Introduction.

The Mayan tribe is one of the most powerful and developed civilizations of the ancient world. Scientists to this day study with great interest the destroyed cities left by the Maya after their mysterious disappearance. Unfortunately, some buildings collapsed under the influence of erosion and time, but the surviving architecture and writing allow us to learn a lot of important information about the life of this amazing people. The beginning of the formation of the Mayan civilization is usually dated back to 2000 BC, and the Mayan society reached its full flourishing by the 3rd century. AD Their cities grew over vast areas of Mesoamerica that are now Mexico, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Belize. Such a large area and the grandeur of the architectural structures speak of the unconditional power and prosperity of civilization. In fact, that's how it was. From the surviving rock hieroglyphs, scientists were able to learn about the life of the Mayans, the customs and traditions of the tribe, as well as incredible achievements in art, mathematics, astronomy and, of course, in writing. However, over time, the southern part of the Mayan settlements gradually became empty, and the inhabitants moved to the north; Thus, the tribes actively populated the Yucatan Peninsula, where a new period of Mayan development began, although less productive in comparison with the classical one. And in the 8th-9th century. AD the tribes finally abandoned their cities and the Mayan civilization completely fell into decline. It's hard to imagine that such a great civilization simply abandoned its cities, which were built over many centuries...What made the Mayans leave? Scientists are still scratching their heads over this, presenting numerous theories to the public. But the real reason is still unknown. And most likely this mystery will remain forever with the collapsed civilization, and modernity is no longer destined to find the key to this riddle...

Chapter 1. Mayan Life

As mentioned above, the Mayan settlements occupied vast territories, but they did not have a single community: the settlements were divided into several cities, the most influential of which were the cities of Tikal and Calakmul. (Later with the arrival of the great rulers Pakal and his son Chan-Bahlum (600 before 700) the city of Palenque also became one of the most powerful superpowers.) These cities always competed with each other and carried out frequent raids on each other. The main purpose of these raids was not the destruction of cities or the capture of captive commoners. The warriors put at the head of their campaign the capture of the ruler or members of the royal family, in order to subsequently sacrifice them to the gods, whom the Mayans worshiped and tried in every possible way to appease through sacrifices. The reason why the Mayans sacrificed people of the royal family is simple - for them, power was divine, and therefore the rulers were almost equated with gods; hence the choice: royal, semi-divine blood was the most precious thing that the tribes had, and that they could sacrifice to the gods. To sacrifice captives, the Mayans had a special building - a tall structure (like all Mayan buildings, in the shape of a pyramid) with high and steep steps. This layout of the staircase implied the humiliation of the captives before the invading tribe: because of the height of the building, it was clearly visible who was being led, and how they stumbled and fell an infinite number of times on the way to the top of the pyramid, on the way to their death... As a rule, prisoners were not killed immediately . The Mayans were a bloodthirsty and cruel people. They tortured captured residents of other cities, tearing out their nails, cutting off their fingertips, and not to mention numerous bloodlettings. At first glance it may seem that the Mayans did not value human life, but this is not at all the case. Human life and blood were considered sacred. In my opinion, it is difficult to explain their excessive cruelty, however, letting blood fits well into the canons of the faith of the ancient Mayans.

Part 2. Ritual game

By the way, not only residents of neighboring cities were sacrificed, but also their fellow tribesmen. Scientists have discovered special fields that were intended for a ball game called "pok-ta-pok" by the Mayans. This was not a game in the modern sense, however, both spectators and fans were present at the game. The game of ball was closely associated with the gods of the underworld, who, according to Mayan legends, were avid players. The exact rules of this game have not been preserved to this day; moreover, they changed from region to region and from time to time. What remained unchanged was that the game was not entertaining, but ritual in nature and was directly related to human sacrifice. At different times, either the players of the defeated team, or the winning team, or only their captains were sacrificed - there is no consensus in the sources on this matter. In any case, the participant's sacrifice was a great honor for him and his family and was viewed with pride. Large stadiums for this game were built only in large religious centers. In some places, stone friezes depicting players have been preserved. For example, the frieze at Chichen Itza shows the captain of the winning team holding the head of a defeated opponent in his hands. The game itself could cost a person his life or make him crippled. The game was played with a heavy rubber ball, the weight of which could reach 4 kg. A blow from such a ball, with proper acceleration, could easily kill a person. Therefore, the players had special equipment that reliably protected their bodies. You could hit the ball with your thigh, elbows or knees, but in no case with your feet or hands. Spaniards who witnessed the game for the first time noted that some of the injuries suffered by the players were so serious that they required surgical treatment. The modern version of the game, ulama, is more like volleyball. Each team - from 2 to 5 people - is on its own part of the field, the players throw the ball to each other until it falls to the ground. The stadium was a narrow field, bounded by two walls, with a greater or lesser slope, from which the ball bounced. Heavy stone rings were fixed on these walls, which had to be hit with a ball. This was not so easy to do, because... the diameter of the ring was only slightly larger than the diameter of the ball, and they hung quite high. Each unsuccessful throw was counted as a miss. The first team to throw the ball into the hoop was considered the winner. The players' equipment consisted of a loincloth, with a leather pad to protect the hips, or a corset. A special device in the form of a clamp was attached to the belt, which served to hit the ball hard. The weight of the collars could reach up to 30 kg, although it is believed that such heavy collars were not used for playing, but were worn only for ritual purposes. Sometimes players used knee pads and bandages at the elbow. In some images you can see lush feather headdresses on the heads of the players. Presumably, their purpose was also ritual. Some sources say that the game was played just for fun. Everyone took part in it, including women and even children.

