Lexicology is the science that focuses on the vocabulary of a particular language. It has its own laws and categories. This science deals with various aspects of words, as well as their functions and development.

concept

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language and its features. The subject of this section of linguistics is the following:

• Functions of lexical units.
• The problem of the word as a basic constituent element of the language.
• Types and types of lexical units.
• The structure of the vocabulary of the language.

This is not a complete list of what lexicology studies. This science deals with the replenishment and expansion of the vocabulary, and also considers the connections and contradictions between lexical units.

Object of study

The word and its meaning is the basis for many sciences. Morphology deals with these issues, as well as various areas of word formation. However, if in these sciences words are a means of studying grammatical structures or studying various models for different word-formation options, then what lexicology studies is used directly to learn the specifics of the words themselves. Lexical units are considered not just as a set of letters and sounds, but are an integral system that has its own connections, functions, categories and concepts. This is the object of study of lexicology. She considers not individual words, but the entire vocabulary as something whole and inseparable.

This approach has its own characteristics. This allows categorizing not only words, but also set phrases that have a certain analytical role.

word problem

The lexicology of the modern Russian language focuses on the object and subject of its study. Since the word is considered as a certain unit that has connections between its form and content, it is considered in three main aspects:

• Structural. The form of the word, its structure and constituent components are studied.
• Semantic. The meaning of lexical units is considered.
• Functional. The role of words in speech and in the general structure of the language is investigated.

If we talk about the first aspect, then lexicology is a science that establishes specific criteria for determining the difference and identity of individual words. To do this, lexical units are compared with phrases, and an analytical structure is developed that allows you to establish the invariants of the word.

As for the semantic aspect, this is a separate science - semasiology. It studies the relationship between a word and a particular object. This is important for lexicology. It studies the word and its meaning, as well as its individual categories and types, which allows us to distinguish such concepts as monosimy (uniqueness) and polysimy (polysemy). Lexicology also deals with the study of the causes that lead to the appearance or loss of a word of its meaning.

The functional aspect considers a lexical unit as an object that is associated with other similar elements and builds a whole language system. Here the role of the interaction of vocabulary and grammar is important, which, on the one hand, support, and on the other hand, limit each other.

The concept of vocabulary

Lexicology considers words as a system that consists of several subsystems. Lexical units form groups that are different in volume, form and content. This is part of what lexicology studies. Vocabulary is studied simultaneously in two aspects: as a group relationship between individual units and their correct arrangement in relation to each other. Thanks to this, vocabulary can be divided into separate categories. For example, homonyms, paronyms, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, etc.

Additionally, almost any section of linguistics, including Russian or English lexicology, studies more voluminous groupings of words, which are called fields. Usually this is built on the basis of the core of the field, for example, a certain number of keywords, and the boundaries themselves, which are various paradigmatic, semantic, grammatical or other types of relationships with given lexical units.

Sections of lexicology

Like any other science, lexicology has its own system of disciplines that are responsible for certain aspects of its object and subject of study:

• Semasiology. Deals with the meanings of words and phrases.
• Onomasiology. Studying the procedure for naming objects and phenomena.
• Etymology. Explores the origin of words.
• Onomastics. Deals with proper names. This applies to both names of people and geographical names.
• Stylistics. Studying the meaning of words and expressions of a connotative nature.
• Lexicography. Engaged in ways of organizing and compiling dictionaries.
• Phraseology. Explores phraseological units and persistent expressions.

Sections of lexicology have their own categories, as well as the object and subject of study. In addition, some types of this science are distinguished. In particular, we are talking about general, particular, historical, comparative and applied lexicology. The first type is responsible for the general laws of vocabulary, including its structure, stages of development, functions, etc. Private lexicology deals with the study of a particular language. The historical type is responsible for the development of words in connection with the history of the names of objects and phenomena. Comparative lexicology examines words in order to identify kinship between different languages. The latter type is responsible for such processes as the culture of speech, translation features, linguistic pedagogy and lexicography.

