Domestic policy of the first Kiev princes. Domestic and foreign policy of the first Kiev princes (Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav)

At the turn of the VIII - IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs, on the basis of tribal and intertribal unions, pre-state formations arose - tribal reigns. Researchers traditionally identify two centers of statehood in Russia - the Middle Dnieper with Kiev and the northwestern lands with Novgorod. According to sources of eastern origin, on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state, there were three large associations of Slavic tribes: Kuyaba (Kiev), Slavia (Novgorod) and Artania (Ryazan, or Chernigov).

Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state

growth of productive forces

widespread agriculture using iron tools

the collapse of the tribal community and its transformation into a neighboring

growth in the number of cities, the need to protect the territory from external danger and regulate social relations

deepening social stratification among the Eastern Slavs

the need to unite politically the territory on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks"

In the process of the origin of Russia, according to the annals, it is customary to single out two key dates - 862(calling of the Varangians) and 882 (unification of Kiev and Novgorod). The legend about the calling of the Varangian brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, contained in The Tale of Bygone Years, formed the basis of the so-called Norman theory that has developed in historical science. The emergence of the latter is connected with the studies of the German scientists Bayer, Miller and Schlozer, who worked in Russia in the 18th century. Based on the stories contained in the chronicles about the calling of the Varangians to Russia as rulers, scientists concluded that the state of the Eastern Slavs owes its origin to foreigners. Hence, conclusions were drawn about the inability of the Russian people to independent historical development, the formation of statehood. The Norman theory was criticized by such well-known Russian historians as M.V. Lomonosov, D.I. Ilovaisky, V.G. Vasilevsky. In the camp of the Normanists there were such equally famous researchers as N.M. Karamzin, M.P. Pogodin, S.M. Solovyov. Most Soviet scientists criticized the Norman theory. It should be noted that the ideas of Normanism, statements about the non-Slavic origin of Russia are multifaceted. Not all adherents of this theory focused on the alleged inability of the Slavs to create their own state.

3. The policy of the first Kiev princes. Baptism of Russia.

According to the chronicle, in 862 three Varangian brothers were called - Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. After the death of the last two, Rurik established himself. Little is known about his life. It is with his name that the origin of the dynasty of Russian princes, who ruled the country until the end of the 16th century - the Rurikovichs, is connected. In 879, after the death of Rurik, power passed to his relative, or governor, Prince Oleg. He ruled in Novgorod. In 882, he seized Kiev by cunning, imposing tribute on the subject territories. This event became one of the key events in the formation of the Old Russian state.

Igor Stary (912-945) - the third Russian prince, the son of Rurik and the actual founder of the dynasty of Kiev princes Rurikovich. The main direction of his activity was to protect the country from the raids of the Pechenegs and preserve the unity of the state. He died in the Drevlyansk land while trying to re-collect tribute ("on the field").

Olga (945-964) - the wife of Prince Igor, the first female ruler of the Russian state (regent for her son Svyatoslav). In 946, she established the first legislative procedure for collecting tribute from the population of the Kievan state. In 955 (957) she made a trip to Constantinople, where she secretly converted to Christianity.

Svyatoslav (964-972) - went down in history as one of the most warlike princes. He spent almost the entire period of his reign in conquest campaigns. Together with his large army, he began to annex the lands of the Vyatichi, defeated the Khazar Khaganate. He made campaigns against the Danube Bulgaria and Byzantium.

A significant strengthening of the power of the Old Russian state is associated with the reign of Prince Vladimir (980 - 1015). He paid more attention to domestic policy issues - he built a network of defensive fortresses on the border with the steppe. Vladimir limited the rights of the allied principalities and took away the reins of government from the local nobility, introduced a single legal procedure, and established a tax system.

The main merit of Vladimir was the baptism of Russia. Almost until the end of the 10th century, paganism remained the dominant religion among the Slavs. With the complication of public life, the social structure, paganism became obsolete, as a religious system it did not reflect ideological changes, was not able to consolidate society. Power and society acquired an early feudal character, and spiritual and moral values ​​were built in accordance with tribal relations. In the very first year of his reign, Vladimir tried to carry out a religious reform. The cult of the main retinue god - Perun was affirmed. This was supposed to symbolize the idea of ​​the supremacy of the prince, the idea of ​​the integrity of the state. However, pagan beliefs, even if somewhat changed, still did not correspond to the ideology of the growing state, and soon the prince abandoned the reform.

The main reason for choosing Orthodoxy was the need for a close alliance with Byzantium.

The generally accepted date for the adoption of Christianity is 988. However, other dates are also reported in the sources - 982, 989, 990, etc. The new religion was not established immediately. The population of a number of cities resisted the actions of the authorities. Many, having adopted Christianity, continued to believe in pagan gods, worship idols and perform the old rites. Dual faith remained a characteristic feature of the spiritual life in Russia for a long time. Nevertheless, the establishment of Christianity as the state religion was an event of great historical significance.

Consequences of adopting Christianity:

Russia strengthened its economic, political, dynastic and cultural ties with Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe.

The consolidation of the Old Russian people accelerated.

The social differentiation of ancient Russian society deepened. The central power of the Kiev prince was strengthened.