Mayan rituals also included voluntary bloodletting in order to appeal to the gods so that they would listen to the one who appealed.

The main sources when considering the problem of bloodletting rituals in the classical period (250-900) are images on monuments and various objects: vessels, small plastic and ritual instruments, but above all the hieroglyphic texts accompanying them. (Here I would like to explain why bloodletting was considered so important in the ritual life of the tribes. Initially, the Mayans believed that the gods created them from their blood, so letting blood, thus returning it to the gods, was considered gratitude for the creation. Most often, women passed through the tongue a rope with spikes, and the men pierced their foreskin. The Mayans used the spines of a stingray, as well as the spines and spine of a porcupine fish, primarily because these spines contained poison. contains tetrodotoxin poison, which has a direct effect on the central and peripheral nervous system. It causes spasms of the respiratory tract and a sharp decrease in blood pressure, which in most cases leads to death - 60% among people who consumed this fish as food. bone piercings were used and are often found in burials and cenotes, sometimes covered with hieroglyphic texts containing the phrase "u-ch"ik baak, which can be translated as "piercing bone".

Another important Mayan ritual was the funeral of rulers and people from the royal family: after death, their bodies were smeared with a red liquid - “Cinnabar”, which has a specific red color, and then a jade mask was put on the face of the deceased. Thus, when tombs and remains were discovered, scientists could draw conclusions about the origin of the person to whom the remains belonged.

The history of the Mayan civilization remains shrouded in mystery. But science has managed to find out that many of the secrets are nothing more than a myth. Representative of the international publishing house National Geografic Michael Shapiro destroyed the legends.

1. The Mayan civilization suddenly disappeared

Just as the fall of the Roman Empire did not mean the end of the existence of Roman citizens, so did the disappearance of the Mayan state, which reached the height of its development in the 9th century. BC does not mean that the indigenous population disappeared without a trace.

The Mayans persevered through five centuries of Spanish occupation, maintaining their cultural traditions, ancestral agrarian way of life and festival customs.

More than 20 provinces of Guatemala are inhabited by individual Mayan peoples. Each of them has its own culture, clothing and language. So for thousands of years the Mayans lived outside their empire.

2. The Mayans didn’t believe in the end of the world

In films about the apocalypse we are told what the Mayans prophesied. This moment occurred in the year 5000 according to the Mayan calendar. But this is not true.

Representatives of the ancient civilization celebrated the beginning of the next cycle, which will begin in 5125, just as we celebrated the onset of the new millennium. No records have been found that indicate the end of times. In any case, they hoped that with the new era, humanity would enter an era of higher consciousness, increased peace and a deep understanding of other peoples inhabiting the earth.

3. The ancient Mayans came up with the concept of zero.

The Mayan calendar is based on the value zero. However, the idea of ​​zero is probably not a secret of the Mayan civilization. It originated in. And only in the 4th century. BC. this invention became associated with the Mayan peoples.

Zero in the writing of civilization was represented by a symbol similar to a shell. The Mayan numerical system was based on 20 factors. Their numbers consisted of whole units: 1, 20, 400, etc. To write, for example, the number 403, they used one 400, plus zero ones 20, and three ones 1. This is how the concept of zero arose.

4. The Mayan city remained underground

Major sites built by the Mayan peoples, like Palenque in southern Mexico and in the north, have been found during archaeological excavations. Others remain buried underground. In Guatemala, mounds have been found that may contain great temples.