Categories of lexical items

The vocabulary of any language is diverse and heterogeneous. Accordingly, there are categories that have their own distinctive features and characteristics. Russian lexicology foresees the following subspecies:

• By scope: commonly used words and lexical units that are used in special situations (science, poetry, vernacular, dialects, etc.).
• By emotional load: neutral and emotionally charged units.
• According to historical development: neologisms and archaisms.
• According to its origin and development: internationalisms, borrowings, etc.
• By functionality - active and passive lexical units, as well as occasionalisms.

Given the constant development of the language, the boundaries between words are fuzzy and they can move from one group to another.

Problems

Like any other science, lexicology deals with certain problems. Modern experts distinguish the following:

• The frequency of words in the text.
• The difference between lexical units in writing and in oral speech.
• The possibilities of words that allow you to create new names for objects and phenomena.
• Changing vocabulary values.

Science also studies word compatibility options at different levels: semantic and lexical.

Ways to replenish vocabulary

Lexicology deals with the study of variants of nominations. This is understood as various ways and methods of expanding the vocabulary. For this, both the internal resources of a particular language and the attraction of lexical units from other languages ​​can be used. There are the following ways to replenish the vocabulary:

• Word formation is the creation of new words.
• Construction of new meanings for already existing words: polysemy, transfer of meanings, etc.
• Formation of persistent phrases.
• Borrowing.

These methods are typical for any language, but in each case they have their own characteristics and distinctive features.

Methods

For its needs, lexicology uses general linguistic research methods. These include:

• Distribution. Responsible for defining the scope of a lexical unit, for the number of values, etc.
• Substitution. He studies the phenomena of synonymy and variation of words.
• component method. Responsible for splitting lexical units into separate components, and also deals with their general structure.
• Transformation. It is used in the process of word formation in order to determine the main component of the word.
• Used to determine the frequency of use of lexical units, as well as to calculate their semantic, paradigmatic and other types of relationships.

The information obtained using these methods is also used in other sciences, including psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, as well as a number of social disciplines.

Introduction

In this paper, I would like to first consider the general principles of teaching vocabulary to foreign students in Russian universities, explain the main and most important problems in the field of vocabulary, which cause the greatest difficulties for students who study Russian as a foreign language.

The second section of my work is devoted to the consideration of questions for lesson plans and their types, as well as the consideration of the levels of lexical competence of students and tasks for testing and consolidating the acquired knowledge.

The third section of my work will be devoted to the introduction of ICT and the method of media presentations in order to improve associative thinking in the concept of "Word>object>image>action".

General principles and provisions of the methodology of teaching vocabulary

Introduction to Section #1

In this section of this work, I will try to consider the main terms and concepts of modern lexicography through the prism of the general focus of my work, namely from the point of view of the specialization "Russian as a foreign language" and what is the reflection of the terms of the general theory of lexicography in a relatively young scientific field. We will consider the following terms and concepts such as the semantic field and vocabulary categorizations, types of vocabulary in RFL, lexical levels of the Russian language, what is the basic level of lexical competence in RFL, what is the advanced level of lexical competence and at the end of the first section I will give a list of possible tasks to determine the level of lexical competence of the student.

Vocabulary as a section of linguistics

Vocabulary is inextricably linked with the no less important linguistic discipline "Lexicology". Let's define what they do and what these sections of science are responsible for, let's start with definitions of terms: Lexicology and Vocabulary.

Lexicology is multifaceted, that is, it studies the word from various angles:

1. The meaning of the word;

2. Relationships between words;

3. The origin of the word;

4. Scope of the word

5. Expressiveness and stylistic coloring of the word. The study of vocabulary in all these aspects reveals that a huge number of words in the Russian language is not a chaotic accumulation, but a completely defined system, since all words in one way or another correlate and connect with each other. Therefore, in general, lexicology studies the vocabulary, that is, the lexical system of the language.

Vocabulary (from the Greek Lexicos - dictionary) is the totality of all the words of the language, its vocabulary. The section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language is called lexicology (from the Greek Lexicos - vocabulary and logos - teaching). The terms "lexicon" and "lexicology" have a common root, but they express completely different concepts that should not be confused. Vocabulary is words;

And what is the word, we can immediately ask ourselves such a question.

A word is a unit that has a changing form, meanings (polysemic words exist in many languages) and cases of use, therefore vocabulary is inextricably linked with lexicology. When studying words, it is immediately necessary to single out their semantic fields and categorize them into groups in relation to a specific subject so that they can be learned not one by one, but in groups. Let's analyze the first concept "Semantic field" and then we will categorize the vocabulary by types.