After the death of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich in 1015, a long bloody war began between his numerous sons. In 1019, Yaroslav (later called the Wise) became the great prince of Kiev. The construction of defensive fortifications on the border with the steppe continued. In 1036, Russian troops inflicted a decisive defeat on the Pechenegs near Kiev. Yaroslav strengthened the dynastic ties of Russia with other countries. An important step was taken towards the independence of the church organization. Previously, the metropolitans in Russia were Greeks sent from Byzantium. In 1051, for the first time, a church leader, Russian by origin, Hilarion, was elected metropolitan. During the reign of Yaroslav, new cities were built, schools were opened, literacy expanded, and the first libraries appeared.

One of his main merits was the introduction of a single code of laws - "Russian Truth". Russian Truth is the most valuable source for characterizing the social system of Ancient Russia. On the example of Yaroslav's Pravda, we see how the norms of customary law and legal institutions of the period of early statehood coexisted.

Russian Pravda mentions various categories of the feudally dependent population - people (free community members), smerds (not free or semi-free princely tributaries), purchases (those who went into debt bondage, received a certain loan (“kupa”), for which they had to work for the master) , Ryadovichi (who entered into an agreement (row), outcasts (who lost their social status). Slaves are also mentioned - servants, serfs. The main source of slavery was captivity. Slaves were completely powerless. For the murder of his serf, the master did not answer to the court, but was only church repentance.

The mechanism for the transfer of grand ducal power was not yet sufficiently clear and harmonious. Power was inherited from father to son, by seniority, by will, and also as a result of calling the prince by the inhabitants of a particular city - the center of this principality. Sometimes princely power was seized and held by force. This testified to the unstable, transitional nature of the whole society. However, the state power in Russia XI - XII centuries. strengthened considerably. The land with the population working on it acquired great value. The possession of such lands promised not only wealth, but also power. The first stage of subjugation by the prince, boyars, warriors of the population working on the land was polyudye, later - regular and orderly collection of tribute from the subject population. Tribute was the first form of dependence of the population on the state in Russia. The lands conquered and annexed to Kiev became tributaries, and the people who lived on them became tributaries. The basis of the principle of taxation of tribute was the presence of arable land in the peasant economy.

The question of the time of the emergence of feudal landownership in Russia is controversial. Some researchers attribute it to the 9th-10th centuries, but most authors believe that the feudal patrimony (hereditary land ownership) took shape around the 11th century. Since that time, their own land holdings, personal large farms of boyars and warriors have been formed. The Grand Dukes gave them the right to collect tribute - this was one of the ways to enrich the ancient Russian elite.

At the head of the Old Russian state was a hereditary prince. He was a legislator, military leader, supreme judge and addressee of tribute. The prince was surrounded by a squad. The most respected, senior warriors made up the permanent council, the “thought” of the prince. They were called boyars. Some of them may have had their own squad. The terms “lads”, “chad”, “gridi” were used to designate the younger squad. The princely retinue, detached from the community, dividing tribute among themselves, represented the emerging class of feudal lords. Three main power elements were formed in society: princely power, squad (boyars), people's council.

According to the sources of history, the Old Russian state belongs to the early feudal powers. At the same time, the old communal formations and the new ones, which the lands of Russia borrowed from other peoples, are closely intertwined.

Oleg became the first prince in Russia. He was from the Varangians. The state he created was, in fact, only a very peculiar association of settlements. He became the first prince of Kiev and "under his hand" were many vassals - local princes. During his reign, he wanted to eliminate petty principalities, creating a single state.

The first princes in Russia played the role of commanders and not only controlled the course of the battle, but also personally took part in it, and quite actively at that. Power was hereditary, through the male line. After Prince Oleg, Igor the Old (912-915) ruled. It is believed that he is the son of Rurik. After that, power passed to Prince Svyatoslav, who was still a small child and, therefore, his mother, Princess Olga, became regent under him. During the years of reign, this woman was rightfully considered a reasonable and fair ruler.
Historical sources indicate that around the year 955 the princess goes to Constantinople, where she accepts the Christian faith. When she returned, she officially transferred power to her grown son, who was the ruler from 957 to 972.

Svyatoslav's goal was to bring the country closer to the level of world powers. During his militant reign, this prince crushed the Khazar Khaganate, defeated the Pechenegs near Kiev, carried out two military campaigns in the Balkans.

After his death, Yaropolk (972-980) was the heir. He began a quarrel with his brother - Oleg for power and began to wage war against him. In this war, Oleg died, and his army and lands passed into the possession of his brother. After 2 years, another prince - Vladimir decided to go to war against Yaropolk. Their fiercest battle took place in 980 and ended with the victory of Vladimir. Yaropolk was killed after a while.

Domestic politics

The internal policy of the first Russian princes was carried out as follows:
The king had the main advisers - the squad. It was divided into an older one, whose members were boyars and rich men, and a younger one. The latter included children, grids and youths. The prince consulted with them on all matters.

The princely squad carried out a secular court, collecting court fees and tribute. In the process of development of feudalism, most combatants were the owners of various lands. They enslaved the peasants and thus created their own profitable economy. The squad was an already formed feudal class.

