chemistry course can be implemented within the framework of two types of models. In the model of the first type, the course is built on the basis of the internal logic of chemistry as a science, and applied information will play the role of illustrations that saturate each section. The second type of model is based on practical applications of chemistry.

Theoretical and factual material on the chemistry of elements and compounds is grouped around information about the fields of application of the chemical science of technology, their environmental, agricultural, medical, and energy aspects. Both models should provide the same basic level of knowledge for schoolchildren, corresponding to the State Standard of Secondary Chemical Education. In any case, the study of the course is based on the systematic use of a demonstration and laboratory experiment with the increasing independence of students in the cognitive process.

Teaching chemistry on the basis of this course should lead to an understanding by students of chemical phenomena in the world around them, an understanding of the role of chemistry in the development of the national economy, ensuring the well-being of the people, and the formation of a "chemical culture" of handling substances and materials. Pupils who graduated from basic school who have taken a course of basic chemistry should know the classes of inorganic and organic substances studied and be able to determine them.

The profile component of school chemistry education is designed, along with solving general educational problems, to develop students' interest in chemistry, deepen their knowledge of chemistry, and contribute to the successful mastering of specialties related to chemistry in the future. This component of chemistry education coincides with the profiled link of the school and is inextricably linked with it. The level of chemical training of students determines the profile of training they have chosen.

In schools (or classes) of the natural science profile, teaching chemistry can be carried out at different depths, depending on which subject the students study in depth. If students deepen their knowledge in the field of physics or biology (but not chemistry), then in this case they may be offered various courses that facilitate the assimilation of these academic disciplines. However, chemistry training is also carried out at a higher level.

Such courses should include information about chemical bonds, their hybridization; they should reveal the structure of atoms not only of small, but also of large periods; regularities of the course of chemical reactions taking into account the enthalpy factor; an idea of ​​complex compounds, etc. is given.

After completing a course in chemistry for science schools, students should be able to characterize the properties of substances on the basis of theoretical concepts; dependence of the production and use of substances on their internal structure; to use the obtained theoretical information in the study of chemical reactions. The theoretical knowledge gained will contribute to the understanding by schoolchildren of the reasons for the diversity of substances, their material unity.

The study of industrial methods for obtaining individual substances allows students to get acquainted with the essence of raw materials, environmental, food and energy problems and assess the role of chemistry in solving them, with the directions of scientific and technological progress in chemistry and realize its humanistic orientation.

In classes with advanced study of chemistry, students can be offered a system consisting of an advanced chemistry course, in which, improving their knowledge of inorganic and organic chemistry, and additional courses, the task of which is to significantly expand chemical knowledge.

In the framework of advanced study of chemistry, students can improve the level of chemical knowledge, both in theoretical and applied aspects. In the first case, the main aspect in teaching should be done on theoretical issues of inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry. In the case of an applied orientation in teaching, students will gain knowledge of chemical technology, agrochemistry, etc.

It is advisable to start training with the aim of deepening chemical knowledge with general questions affecting the basics of chemical science. The study of special courses can be carried out in various combinations, depending on the direction of advanced study of chemistry chosen by the students. So, in the chemical direction, they can study inorganic and general chemistry, organic chemistry, the basics of chemical analysis. In these classes, it is allowed to study the basics of physical chemistry.

In biological and chemical classes, organic chemistry, the basics of chemical analysis, biochemistry can be offered for study. If students choose the agrochemical direction, they can be offered organic chemistry, the basics of chemical analysis and the course "Chemistry in Agriculture".

The authors of the concept believe that it is inexpedient to determine in advance the requirements for the knowledge and skills of schoolchildren studying chemistry in depth. The level of knowledge and skills of such students will largely determine the capabilities of the school, the qualifications of the teacher, the chosen direction of in-depth study of chemistry (chemical, biological-chemical, chemical-technological, etc.), as well as the capabilities of the students themselves. In this regard, the level of requirements for the knowledge and skills of students studying chemistry in depth, in each specific case, should be determined by the teacher. The lower limit of such requirements may be the requirements for knowledge formed by the general course for schools of the natural science profile.

It is necessary to say especially about those schools in which the conditions do not allow the implementation of the above learning profiles. In them, students will study all general education disciplines as is customary in the current school. For such educational institutions, a chemistry course for natural science schools can be recommended. This course contributes to the development of the chemical knowledge that students received in grades 8-9. When studying it, schoolchildren will expand the range of ideas about substances, types of chemical reactions.

At the discretion of the teacher, a modular structure of the academic subject can be carried out with the inclusion of additional topics or questions, taking into account local conditions. Studying a chemistry course for natural science schools will allow students to continue their chemistry education in higher educational institutions.

In the light of the foregoing, students who graduate from the 11th grade of a comprehensive school receive chemistry education at three different levels: basic, natural science and advanced.

In accordance with the Concept for the modernization of Russian education for the period up to 2010, approved by the order of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 29, 2001, No. 1756, at the senior level of secondary schools (grades 10-11), specialized education is provided.