Lexicology (gr. lexis - word + logos - teaching) is a section of linguistics that studies the word as a unit of the vocabulary of the language (lexicon) and the entire lexical system (lexicon) of the language.

The term lexicon (gr. lexikos - verbal, dictionary) is used to denote the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to determine the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language (book vocabulary), in a separate work (the vocabulary of "The Words about Igor's Campaign"); you can talk about the vocabulary of the writer (Pushkin's vocabulary) and even one person (The speaker has a rich vocabulary).

Vocabulary is the central level of organization of the language system, reflecting in the most detail and massively changes in the semantic areas of society, as well as system-wide changes in the language. Of particular importance are lexical data for building a systematic picture of the functioning and development of languages, incl. identifying the processes of formation of their systems.

Exploring vocabulary as a system, lexicology has in mind the interaction between the meanings of words and concepts. In lexicology, the word is considered, first of all, from the point of view of the meaning, meaning and connections of this word with other words. Concepts are most often international, while the meanings of words are national.

Lexicology studies the patterns of functioning and development of the vocabulary of a language, develops the principles of the stylistic classification of words, the norms of literary word usage in its relation to vernacular, questions of professionalism, dialectisms, archaisms, neologisms, normalization of lexicalized phrases.

Lexicology considers the vocabulary of a language (lexicon) from the point of view of what a word is, how and what it expresses, how it changes. Phraseology adjoins lexicology, which is often included in lexicology as a special section.

Lexicology is divided into general, particular, historical and comparative. General lexicology deals with the general laws of the structure of the lexical system, the issues of the functioning and development of the vocabulary of the languages ​​of the world.

Private lexicology studies the vocabulary of a particular language. Historical lexicology traces changes in the meanings (semantics) of a single word or a whole group of words, and also explores changes in the names of objects of reality (see below for etymology). Comparative lexicology reveals similarities and differences in the division of objective reality by lexical means of different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be matched.

The vocabulary of a language can be considered from the semasiological and onomasiological points of view. A special branch of lexicology that deals with the study of the content side of vocabulary is called semasiology. This section considers the relationship between the word, the concept and the designated object, the semantic structure of a polysemantic word, the ways of development of meanings, the types of meanings of words.

The onomasiological approach involves the description of vocabulary in terms of ways of naming any concepts with a word. The onomasiological approach to vocabulary is most fully manifested in a special section of the science of language - in word formation.

Semasiological and onomasiological approaches to the study of vocabulary include lexicology in broader sections of linguistics. Semasiology is part of such a section as semantics. Semantics explores the content side of all signs of a language - morphemes, words, sentences. The onomasiological approach includes questions of lexicology in a number of problems of the theory of nomination (naming). The theory of nomination is considered in such a section as onomasiology.

In lexicology, lexicography and onomastics are traditionally distinguished. Onomastics is a branch of lexicology that studies proper names. Depending on the category of objects that have their own names, onomastics is divided into anthroponymy, which studies the names of people, toponymy, which describes the names of geographical objects, zoonymy, which considers the names of animals, etc.

Lexicography is the field of lexicology that studies the principles of compiling dictionaries.

Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronic (gr. syn - together + chronos - time), then it explores the vocabulary of the language in its current state, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia - through + chronos - time), then its subject is the development of the vocabulary of a given language.

All sections of lexicology are interconnected: the data of general lexicology is necessary when studying the vocabulary of a particular language in order to understand the deep essence of lexical units, their connection with the cognitive structures of consciousness; many lexical phenomena need historical commentary, clarifying the features of their semantics and use; information from comparative lexicology helps to understand many features and patterns of functioning of the vocabulary of a particular language, such as, for example, the common lexical composition, borrowing, interference, and others.

Lexicology is closely related to other linguistic disciplines and other sciences.

The choice of a word for transmitting information is the result of complex cognitive processes - all this connects lexicology with history, philosophy, logic, cultural studies, and psychology.