The least visited attractions are at El Mirador and Auxactun, north of Tikal in the Guatemalan jungle. In Belize, there are the open ruins of Altun Ha, 30 km from Belize City.

In all these places you can see pyramids.

5. The Mayans invented saunas

This is truly the secret of the Mayan civilization, the existence of which is difficult to argue. The ancient Mayans used a stone sauna known as a temazcal in the Yucatan Peninsula. Mayan saunas, "sweathouses", are still a popular holiday destination for tourists. They are offered to guests of hotels and resorts around the world.

The ancient cities of the Mayans were built from mud bricks - mud. They were used for spiritual satisfaction and health. Steam was made by mixing water with fire. Sometimes leaves were added to the water. Sweat cleansed my skin and mind.

6. The Mayan Empire was destroyed by a volcano

A number of volcanoes in Guatemala remain active. In the city of Antigua Guatemala, you can see the eruption of the Fuego volcano, throwing down columns of smoke and dropping fiery lava. The spectacle is especially magnificent at night. Not far from Antigua, about 1.5 hours away, is the Rasahua volcano, which has been erupting regularly for several years.

Antigua sells day tours to walk a few meters from the lava.

7. The Mayans crossed white-water rivers in boats

The mystery of the Mayan civilization about the construction of reliable rafts has long been solved. Guatemala offers world-class Rio Cahabon boating. During the trip, you can get a lot of impressions and get acquainted with the area where the ancient Mayans lived - the jungle on the river bank.

The Usumacinta River straddles the borders of Mexico and Guatemala. While walking along the river, the group stops to explore the ruins of Piedras Negras.

8. Sports were popular in the Mayan civilization.

Ball courts were found in cities. Competitions were held among teams. The soccer ball was made of hard rubber. Some scientists believe that a human skull was placed inside the ball.

Cultural and entertainment events ended with human sacrifices. This was probably the fate that awaited the losers. Guides to Tikal claim that the winner was sacrificed.

“It was considered an honor to die in Tikal,” say local guides.

9. Mayan pyramids were built with astronomical events in mind

It's no secret that the Mayans were versed in astronomy. Many structures such as El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcan) and the pyramids at Chichen Itza reflect astronomical events.

This secret of the Mayan civilization connects the history of the people with the neighboring state - ancient Egypt. , along the northern edge of Kukulkan there passes a shadow similar to a snake. This phenomenon is caused by the passage of a ray of sun through the nine terraces of the building.

The El Caracol Temple at Chichen Itza is known as an observatory associated with the orbit of Venus. The main staircase is directed towards the northern part of Venus, and the corners of the building correspond to the position of the sun on the summer solstice at sunrise and the winter solstice at sunset.

10. No one knows what caused the decline of the Mayan civilization

From the end of the 8th to the beginning of the 9th century. BC. Mayan cities fell into disrepair. People died or went to other settlements. Culture, highly organized irrigation, agriculture, astronomy and construction technology were forgotten. Why, no one knows the answer.

Scientists have put forward several hypotheses regarding the death of ancient civilization:
Confrontation between Mayan city-states.
Overpopulation, which led to environmental degradation, soil depletion and climate change.
Strengthening the influence of the ruling class, the clergy and the ruling elite.

What actually caused the decline of developed civilization, archaeologists still find it difficult to say.

Ancient Mayan civilization lasted for more than 2000 years, from about 300 AD. to 900 AD is known as the classical period of its heyday. Modern descendants of the Mayans live in Mesoamerica: the southern states of Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador.

The Maya are a well-known civilization due to their widespread development at that time. The Mayans developed a complex understanding of astronomy. They also learned to grow corn, beans, squash, and cassava (an edible tropical root crop) in inhospitable locations; how to build complex cities without modern technology; how to communicate with each other using written language; and how to measure time using not one, but two complex calendar systems. T Mayan technology was more advanced.

Mayan writing consists of about 800 glyphs or symbols. Each of them represented a word or syllable and could be combined with others in an almost infinite number of ways. As a result, there were three or four different ways to write almost every word in the Mayan language.

Scientific discoveries and Mayan technologies

The Mayans strongly believed in the influence of the cosmos in everyday life. Consequently, the knowledge and understanding of celestial bodies was advanced for its time: for example, they were able to predict solar eclipses. They also used astrological cycles to assist in planting and harvesting and developed two calendars similar to those we use today. Known calendars are based on two overlapping annual cycles: a 260-day sacred year and a secular 365-day year.