The prince's power was not unlimited. The people also took part in the administration of the state. Veche, the people's assembly, existed in the period from the 9th-11th centuries. Even much later, people gathered to make important decisions in some cities, including Novgorod.

To strengthen the positions of the Russian state, the first legal norms were adopted. Their earliest monuments were the agreements of the princes of Byzantium, which date back to 911-971. They contained laws on prisoners, the right to inheritance and property. The first set of laws is "Russian Truth".

Foreign policy of Russia

The main tasks of the Russian princes in foreign policy were:
1. Protection of trade routes;
2. Making new alliances;
3. Fight against nomads.
Trade relations between Byzantium and Russia were of particular state importance. Any attempts by Byzantium to limit the trade opportunities of an ally ended in bloody clashes. In order to achieve trade agreements with Byzantium, Prince Oleg laid siege to Byzantium and demanded the signing of an appropriate agreement. It happened in 911. Prince Igor in 944 concluded another commercial agreement, which has survived to this day.

Byzantium constantly sought to push Russia against other states in order to weaken it. Thus, the Byzantine prince, Nicephorus Foka, decided to use the troops of the Kievan prince Svyatoslav, so that he went to war against the Danube Bulgaria. In 968, he occupied many cities along the banks of the Danube, including Pereyaslavets. As can be seen, the Byzantine failed to weaken the Russian positions.

The success of Svyatoslav offended Byzantium, and she sent the Pechenegs to capture Kiev, whose military forces were activated as a result of a diplomatic agreement. Svyatoslav returned to Kiev, liberated it from the invaders and went to war against Byzantium, making an alliance with the king of Bulgaria - Boris.

Now the fight against Russian power was led by the new king of Byzantium, John Tzimiskes. His squads were already defeated in the first battle with the Russians. When Svyatoslav's troops reached Andrianapolis itself, Tzimiskes made peace with Svyatoslav. The last major campaign against Byzantium took place in 1043, according to historical sources, due to the murder of a Russian merchant in Constantinople.

The bloody war continued for several years, until peace was signed in 1046, which resulted in the marriage between the son of the Russian prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh.

The activities of the first Russian princes were subordinated to two main goals: to extend their power to all East Slavic tribes and to establish trade.

Oleg was the first prince of Russia. He established trade relations with Byzantium, seized the trade route "Their Varangians to the Greeks." In 907 and 911, he made 2 campaigns against the Byzantines, the result of which was a trade agreement that was beneficial for Russian merchants.

In 912 he dies and Igor begins to rule. First of all, he subjugated the Drevlyans. Later, in 941 and 944, he made 2 campaigns against Byzantium, the first was not successful, and during the second, a trade agreement was concluded with Byzantium. In 945, the Drevlyans killed the prince. Igor twice tried to collect tribute from them, for which he paid. His wife Olga and young son Svyatoslav remain in Kiev. From 945 to 957, Olga rules, taking the regency over her son. She cruelly avenged the Drevlyans for the death of her husband. After that, the princess accurately set the amount of tribute, determined the places for collecting tribute - graveyards. She also changed the procedure for collecting tribute, now it was collected by people specially appointed by the prince. It was the first reform in Russia. In 957 Olga accepts Christianity in Byzantium, and upon her return she hands over the reign to her son.

Svyatoslav annexed the lands of the Vyatichi to Russia, made 2 successful campaigns against the Khazars (965-969), defeating their two main cities of Semender and Sarkel. Later, the prince captured the mouth of the Kuban River and the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. On the Taman Peninsula, he formed a new principality - Tmutarakan. In 968, at the request of the Byzantine king, he opposed the Bulgars, captured a number of their cities, including Pereslavets. In the spring of 971, he fought with the Byzantines. The war was difficult for both sides and a peace treaty was signed. Svyatoslav returns to Kiev, having abandoned the Tbulgar lands. During the return home, in 972, Svyatoslav, along with his squad, was killed by the Pechenegs.

The campaigns of the princes significantly expanded the territory of Russia. They also helped to establish trade with Byzantium.

2. Acceptance of Christianity in Russia causes and significance

In 988, under Vladimir I, Christianity was adopted as the state religion. Christianity, as the chronicler narrates, has been spread in Russia since ancient times. It was preached by the Apostle Andrew the First-Called - one of the disciples of Christ. The stories about the subsequent baptisms of certain groups of the population of Russia (at the time of Askold and Dir, Cyril and Methodius, Princess Olga, etc.) show that Christianity gradually entered the life of ancient Russian society.

Historians have always faced questions: what is the reason for the Christianization of Russia and why did Prince Vladimir choose Orthodoxy? The answer to these questions should be sought both in the personality of Prince Vladimir and in the analysis of the socio-political and spiritual processes that were taking place at that time in Kievan Rus.

Prince Vladimir was a major statesman of his time. He had long been aware that pagan polytheism did not meet the political and spiritual needs of the state. In 980, Vladimir undertook the first religious reform, the essence of which was an attempt to merge the heterogeneous gods of all the tribes of Kievan Rus into a single pantheon headed by the princely god Perun. However, the attempt to spread the cult of Perun everywhere failed. The pagan god was opposed by other pagan gods, who were worshiped by the Slavic and non-Slavic tribes of Kievan Rus. Paganism did not ensure the ethno-cultural unity of all the tribes and lands of Kievan Rus. Historical practice has shown that this unity is best ensured by the so-called world religions: Christianity and Islam.