Lexicology relies on the data of historical disciplines - the study of written monuments helps to understand the development of the lexical composition of the language, the relationship of the language with the development of society; associated with stylistics, in which the stylistic resources of the language, including lexical ones, are studied in more detail; with linguistic analysis of the text, since, first of all, lexemes are directly connotatively marked units, they act as the main text-forming means.

The term "lexicology" is composed of two Greek elements: lexis (lexis) and logos (logos). Both of these meant "word" in ancient Greek. Thus, lexicology is a word about a word, or a science about words. The vocabulary of a language is a collection of all words and their equivalent phrases (phraseological units).

Sections of lexicology

1. Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of the language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.

2. Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, semantic structure of a lexeme.

3. Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

4. Onomastics - the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.

5. Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.

6. Lexicography - deals with the compilation and study of dictionaries.

7. The word is at the center of the study of lexicology.

lexeme

Having become acquainted with the types of words presented in the language, one can introduce another concept presented in lexicology, namely, the concept of a lexical word, or lexeme. A lexeme is a significant word that points to objects and denotes concepts about them. A lexeme is able to act as a member of a sentence and form sentences, it can be simple (lexeme - a word) and compound (lexeme - a compound name, for example: railway, rest house) In this understanding, service words and word forms are not included in the concept of "lexeme".

How do the terms lexeme and word relate?

In some cases, they denote the same fact of language. So a person is both a word and a lexeme; in, would. From are words, but not lexemes. In the sentence "Man is friend to man" there are three words, but two lexemes. Therefore, the term lexeme diverges from the term word. The latter names both the function word and the form of the word. Word forms that differ only in grammatical meaning are not considered separate lexemes (kot - kota - kotu - kotom). They form a paradigm, that is, a system of word forms of one lexeme.

The lexical meaning of a word is the content of the word, reflecting in the mind and fixing in it the idea of ​​an object, a property of a process, a phenomenon, and so on. This is the correlation established by our thinking between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, which is indicated by this complex of sounds.

The carrier of lexical meaning is the basis of the word. The meaning of the word reflects the general and at the same time essential features of the subject, learned as a result of people's social practice. Lexical meanings can be specific and abstract, general (common) and singular (own).

Word problems in language

Shcherba wrote in one of his last articles: "Really, what is a word? I think that it will be different in different languages. It follows from this that the concept of a word does not exist at all."

Smirnitsky elucidates this issue differently, who in his article "On the Question of the Word" wrote that "the word acts not only as the basic unit of the vocabulary, but also as the central nodal unit of the language in general." When presenting the material on words, we will adhere to this point of view.

The Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary (M., 1990) gives the following definition of the concept of a word:

The word is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to a given language.

The most important features of the word

The word, like any other unit of language, according to Smirnitsky, has two important features:

1) It has not only an external (sound) side, but also an externally expressed meaning (semantic or emotional content).

Considering the question of the two-sidedness of a word, one should dwell on the very nature of this connection between the sound of a word and its meaning.

The connection between the sound and meaning of a word is, in principle, conditional, arbitrary, or unmotivated. So, for example, there is no inherently binding connection between the meaning of table and the sound of Tisch. As you know, different sound complexes are associated with the meaning of table in different languages: in English. table, in Russian. Table, in it. Tisch. The principle of convention applies to simple, indecomposable units; completely, actually to morphemes.

As for more complex formations, in addition to the principle of convention (since simple units are included in complex formations), the principle of motivation comes first. The concept of motivation is related to the term "internal form of the word", which is understood as the motivation of the lexical meaning of the word by its word-formation with the semantic structure. The internal form of the word reveals some sign of the object on the basis of which the name originated. So, for example, the redstart bird once struck a person with its unusually bright, as if burning, tail. This sign that struck a person was the basis for the name of this bird. Of course, the sign that underlies the name is not always so bright and spectacular. It is usually much calmer: a candlestick is what is under the candle, and a thimble is what is put on the finger - a finger, a snowdrop, a flower that appears in the spring, when there is still snow on the fields.

2) The word appears not as a work created in the process of speech, but as something that already exists and is only reproduced in speech.

By the way, morphemes also satisfy the above requirements, and therefore can be considered units of the language with good reason. It should also be noted that proverbs, sayings, aphorisms and, in general, various sayings, reproduced again and again as whole units, also act, according to Smirnitsky, as units of the language, since they already exist in the language and are only reproduced in speech. But then the sentence is not, according to Smirnitsky, a unit of language.