The scientific discoveries and technology of the Maya people brought an expanded understanding of astronomy to temples and other religious structures. The pyramids at Chichen Itza in Mexico, for example, are arranged according to the position of the sun during the spring and autumn equinoxes. At sunset, these pyramids cast a shadow over themselves. The shadow forms the snake's body; the sun sets on the snake and slides down to the ground.

Maya technology

Surprisingly, the ancient Mayans managed to build complex temples with the necessary tools: metal and a wheel. However, they use a number of other "modern" innovations and tools, especially in the arts and crafts. For example, they built sophisticated looms to weave cloth and developed paints made from mica, a mineral that is still in technological use today.

Rubber vulcanization - a Mayan invention

Until recently, people believed that vulcanization of rubber—combining with other materials to make it stronger—was discovered by Americans in the 19th century. However, historians now believe that the Mayan production of rubber products was about 3,000 years old. Researchers believe the Mayans discovered this process by accident during a religious ritual in which they combined wood and rubber wood. Once they realized how strong and versatile this new material was, the Mayans began using it in a variety of ways to make waterproof fabrics, glue, book bindings, figurines, and a large rubber ball used in ritual games.

Decline of the Maya people

Despite remarkable scientific achievements, Mayan civilization and technology began to decline by the early 11th century. The causes and extent of the decline are the subject of some debate today, including that they were not of this civilization. Some believe the Mayans were wiped out by war, while others attribute their demise to disruption of trade routes. Others believe their agricultural practices and dynamic growth have led to climate change and deforestation.

Although much of what remains of the ancient Mayan culture was incorporated by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century, the scientific achievements of the Mayan people's heritage live on in the discoveries that archaeologists continue to make about this amazing ancient culture.

The Mayan peoples inhabited the territories:

• in the west - from the Mexican state of Tabasco,
• in the east - to the western outskirts of Honduras and El Salvador.

This area is divided into three areas clearly distinguishable by climatic and cultural-historical characteristics.

1. The northern one - the Yucatan Peninsula, formed by a limestone platform - is characterized by an arid climate, poor soil and the absence of rivers. The only sources of fresh water are karst wells (cenotes).
2. The central region covers the Mexican states of Tabasco, part of Chiapas, Campeche, Quintana Roo, as well as Belize and the Guatemalan department of Petén. This area is made up of lowlands, abounding in natural reservoirs and crossed by the large rivers Usumacinta, Motagua and others. The territory is covered with tropical rainforests with a diverse fauna, a rich selection of edible fruits and plants. Here, as in the north, there are practically no mineral resources.
3. The southern region includes mountain ranges up to 4000 m high in the state of Chiapas and the Guatemalan highlands. The territory is covered with coniferous forests and has a temperate climate. Various minerals are found here - jadeite, jade, obsidian, pyrite, cinnabar, which were valued by the Mayans and served as trade items.

The climate of all regions is characterized by alternating dry and rainy seasons, requiring precision in determining the time of sowing, which is impossible without the development of astronomical knowledge and the calendar. The fauna is represented by ungulates (peccaries, tapirs, deer), feline predators, varieties of raccoons, hares and reptiles.

History of the Mayan civilization

Periodization of Mayan history

• …-1500 BC - Archaic period
• 1500-800 BC. - Early formative
• 800-300 BC. - Medium formative
• 300 BC - 150 AD - Late formative
• 150-300 - Protoclassical
• 300-600 - Early Classic
• 600-900 - Late Classical
• 900-1200 - Early Postclassic
• 1200-1530 - Late Postclassic

The problem of settling the Maya region is still far from a final solution. Some evidence suggests that the Proto-Maya came from the north, moving along the Gulf Coast, displacing or intermingling with local populations. Between 2000-1500 BC. began to settle throughout the zone, breaking up into different language groups.

In the VI-IV centuries. BC. In the Central region, the first urban centers appear (Nakbe, El Mirador, Tikal, Vashaktun), distinguished by the monumentality of their buildings. During this period, the urban layout took on the appearance characteristic of Mayan cities - an articulation of independent, astronomically oriented acropolises adapted to the relief, representing a rectangular area surrounded by temple and palace buildings on platforms. Early Mayan cities formally continued to maintain a clan-fratric structure.

Classical period - I (III) -X centuries. n. BC - the time of the final formation and flowering of the Mayan culture. Throughout the Maya territory, urban centers with subordinate territories of the city-state appeared. As a rule, the cities in these territories were no further than 30 km from the center, which was apparently due to communication problems due to the lack of draft animals in the region. The population of the largest city-states (Tikal, Calakmul, Caracol) reached 50-70 thousand people. The rulers of large kingdoms bore the title of Ahav, and the centers subordinate to them were ruled by local rulers - Sahals. The latter were not appointed officials, but came from local ruling families. There was also a complex palace hierarchy: scribes, officials, masters of ceremonies, etc.