The Orthodox version of the adoption of Christianity claims that this event was preceded by a procedure of “choosing faiths”. Kievan Rus, in its geopolitical position, was in close contact with the Khazar Kaganate, which was dominated by Judaism, the Arab-Muslim world, which professed Islam, Orthodox Byzantium and the Catholic states of Western Europe. Vladimir allegedly sent his ambassadors to all these regions to determine the best faith. Having completed the task of the Grand Duke, the ambassadors returned and unequivocally gave preference to Orthodoxy because of the beauty of its churches and the spiritual uplift that they felt in them.

However, these circumstances did not play a major role in the adoption of Orthodoxy. The decisive factor in turning to the religious and ideological experience of Byzantium was the traditional political, economic, cultural ties of Kievan Rus with Byzantium. In the system of Byzantine statehood, spiritual power occupied a subordinate position from the emperor. This corresponded to the political aspirations of Prince Vladimir. Not the last role was played by dynastic considerations. The adoption of Orthodoxy opened the way for the marriage of Vladimir with the sister of the Byzantine emperor, Princess Anna - and thus further strengthened friendly relations with such an influential power as Byzantium. Friendship with Byzantium not only opened the way to expanding trade, economic and cultural ties, but also to some extent protected Russia from the raids of numerous nomadic tribes that inhabited the Great Steppe to the north of the Black Sea, which Byzantium constantly used in the fight against its northern neighbor :

And one more moment played its role in the choice of Orthodoxy. In Catholicism, worship took place in Latin, the texts of the Bible and other liturgical books - in the same language. Orthodoxy did not bind itself by linguistic canons. In addition, during this period, Orthodoxy was established in Slavic Bulgaria. Thus, the liturgical books and the entire rite were linguistically related to the population of Kievan Rus. Through Bulgarian liturgical books and Bulgarian clergy, Orthodoxy began to establish itself in the spiritual life of Russian society.

Vladimir, having baptized himself, baptized his boyars, and then the whole nation. The spread of Christianity often met with resistance from the population, who revered their pagan gods. Christianity established itself slowly. On the outlying lands of Kievan Rus, it was established much later than in Kiev and Novgorod.

The adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox tradition has become one of the determining factors in our further historical development.

Christianity has created a broad basis for the unification of all the peoples of this society. The border between the Rus and the Slav, the Finno-Ugric and the Slav, etc., disappeared. All of them were united by a common spiritual basis. Christianity gradually began to supplant pagan rites and traditions, and on this basis the humanization of society took place. A significant cultural upheaval was the introduction of a single script. The adoption of Christianity contributed to the formation of urban culture in a predominantly agricultural country. Under the influence of Christians, temple construction, book publishing, literature, history and philosophy developed,

On the basis of Christianization, a new type of statehood is emerging in Kievan Rus, which to a large extent acquires a Byzantine form. A close relationship is being established between secular and ecclesiastical authorities, with the primacy of the former over the latter. In the first half of the 11th century, the formation of church jurisdiction begins. Matters of marriage, divorce, family, some inheritance cases are transferred to the jurisdiction of the church. By the end of the XII century. the church began to supervise the service of weights and measures. A significant role is assigned to the church in international affairs related to the deepening of relations with Christian states and churches.

In general, thanks to the adoption of Christianity, Kievan Rus was included in the European Christian world, and therefore became an equal element of the European civilizational process. However, the adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox version had its negative consequences. Orthodoxy contributed to the isolation of Russia from Western European civilization. With the fall of Byzantium, the Russian state and the Russian Orthodox Church were, in fact, isolated from the rest of the Christian world. It is precisely this circumstance that can partly explain the refusal of Western Europe to come to the aid of Russia in its confrontation with the infidels (Tatar-Mongols, Turks and other conquerors).

The goals of the foreign policy of the Old Russian state in the 9th-early 12th centuries. consisted in expanding their territorial possessions, spreading political influence and strengthening trade relations with neighbors. In an effort to conquer the neighboring East Slavic tribes, the Kiev princes came into conflict with the Khazars. The main directions of the foreign policy of the Kiev princes were advancement to the Danube, mastery of the trade route along the Black Sea and the Crimean coast, which led to the struggle of the Russian princes with Byzantium. In 907 Prince Oleg organized a campaign by sea against Constantinople. The Byzantines were forced to ask the Russians to make peace and pay an indemnity. According to the peace treaty of 911, Russia received the right of duty-free trade in Constantinople.

In the reign of Igor, two new campaigns against Byzantium were undertaken. During the first campaign in 941, the Russians passed the Black Sea coast from the Bosporus to Paphlagonia, but in the decisive battle the Byzantines defeated the Russian fleet. The second campaign in 944 ended with a new peace treaty, less beneficial for Russia than the treaty of 911.

The Kiev princes undertook campaigns to more distant lands - beyond the Caucasus Range, to the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea (campaigns in 880, 909, 910, 913-914). In 913, one of the islands near Baku was occupied by Russian troops. During the campaign in 944, the Russians captured the important center of Transcaucasia, the city of Berdaa, but could not gain a foothold here.