It is necessary to dwell on the issue of the separability of a word in the flow of speech. In certain cases, certain phonetic moments serve to highlight a word, to distinguish it from neighboring words. So, for example, the absence of stress on a full-valued unit that has a substantive meaning in Germanic languages ​​is usually an indicator that we are dealing with only a part of the word, for example. English Railway, blackboard, German. Eisenbahn, Schwarzbrot, where the absence of stress on -way, -board, -bahn, -brot shows that these units in these cases do not represent separate words, but are only components of words. Such phonetic moments, capable of expressing the difference between a word and a part of a word, should be considered only as some additional, auxiliary means of highlighting a word. Why? The fact is that with such a selection, the word is considered as if it were only a sound segment. Meanwhile, the word, as a unit of language, is a formation that has both a sound side and a semantic side. The main signs of separability, completeness of the word should be sought based on the understanding of the word as the main unit of the vocabulary of the language and, at the same time, such a unit that is able to change grammatically and grammatically combine into sentences, into a coherent meaningful speech with other units of the same order.

The mutability of a word presupposes its certain form: since the same word changes, in so far as it stands out something basic, actually dictionary, lexical, which remains the same with various changes in the word, and, on the other hand, something additional, variable, belonging together with that, not to a given specific word, but to a known class or category of words, abstracted from specific words - grammatical, associated with the use of a word in various works of speech. Thus, the basic, lexical meaning of the word turns out to be supplemented, complicated by those or other grammatical meanings that are materially expressed in external, sound differences between individual varieties - grammatical forms of the word: this gives the word a certain formality.

Words turn out to be grammatically, both morphologically and syntactically designed, in a certain way adapted to their joint functioning in coherent meaningful speech. This formalization of the word gives it a certain completeness, which makes it quite easy to distinguish it from speech.

The internal integrity of the word (whole-formation) of the word is revealed in comparison with the structure of the phrase. Unlike words as whole-formed formations, phrases can be defined as separate-formed formations. This can be illustrated by the following examples. If we compare the language formation das Schwarzbrot and the language formation das schwarze Brot, which includes the same root elements as the first formation, then it is easy to see that they, denoting the same object of objective reality and not significantly differing in their meaning, are fundamentally different. in their relation to the grammatical structure, in their form. This difference lies in the fact that in the first language formation - the word - both components are formed once, while in the second language formation - the phrase - there is an independent grammatical design for each component. In other words, the formation Schwarzbrot is integrally formed, and the formation das schwarze Brot is separately formed.

The wholeness of the word in itself expresses a certain semantic integrity: it emphasizes that a given object or phenomenon is thought of as something one, a special whole, even if the complexity of its structure is noted or its individual features are distinguished. Thus, when we say das Schwarzbrot, we focus on the object denoted by this word, although we mean its individual aspects: a) bread, a food product, and b) the quality of this product in terms of color. On the contrary, if we say das schwarze Brot, separate aspects of the designated phenomenon come to the fore, and already through the perception of certain aspects of this object or phenomenon, the object or phenomenon itself as a whole is realized.

Semantic structure of the word- the semantic structure of the main unit of vocabulary (see Word). S. s. With. manifests itself in its polysemy (see) as the ability to name (designate) various objects (phenomena, properties, qualities, relationships, actions and states) using internally related meanings) The semantic structure of an unambiguous word is reduced to its seme composition (see Seme) .

The simplest unit (element) of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word is its lexico-semantic variant (LSV), that is, with a lexical meaning (see), associated with other lexical meanings by certain relationships, the main of which are hierarchical: expression of subordination of dependent lexical meaning from the south to the main. In S. with. With. lexico-semantic variants are connected with each other due to the common internal form (see Internal form of the word), their mutual motivation, derivation from each other.