Despite the changing structure of social relations, power in city-states was transferred according to a tribal pattern, which was expressed in the magnificent cult of deified royal ancestors, in addition, power could also belong to women. Since Mayan acropolises and cities were of a “genetic” nature and were associated only with specific representatives of one or another clan, this was the reason for the periodic abandonment of individual acropolises and the final “abandonment” of Mayan cities in the 10th century, when the invading invaders destroyed members of the elite related by blood relationship with ancestors buried within the acropolises (pyramids). Without such a connection, the acropolis lost its significance as a symbol of power.

Social structure

Evidence of a tendency towards centralization of power in the 3rd-10th centuries. - usurpation by the rulers of the capital centers of the ritual ball game, the emergence of which dates back to the times of intra-tribal rotation of power and collective decision-making. The aristocracy concentrated in its hands the trade in valuable items, cocoa beans and minerals used for making jewelry and handicrafts - obsidian, jadeite, etc. Trade routes ran both over land and along rivers and seas, going far into foreign territories.

Hieroglyphic texts mention priests divided into

• priest-ideologists,
• priest-astronomers,
• "seeing" and
• soothsayers.

Psychedelic practices were used for divination.

Detail of a sacred fresco from San Bartolo (Guatemala). OK. 150 BC The painting depicts the birth of the cosmos and proves the divine right of the ruler.

The basis of the society was made up of free community members who settled in family households, sometimes near cities, and sometimes at a considerable distance from them, which is due to the nature of land use and the need to change (due to a decrease in yield) the sown plots cultivated by the family every 4 years.

In their free time from sowing and harvesting, community members participated in public works and military campaigns. Only in the postclassical period did a special layer of semi-professional Kholkan warriors begin to emerge, who demanded “services and offerings” from the community.

Mayan texts often mention military leaders. Wars were in the nature of short-term raids to ruin the enemy and sometimes capture prisoners. Wars in the region were constant and contributed to the restructuring of political power, strengthening some cities while weakening and subjugating others. There is no data on slavery among the Classic Mayans. If slaves were used, it was as household servants.

There is no information about the Mayan legal system.

Crisis of the 10th century - political and cultural restructuring

By the 10th century Active migrations begin in the Central region, while the population decreases sharply, by 3-6 times. Urban centers fall into disrepair, political life comes to a standstill. There is almost no construction going on. The guidelines in ideology and art are changing - the cult of the royal ancestors is losing its primary importance, while the justification for the power of the ruler is the origin of the legendary “Toltec conquerors”.

In Yucatan, the crisis of the end of the classical period did not lead to a decline in population and the fall of cities. In a number of cases, hegemony moves from old, classical centers to new ones. The processes of social and political change after the destruction of the traditional Mayan system of urban government by the Toltecs are observed in the postclassic period in the example of such cities as

• Chichen Itza of the Toltecs in the X-XIII centuries;
• Mayapan during the reign of the Cocoms in the 13th-15th centuries;
• postclassical Mani, under whose command in the 16th century. there were 17 towns and villages.

By the time the Spaniards appeared in the southeast of Yucatan, the state of Acalan (Maya-Chontal) had formed, where the capital city of Itzamkanak had already emerged with 76 subordinate cities and villages. It contains an administration, temples, 100 houses made of stone, 4 quarters with their patrons and their temples, a council of quarter heads.

Confederations of cities with their own capital became a new type of political-territorial entities that controlled the political, administrative, religious and scientific spheres of life. In the spiritual sphere, the concept of reincarnation goes into the realm of religious abstraction, which allows cities (emerging capitals) to retain their functions even after a change of power. Internecine wars become the norm, the city acquires defensive characteristics. At the same time, the territory is growing and the control and protection system is becoming more complex.

The Yucatan Mayans had slavery and trade in slaves was developed. Slaves were used for carrying loads and domestic work, but were more often acquired for sacrifice.

In mountainous Guatemala, with the onset of the Postclassic period, the “Maya-Toltec style” spread. Obviously, the infiltrated nahuacultural groups were, as in Yucatan, assimilated by the local population. As a result, a confederation of 4 Mayan tribes was formed - Kaqchiquel, Quiche, Tzutihil and Rabinal, which subjugated in the XIII-XIV centuries. various Mayan and Nahua-speaking tribes of highland Guatemala. As a result of civil strife, the confederation soon disintegrated, almost simultaneously with the invasion of the Aztecs and the appearance at the beginning of the 16th century. Spaniards.