The active foreign policy of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich was aimed at access to the sea, mastering the Volga route, strengthening at the mouth of the Don and expanding ties with Iran and Central Asia. Campaigns of the troops of Svyatoslav in the 60s of the X century. ended with the subjugation of the Volga Bulgaria, the defeat and destruction of the Khazar Khaganate. In the North Caucasus, the lands of Ossetians and Circassians were subordinated. The power of Russia spread to the shores of the Kerch Strait, where the Tmutarakan principality was founded with the capital city of Tmutarakan, which became a major trading harbor.

At the beginning of the X century. Byzantium tried to push Russia and Bulgaria. Byzantium sought to weaken Bulgaria, trying to divert the attention of Russia from Chersonese. Prince Svyatoslav intervened in the Byzantine-Bulgarian struggle in order to expand the possessions of Russia. As a result of the first campaign of Svyatoslav in the Balkans in 968, his troops occupied a number of cities along the Danube.

Due to the attack of the Pechenegs on Kiev, Svyatoslav's troops were forced to return from Bulgaria to Russia. During the second trip to the Balkans in 969, Svyatoslav acted in alliance with the Bulgarians. Russian-Bulgarian troops, joined by the Hungarians, entered Philippopolis (Plovdiv), occupied Thrace, passed through Macedonia. Only by gathering large forces, the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes managed to take Great Preslav. After a bloody battle at Dorostol, Svyatoslav's troops left the Balkans. On the way back in 972, the prince was killed by the Pechenegs. The failure of the Russian campaign led to the fact that Eastern Bulgaria fell under the rule of Byzantium.

Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich in the south of the country erected a line of fortifications along the rivers Stugna, Irpen, Trubezh and others, and the city fortifications of Kiev were reconstructed to protect against the Pechenegs.

During the reign of Yaroslav (1019-1054), the strengthening and further expansion of the borders of the Old Russian state continued. In the Baltic States in 1030, the city of Yuryev (Tartu) was built. In 1031, the Cherven cities of Southwestern Russia were reattached. The Kiev prince subjugated the Chernigov and Tmutarakan lands (1036). In 1038-1040. Russian troops made campaigns in Lithuanian lands. In 1040, the Old Russian state annexed Southern Finland. In 1036, the Pechenegs attacked Kiev. Having suffered a severe defeat from the Russians, they went beyond the Danube.

The struggle of Russia against the raids of nomads was of great importance for the security of the countries of Western Asia and Europe. The international authority of Russia is evidenced by dynastic marriages concluded by the Russian princes. One of the daughters of Yaroslav the Wise was married to the French king Henry I, the other - to the Norwegian king Harald the Bold, the third - to the Hungarian king Andrew (András). Vladimir Monomakh on his mother's side was the grandson of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine X Monomakh. Vladimir Monomakh's sister Eupraxia-Adelgeida married the German emperor Henry IV, and his daughter Euphemia married the Hungarian king Koloman, etc. Vladimir Monomakh himself was married to Guide, the daughter of the English king Harold.

The international significance of Russia is evidenced by extensive trade relations. Russia traded with Germany, Norway, Sweden, Hungary, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Poland, France, England, Byzantium and Arab countries.

Prince Rurik. Since 862, Rurik, according to the "Tale of Bygone Years", established himself in Novgorod. According to tradition, from that time they lead the beginning of Russian statehood. (In 1862, a monument to the millennium of Russia was erected in the Novgorod Kremlin, sculptor M.O. Mikeshin.) Some historians believe that Rurik was a real historical figure, identifying him with Rurik Friesland, who, at the head of his squad, repeatedly made trips to Western Europe . Rurik settled in Novgorod, one of his brothers, Sineus, on the White Lake (now Belozersk, Vologda region), the other, Truvor, in Izborsk (near Pskov). Historians consider the names of the "brothers" to be a distortion of the ancient Swedish words: "sineus" "with their families", "truvor" a faithful squad. This usually serves as one of the arguments against the authenticity of the Varangian legend. Two years later, according to chronicles, the brothers died, and Rurik handed over the most important cities to his husbands. Two of them, Askold and Dir, who made an unsuccessful campaign against Byzantium, occupied Kiev and freed the people of Kiev from the Khazar tribute.

After the death of Rurik in 879, who did not leave behind an heir (according to another version, he was Igor, which subsequently gave grounds in historical literature to call the dynasty of Kievan princes "Rurikovich", and Kievan Rus "the power of Rurikovich"), the leader seized power in Novgorod one of the Varangian detachments Oleg (879-911).

Prince Oleg. Oleg undertook a campaign against Kiev, where Askold and Dir reigned at that time (some historians consider these princes to be the last representatives of the Kiya family). Posing as merchants, Oleg's warriors killed Askold and Dir with the help of deceit and captured the city. Kiev became the center of the united state.

Russia's trading partner was the mighty Byzantine Empire. Kiev princes repeatedly made campaigns against their southern neighbor. So, back in 860, Askold and Dir undertook this time a successful campaign against Byzantium. (Even more famous was the agreement between Russia and Byzantium, concluded by Oleg.