Economic activity

The Mayans practiced extensive slash-and-burn agriculture with regular rotation of plots. The main crops were maize and beans, which formed the basis of the diet. Of particular value were cocoa beans, which were also used as a unit of exchange. They grew cotton. The Mayans had no domestic animals, with the exception of a special breed of dogs, which were sometimes used as food, poultry - turkeys. The function of the cat was performed by the nose, a type of raccoon.

In the classical period, the Mayans actively used irrigation and other methods of intensive agriculture, in particular “raised fields” similar to the famous Aztec chinampas: artificial embankments were created in river valleys, which rose above the water during floods and retained silt, which significantly increased fertility. To increase productivity, the plot was simultaneously sown with maize and legumes, which created the effect of fertilizing the soil. Fruit trees and chile peppers, which are an important component of the Indian diet, were planted near the dwelling.

Land ownership continued to remain communal. The institution of the dependent population was underdeveloped. The main area of ​​its application could be plantations of perennial crops - cocoa, fruit trees, which were privately owned.

Mayan civilization culture

Scientific knowledge and writing

The Mayans developed a complex picture of the world, which was based on ideas about reincarnation and the endless alternation of cycles of the universe. For their constructions, they used precise mathematical and astronomical knowledge, combining the cycles of the Moon, Sun, planets and the time of the precessional revolution of the Earth.

The complication of the scientific picture of the world required the development of a writing system based on the Olmec. The Mayan writing was phonetic, morphemic-syllabic, involving the simultaneous use of about 400 characters. One of the earliest inscriptions is from 292 AD. BC - found on a stela from Tikal (No. 29). The bulk of the texts were applied to monumental monuments or small plastic objects. A special source is represented by texts on ceramic vessels.

Mayan books

Only 4 Mayan manuscripts have survived - “codes”, representing long strips of paper folded like an accordion (pages) from ficus bark (“Indian paper”), dating back to the Postclassic period, obviously copied from more ancient samples. Regular copying of books was probably practiced in the region from ancient times and was associated with the difficulties of storing manuscripts in a humid, hot climate.

The Dresden manuscript is a strip of “Indian paper” 3.5 m long, 20.5 cm high, folded into 39 pages. It was created earlier than the 13th century. in Yucatan, from where it was taken to Spain as a gift to Emperor Charles V, from whom it came to Vienna, where in 1739 the librarian Johann Christian Götze acquired it from an unknown private person for the Dresden Royal Library.

The Parisian manuscript is a strip of paper with a total length of 1.45 m and 12 cm in height, folded into 11 pages, from which the initial pages have been completely erased. The manuscript dates back to the period of the Cocom dynasty in Yucatan (XIII-XV centuries). In 1832 it was acquired by the Paris National Library (kept here today).

The Madrid manuscript was written no earlier than the 15th century. It consists of two fragments without beginning and end of “Indian paper”, 13 cm high, with a total length of 7.15 m, folded into 56 pages. The first part was acquired in Extremadura by José Ignacio Miró in 1875. Since it was suggested that it once belonged to the conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, hence its name - “Code of Cortez”, or Cortesian. The second fragment was acquired by Brasseur de Bourbourg from Don Juan Tro y Ortolano in 1869 and was called Ortolan. The pieces joined together became known as the Madrid Manuscript, and it has since been kept in Madrid in the Museum of the Americas.

Grolier's manuscript was in a private collection in New York. These are rather fragments of 11 pages without beginning or end, dating back to the 13th century. Apparently this Mayan manuscript, the origin of which is unknown, was composed under strong Mixtec influence. This is evidenced by the specific recording of numbers and features of the images.

Texts on Mayan ceramic vessels are called “clay books.” The texts reflect almost all aspects of the life of ancient society, from everyday life to complex religious ideas.

The Mayan script was deciphered in the 50s of the 20th century. Yu.V. Knorozov based on the method of positional statistics he developed.

Architecture

Mayan architecture reached its peak in the classical period: ceremonial complexes, conventionally called acropolises, with pyramids, palace buildings and ball stadiums were actively erected. The buildings were grouped around a central rectangular square. The buildings were erected on massive platforms. During construction, a “false vault” was used - the space between the roof masonry gradually narrowed upward until the walls of the vault closed. The roof was often crowned with massive ridges decorated with stucco. Construction techniques could vary from stone masonry to concrete-like masses and even bricks. The buildings were painted, often red.