In 907 and 911, Oleg and his army fought twice successfully under the walls of Constantinople (Tsargrad). As a result of these campaigns, treaties were concluded with the Greeks, drawn up, as the chronicler wrote, "for two charats", i.e. in two copies in Russian and Greek. This confirms that Russian writing appeared long before the adoption of Christianity. Before the advent of Russkaya Pravda, legislation was also taking shape (the treaty with the Greeks mentioned the Russian Law, with which the inhabitants of Kievan Rus were judged).

According to the agreements, Russian merchants had the right to live for a month at the expense of the Greeks in Constantinople, but they were obliged to walk around the city without weapons. At the same time, the merchants had to carry written documents with them and warn the Byzantine emperor in advance about their arrival. Oleg's agreement with the Greeks made it possible to export the tribute collected in Russia and sell it in the markets of Byzantium.

Under Oleg, the Drevlyans, northerners, and Radimichi were included in his state and began to pay tribute to Kiev. However, the process of incorporating various tribal unions into Kievan Rus was not a one-time action.

Prince Igor. Oleg's death in Kiev, Igor (912-945) began to reign. During his reign in 944, an agreement with Byzantium was confirmed on less favorable terms. Under Igor, the first popular indignation described in the annals took place - the uprising of the Drevlyans in 945. The collection of tribute in the conquered lands was carried out by the Varangian Sveneld with his detachment. Their enrichment caused a murmur in Igor's squad. "Prince, Igor's warriors said, the soldiers of Sveneld were richly dressed in weapons and ports, and we were impoverished. Let's go collect tribute, and you will get a lot and we."

Having collected tribute and sent carts to Kiev, Igor returned with a small detachment, "desiring more estate." The Drevlyans gathered at a veche (the presence of their own principalities in separate Slavic lands, as well as veche gatherings, indicates that the formation of statehood continued in Kievan Rus). The veche decided: "If a wolf gets into the sheep, then he will drag everything, if not to kill him." Igor's squad was killed, and the prince was executed.

Duchess Olga. After the death of Igor, his wife Olga (945-964) cruelly avenged the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband. The first embassy of the Drevlyans, which offered Olga instead of Igor as the husband of their prince Mal, was buried alive in the ground, the second was burned. At the funeral feast (feast), on the orders of Olga, drunken Drevlyans were killed. According to the chronicle, Olga suggested that the Drevlyans give three pigeons and three sparrows from each yard as a tribute. A burning tow with sulfur was tied to the legs of the pigeons; when they flew into their old nests, a fire broke out in the Drevlyansk capital. As a result, the capital of the Drevlyans Iskorosten (now the city of Korosten) burned out. According to the annals, about 5 thousand people died in the fire.

Having brutally avenged the Drevlyans, Olga was forced to go to streamline the collection of tribute. She established the "lessons" of the amount of tribute and the "graveyards" of the place of tribute collection. Along with the camps (places where there was shelter and the necessary food supplies were stored and where the princely squad stopped during the collection of tribute), graveyards appeared, apparently fortified courts of princely stewards, where tribute was brought. These graveyards then became the supporting centers of princely power.

During the reign of Igor and Olga, the lands of the Tivertsy, the streets, and finally the Drevlyans were annexed to Kiev.

Prince Svyatoslav. Some historians consider Svyatoslav (964-972), the son of Olga and Igor, a talented commander and statesman, others argue that he was an adventurer prince who saw the goal of his life in war. Svyatoslav was faced with the task of protecting Russia from nomadic raids and clearing trade routes to other countries. Svyatoslav coped with this task successfully, which confirms the validity of the first point of view.

Svyatoslav, in the course of his numerous campaigns, began to annex the lands of the Vyatichi, defeated the Volga Bulgaria, conquered the Mordovian tribes, defeated the Khazar Khaganate, successfully fought in the North Caucasus and the Azov coast, having captured Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula, repelled the onslaught of the Pechenegs. He tried to bring the borders of Russia closer to Byzantium and joined the Bulgarian-Byzantine conflict, and then led a stubborn struggle with the Emperor of Constantinople for the Balkan Peninsula. During the period of successful hostilities, Svyatoslav even thought about moving the capital of his state on the Danube to the city of Pereyaslavets, where, as he believed, “goods from different countries would converge”; silk, gold, Byzantine utensils, silver and horses from Hungary and the Czech Republic, wax, honey, furs and captive slaves from Russia. However, the struggle with Byzantium ended unsuccessfully, Svyatoslav was surrounded by a hundred thousandth Greek army. With great difficulty he managed to escape to Russia. A non-aggression pact was concluded with Byzantium, but the Danubian lands had to be returned.

On the way to Kiev, Svyatoslav in 972 was ambushed by the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids and was killed. The Pecheneg Khan ordered to make a cup from the skull of Svyatoslav, bound with gold, and drank from it at feasts, believing that the glory of the murdered would pass to him. (In the 30s of the 20th century, during the construction of the Dneproges, steel swords were discovered at the bottom of the Dnieper, which, presumably, belonged to Svyatoslav and his combatants.)

Prince Vladimir I (Red Sun). Vladimir I. After the death of Svyatoslav, his eldest son Yaropolk (972-980) became the Grand Prince of Kiev. His brother Oleg received the Drevlyane land. The third son of Svyatoslav Vladimir, born from his slave Malusha, the housekeeper of Princess Olga (Dobrynya's sister), received Novgorod. In the civil strife that began five years later between the brothers, Yaropolk defeated the Drevlyansk squads of Oleg. Oleg himself died in battle.

Vladimir, together with Dobrynya, fled "over the sea", from where he returned two years later with a hired Varangian squad. Yaropolk was killed. Vladimir occupied the grand-ducal throne.

Under Vladimir I (980-1015), all the lands of the Eastern Slavs united as part of Kievan Rus. The Vyatichi, lands on both sides of the Carpathians, Chervlensky cities were finally annexed. There was a further strengthening of the state apparatus. The princely sons and senior warriors received the largest centers in control. One of the most important tasks of that time was solved: ensuring the protection of Russian lands from the raids of numerous Pecheneg tribes. For this purpose, a number of fortresses were built along the rivers Desna, Osetr, Suda, Stugna. Apparently, here, on the border with the steppe, there were "heroic outposts" that protected Russia from raids, where the legendary Ilya Muromets and other epic heroes stood for their native land.

In 988, under Vladimir I, Orthodox Christianity was adopted as the state religion.

Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Twelve sons of Vladimir I from several marriages ruled the largest volosts of Russia. After his death, the throne of Kiev passed to the eldest in the family Svyatopolk (1015-1019). In the civil strife that broke out, on the orders of the new Grand Duke, the favorite brothers of Vladimir and his squads, Boris Rostovsky and Gleb Muromsky, were innocently killed. Boris and Gleb were canonized by the Russian Church as saints. Svyatopolk was nicknamed the Accursed for his crime.

Svyatopolk the Accursed was opposed by his brother Yaroslav, who reigned in Novgorod the Great. Shortly before the death of his father, Yaroslav made an attempt not to submit to Kiev, which indicates the emergence of tendencies towards the fragmentation of the state. Relying on the help of Novgorodians and Varangians, Yaroslav, in the most severe strife, managed to expel the "Holy Damned" son-in-law of the Polish king Boleslav the Brave - from Kiev to Poland, where Svyatopolk went missing.

Under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), Kievan Rus reached its highest power. He, like Vladimir I, managed to protect Russia from Pecheneg raids. In 1030, after a successful campaign against the Baltic Chud, Yaroslav founded the city of Yuryev (now Tartu in Estonia) near Lake Peipsi, establishing Russian positions in the Baltic. After the death of his brother Mstislav Tmutarakansky in 1035, who had owned the lands east of the Dnieper since 1024, Yaroslav finally became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.

Under Yaroslav Murom, Kiev turned into one of the largest cities in Europe, competing with Constantinople. According to reports, there were about four hundred churches and eight markets in the city. According to legend, in 1037, on the site where Yaroslav had previously defeated the Pechenegs, the St. Sophia Cathedral was erected - a temple dedicated to wisdom, the divine mind that rules the world. At the same time, under Yaroslav, the Golden Gate was built in Kiev - the main entrance to the capital of Ancient Russia. Extensive work was carried out on the correspondence and translation of books into Russian, teaching literacy.

The growth of the power and authority of Russia allowed Yaroslav to appoint for the first time the statesman and writer Hilarion of Russian origin as the Metropolitan of Kiev. The prince himself was called, like the Byzantine rulers, the king, as evidenced by the inscription of the XI century. on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral. Above the sarcophagus, made of a whole piece of marble, in which Yaroslav is buried, one can read a solemn record "about the Assumption (death. - Auth.) of our Tsar." 32

Under Yaroslav the Wise, Russia achieved wide international recognition. The largest royal courts of Europe sought to intermarry with the family of the Kiev prince. Yaroslav himself was married to a Swedish princess. His daughters were married to the French, Hungarian and Norwegian kings. Yaroslav's granddaughter married the German emperor. Yaroslav's son Vsevolod married the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. Hence the nickname that Vsevolod's son received, Vladimir Monomakh. Metropolitan Hilarion rightly wrote about the Kievan princes: "They were rulers not in a bad country, but in a Russian which is known and heard in all the ends of the earth."

Socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus. Land was in those days the main wealth, the main means of production.

A common form of organization of production has become a feudal patrimony, or fatherland, i.e. paternal property passed from father to son by inheritance. The owner of the estate was a prince or boyar. In Kievan Rus, along with the princely and boyar estates, there was a significant number of communal peasants who were not yet subject to private feudal lords. Such peasant communities independent of the boyars paid tribute in favor of the state to the Grand Duke.

All the free population of Kievan Rus was called "people". Hence the term, meaning the collection of tribute, "polyudye". The bulk of the rural population, dependent on the prince, was called "smerds". They could live both in peasant communities, which carried duties in favor of the state, and in estates. Those smerds who lived in estates were in a more severe form of dependence and lost their personal freedom. Purchasing was one of the ways to enslave the free population. Ruined or impoverished peasants borrowed from the feudal lords part of the harvest, livestock, and money. Hence the name of this category of population purchases. The purchase had to work for and obey its creditor until it paid back the debt.