There are two main types of buildings - palaces and temples on pyramids. Palaces were long, usually one-story buildings, standing on platforms, sometimes multi-tiered. At the same time, the passage through the enfilades of rooms resembled a labyrinth. There were no windows and light came in only through doorways and special ventilation holes. Perhaps the palace buildings were identified with long cave passages. Almost the only example of buildings with several floors is the palace complex in Palenque, where a tower was also erected.

The temples were built on pyramids, the height of which sometimes reached 50-60 m. Multi-stage staircases led to the temple. The pyramid embodied the mountain in which the legendary cave of our ancestors was located. Therefore, an elite burial could occur here - sometimes under the pyramid, sometimes in its thickness, and more often immediately under the floor of the temple. In some cases, the pyramid was built directly over a natural cave. The structure on top of the pyramid, conventionally called a temple, did not have the aesthetics of an internal very limited space. The doorway and the bench placed against the wall opposite this opening had functional significance. The temple served only to mark the exit from the cave of the ancestors, as evidenced by its external decoration and sometimes its connection with the intra-pyramidal burial chambers.

In the Postclassic period, a new type of square and structures appeared. The ensemble is formed around the pyramid. Covered galleries with columns are being built on the sides of the square. In the center there is a small ceremonial platform. Platforms for risers appear with poles studded with skulls. The structures themselves are significantly reduced in size, sometimes not corresponding to human growth.

Sculpture

The friezes of buildings and massive roof ridges were covered with stucco made of lime mortar - a piece. The lintels of temples and the steles and altars erected at the foot of the pyramids were covered with carvings and inscriptions. In most areas they were limited to relief techniques; only in Copan did round sculpture become widespread. Palace and battle scenes, rituals, faces of deities, etc. were depicted. Like buildings, inscriptions and monuments were usually painted.

Monumental sculpture also includes Mayan steles - flat, about 2 m high monoliths, covered with carvings or paintings. The highest steles reach 10 m. Steles are usually associated with altars - round or rectangular stones installed in front of the steles. Steles with altars were an improvement on Olmec monuments and served to convey the three-level space of the universe: the altar symbolized the lower level - the transition between worlds, the middle level was occupied by the image of events occurring with a specific character, and the upper level symbolized the rebirth of a new life. In the absence of an altar, the subject depicted on it was compensated by the appearance on the stele of a lower, “cave” level, or a relief niche, inside which the main image was placed. In some cities, roughly rounded flat altars placed on the ground in front of the stele, or stone figured images of reptiles, as for example in Copan, became widespread.

The texts on the steles could be dedicated to historical events, but most often they were of a calendar nature, marking the periods of the reign of one or another ruler.

Painting

Works of monumental painting were created on the interior walls of buildings and burial chambers. The paint was applied either over wet plaster (fresco) or over dry ground. The main theme of the paintings is mass scenes of battles, celebrations, etc. The most famous are the Bonampak paintings - buildings of three rooms, the walls and ceilings of which are entirely covered with paintings dedicated to victory in military operations. Mayan fine art includes polychrome painting on ceramics, which is distinguished by its great variety of subjects, as well as drawings in “codes.”

Dramatic art

The dramatic art of the Maya came directly from religious ceremonies. The only work that has come down to us is the drama of Rabinal-Achi, recorded in the 19th century. The plot is based on the capture of a Quiché warrior by warriors of the Rabinal community. The action develops in the form of a kind of dialogue between the prisoner and the other main characters. The main poetic device is rhythmic repetition, traditional for oral Indian folklore: the participant in the dialogue repeats the phrase spoken by his opponent, and then pronounces his own. Historical events - the wars between Rabinal and the Quiché - are superimposed on a mythological basis - the legend of the abduction of the goddess of waters, the wife of the old god of rain. The drama ended with the real sacrifice of the main character. Information has reached us about the existence of other dramatic works, as well as comedies.

The Mayans lived in one of the most comfortable parts of our planet. They did not need warm clothing; they were content with thick and long strips of fabric, which they wrapped around their bodies in a special manner. They ate mainly corn and what they got in the jungle, cocoa, fruits, and game. They did not keep domestic animals either for transportation or for food. The wheel was not used. According to modern concepts, it was the most primitive of the Stone Age civilizations; they were far from Greece and Rome. However, the fact remains that archaeologists have confirmed that during the mentioned period, these people managed to build several dozen amazing cities over a fairly large area, far from each other. The basis of these cities is usually a complex of pyramids and powerful stone buildings, completely dotted with strange mask-like icons and various lines.

The tallest of the Mayan pyramids are no lower than the Egyptian ones. It still remains a mystery to scientists: how these structures were built!

And why were the cities of pre-Columbian civilization, so perfect in beauty and sophistication, suddenly unexpectedly abandoned, as if on command, by their inhabitants at the turn of 830 AD?

At this very time, the center of civilization went out, the peasants who lived around these cities scattered in the jungle, and all priestly traditions suddenly degenerated sharply. All subsequent surges of civilization in this region were characterized by sharp forms of power.

However, let's return to our topic. The same ones Mayan who left their cities, fifteen centuries before Columbus, invented an accurate solar calendar and developed hieroglyphic writing, and used the concept of zero in mathematics. The Classic Mayans confidently predicted solar and lunar eclipses and even predicted the Day of Judgment.

How did they do it?

To answer this question, you and I will have to look beyond what is allowed by established prejudices and doubt the correctness of the official interpretation of some historical events.

Maya - Geniuses of the pre-Columbian era

During his fourth American voyage in 1502, Columbus landed on a small island located off the coast of what is now the Republic of Honduras. Here Columbus met Indian merchants sailing on a large ship. He asked where they were from, and they, as Columbus recorded, answered: “From Mayan Province" It is believed that the generally accepted name of the civilization “Maya” is derived from the name of this province, which, like the word “Indian,” is, in essence, an invention of the great admiral.

The name of the main tribal territory of the Maya proper - the Yucatan Peninsula - is of similar origin. Having dropped anchor off the coast of the peninsula for the first time, the conquistadors asked the local inhabitants what the name of their land was. The Indians answered all questions: “Siu tan,” which meant “I don’t understand you.” From then on, the Spaniards began to call this large peninsula Siugan, and later Siutan became Yucatan. In addition to Yucatan (during the conquest, the main territory of this people), the Mayans lived in the mountainous region of the Central American Cordillera and in the tropical jungle of the so-called Meten, a lowland located in what is now Guatemala and Honduras. The Mayan culture probably originated in this area. Here, in the Usumasinta River basin, the first Mayan pyramids were erected and the first magnificent cities of this civilization were built.

Mayan territory

By the beginning of the Spanish conquest in the 16th century Mayan culture occupied a vast and diverse territory in terms of natural conditions, which included the modern Mexican states of Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo, as well as all of Guatemala, Belize (former British Honduras), the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras Borders of the Mayan civilization area in I millennia, apparently, more or less coincided with those mentioned above. Currently, most scientists distinguish within this territory three large cultural-geographical regions, or zones: Northern, Central and Southern.

Map of the location of the Mayan civilization

The northern region includes the entire Yucatan Peninsula - a flat limestone plain with shrubby vegetation, intersected here and there by chains of low rocky hills. The poor and thin soils of the peninsula, especially along the coast, are not very favorable for maize farming. In addition, there are no rivers, lakes or streams; The only source of water (except for rain) are natural karst wells - senates.

The central region occupies the territory of modern Guatemala (Peten Department), the southern Mexican states of Tabasco, Chiapas (eastern) and Campeche, as well as Belize and a small area in western Honduras. It is an area of ​​tropical rainforest, low rocky hills, limestone plains and extensive seasonal wetlands. There are many large rivers and lakes: rivers - Usumacinta, Grijalva, Belize, Chamelekon, etc., lakes - Isabel, Peten Itza, etc. The climate is warm, tropical, with an average annual temperature of 25 above zero Celsius. The year is divided into two seasons: the dry season (lasts from the end of January to the end of May) and the rainy season. In total, precipitation falls here from 100 to 300 cm per year. Fertile soils and the lush splendor of tropical flora and fauna greatly distinguish the Central Region from the Yucatan.

The Central Maya region is not only central geographically. This is at the same time the very territory where Mayan civilization reached the peak of its development in the 1st millennium. Most of the largest urban centers were then located here: Tikal, Palenque, Yaxchilan, Naranjo, Piedras Negras, Copan, Quiriguaidr.

The Southern region includes the mountainous regions and the Pacific coast of Guatemala, the Mexican state of Chiapas (its mountainous part), and certain areas of El Salvador. This territory is distinguished by an unusual diversity of ethnic composition, a variety of natural and climatic conditions and significant cultural specificity, which significantly distinguishes it from other Mayan regions.

These three areas differ not only geographically. They are also different from each other in their historical destinies.

Although all of them were inhabited from very early times, there certainly was a kind of passing of the baton of cultural leadership between them: the Southern (mountain) region apparently gave a powerful impetus to the development of classical Maya culture in the Central region, and the last glimpse of the great Mayan civilization is associated with the Northern region (Yucatan).