In addition to smerds and purchases, there were slaves in the princely and boyar estates, called serfs or servants, who were replenished both from among the captives and from among the ruined tribesmen. The slave-owning way of life, as well as the remnants of the primitive system, were quite widespread in Kievan Rus. However, the dominant system of production relations was feudalism.

The process of economic life of Kievan Rus is poorly reflected in historical sources. The differences between the feudal system of Russia and the "classical" Western European models are obvious. They lie in the huge role of the public sector in the country's economy, the presence of a significant number of free peasant communities that were feudally dependent on the grand duke's power.

As noted above, in the economy of Ancient Russia, the feudal structure existed along with slavery and primitive patriarchal relations. A number of historians call the state of Russia a country with a multiform, transitional economy. Such historians emphasize the early class nature of the Kievan state, close to the barbarian states of Europe.

"Russian Truth". Tradition connects the compilation of "Russian Truth" with the name of Yaroslav the Wise. This is a complex legal monument, based on customary law and on previous legislation. For that time, the most important sign of the strength of a document was a legal precedent and a reference to antiquity. Although Russkaya Pravda is attributed to Yaroslav the Wise, many of its articles and sections were adopted later, after his death. Yaroslav owns only the first 17 articles of "Russian Pravda" ("Ancient Truth" or "Yaroslav's Truth"),

"Pravda Yaroslava" limited the blood feud to the circle of the closest relatives. This suggests that the norms of the primitive system already existed under Yaroslav the Wise as remnants. Yaroslav's laws sorted out disputes between free people, primarily among the princely squad. Novgorod men began to enjoy the same rights as Kiev.

Popular uprisings in the 60-70s. 11th century Mass popular demonstrations swept through Kievan Rus in 1068-1072. The most powerful was the uprising in Kiev in 1068. It broke out as a result of the defeat suffered by the sons of Yaroslav (Yaroslavichi) - Izyaslav (d. 1078), Svyatoslav (d. 1076) and Vsevolod (d. 1093) from the Polovtsy.

In Kiev, on Podil, in the handicraft part of the city, a veche took place. The Kievans asked the princes to issue weapons in order to fight the Polovtsy again. The Yaroslavichi refused to hand over their weapons, fearing that the people would use them against them. Then the people defeated the yards of the rich boyars. The Grand Duke Izyaslav fled to Poland and only with the help of the Polish feudal lords returned to the throne of Kiev in 1069. Mass popular uprisings took place in Novgorod, in the Rostov-Suzdal land.

"Pravda Yaroslavichi" abolished blood feuds and increased the difference in payment for the murder of various categories of the population, reflecting the state's concern for the protection of property, life and property of the feudal lords. The largest fine was paid for the murder of senior combatants, firefighters, princely porches, whose life was estimated at 80 hryvnias. The life of the free population - people (husbands) - was estimated at 40 hryvnias; the life of village and ratay elders, as well as artisans, was estimated at 12 hryvnias; the life of smerds who lived in estates, and slaves in 5 hryvnias.

The most popular in Russia at that time was Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh. On his initiative, in 1097, the Lubech Congress of Princes took place. It was decided to stop the strife and proclaimed the principle "Everyone keeps his fatherland." However, the strife continued even after the Lyubech Congress.

An external factor, namely the need for an otior that appeared by the middle of the 11th century. in the southern Russian steppes to the nomadic Polovtsy, still kept Kievan Rus from disintegrating into separate principalities for some time. The fight was not easy. Historians count about 50 Polovtsian invasions from the middle of the 11th century to the beginning of the 13th century.

Prince Vladimir Monomakh. After the death of Svyatopolk in 1113, an uprising broke out in Kiev. The people smashed the courts of princely rulers, large feudal lords and usurers. The uprising raged for four days. The Kievan boyars summoned Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) to the grand-ducal throne.

Vladimir Monomakh was forced to make certain concessions, issuing the so-called "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh", which became another part of the "Russian Truth". The charter streamlined the collection of interest by usurers, improved the legal status of the merchants, and regulated the transition to servitude. Monomakh gave a great place in this legislation to the legal status of purchases, which indicates that purchasing became a very common institution and the enslavement of smerds proceeded at a more decisive pace.

Vladimir Monomakh managed to keep the entire Russian land under his rule, despite the fact that signs of fragmentation intensified, which was facilitated by a lull in the fight against the Polovtsians. Under Monomakh, the international prestige of Russia was strengthened. The prince himself was the grandson of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. His wife was an English princess. It is no coincidence that Ivan III, the Grand Duke of Moscow, who liked to "stir up the chroniclers", often referred to the reign of Vladimir Monomakh. The appearance in Russia of the crown of Russian tsars, the cap of Monomakh, and the succession of the power of Russian tsars from the emperors of Constantinople were associated with his name. Under Vladimir Monomakh, the initial Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled. He entered our history as a major politician, military leader and writer.

The son of Vladimir Monomakh, Mstislav I the Great (1125-1132), managed to keep the unity of the Russian lands for some time. After the death of Mstislav, Kievan Rus finally disintegrated into a dozen and a half principalities-states. A period has come that has received in history the name of the period of fragmentation or specific period.