Therefore, in dictionaries, each preceding LSV determines the interpretation of the subsequent one, for example. circle ^ "a part of the pchoskosgn bounded by a circle, as well as the circle itself" ~ ^- circle ± "an object in the shape of a circle" (saving. rubber circle), [circle-) "a closed area, within the outlined boundaries, a cut and a difference occur something" (circle of responsibilities, interests, issues)], [circle "a group of people united by common interests, took off" (circle of acquaintances, friends; in their own circle)], [circle $ "a social set of people primarily engaged in intellectual, creative work "(general circles of the public, literary, journalistic circles; about diplomatic circles: in the circle of scientists, specialists)], etc. Here, the hierarchically main LSV is a circle, in the content of which the internal form is most manifested; with this LSV, all other LSVs of the word circle are metaphorically (according to the similarity of form). At<ггом представление о круге присутствует в толковании значений всех ЛСВ слова и внутренне связывает их в единое целое. Основанием для выделения главного и частных значений (или иначе: главного и частных ЛСВ) служит различный характер взаимодействия слова в таких значениях с контекстом, т. е. фрагментом текста, необходимым и достаточным для определения того или иного значения слова. Главное значение в наименьшей степени обусловлено контекстом. Слово в главном (первом в словарях) значении является семантически наиболее простым по своему содержанию (ср. вода\ "прозрачная бесцветная жидкость") и обладает в силу этого самой широкой н свободной сочетаемостью с другими лексическими единицами. Все прочие значения слова (его ЛСВ) выступают как частные. В частных значениях по сравнению с главным слово в значительно большей степени обусловлено контекстом, присоединяет к себе его элементы и является в силу этого семантически более сложным (напр., вода2 "минеральный, газированный, фруктовый напиток", т. е. вода+содержащая минеральные соли; насыщенная газом; приготовленная из фруктов), при атом характеризуется ограниченной, избирательной сочетаемостью: минеральная, сельтерская, газированная, фруктовая вода.

The main meaning is called the primary semantic function of the word, particular meanings - its secondary semantic functions.

Along with the usual dictionary meanings (main, private) in S. s. With. the general meaning is singled out as its invariant (from Latin invarians - unchanging), opposed to variant meanings: this is the coinciding part of the content of all meanings (LSV) of the word, something constant, unchanging in them. It stands out like a common factor in algebra: ab + ac + ad = = a(b + c + d), is an extremely generalized and semantically simple content and is a linguistic abstraction useful for the semantic analysis of linguistic units. The ratio of the meanings of a word to its general meaning [i.e. i.e. to the general content of all its variants] makes it possible to establish their semantic hierarchy according to the degree of proximity to it: the central, dominant meanings turn out to be semantically the simplest, the peripheral ones are more complex and therefore further separated from the general (invariant) meaning of the word than the first ones. In S. with. With. certain values ​​(LSV) can die off. For example, the meaning of "beautiful" in the common Slavic adjective red (cf. Red Square) was historically the original, the main one in the word formed from the same stem as the word beauty. In the meaning of color, the word red began to be used later, in the era of the separate existence of the East Slavs. languages. This value became the main thing in S. with. s, leading to its partial restructuring. However, S. s. With. is constantly enriched with new meanings, since the word is a unit of an “open” lexical system, for example. meanings "a person who swims in open waters in winter" in the word walrus (cf. section of walruses), "successful attacking player in football, hockey" in the word scorer (cf. top scorer of the season), etc.

All words are divided into word-building motivated (derivatives) and unmotivated (non-derivatives).). Word-building motivated are such words, the meaning and sound of which are determined in the modern language by other words of the same root (motivating, or producing). Motivated words are perceived as formed from motivating words: table - table ‘small table’, white - turn white ‘become white, whiter’. The meaning and sound of derivational unmotivated words (table, white) are not determined in the modern language by other words with the same root; they are not recognized as being formed from other words.

A motivated word is associated with another single-root word or with several single-root words by relations of word-formation motivation. Motivation is such a relationship between two words with the same root, in which the meaning of one of them is either determined through the meaning of the other (house - house 'little house', strength - strongman 'man of great physical strength'), or identical to the meaning of the other in all its components, except for the grammatical meaning of a part of speech (walking - walking, daring - daring, bold - boldly), or completely identical to the meaning of another with a difference in the stylistic coloring of these words (knee - open knee).

Words with the same root, devoid of the named properties (house and house), are not in a relationship of motivation with each other.

One of the two words with the same root, connected by relations of word-formation motivation, is motivating, and the other is motivated. The motivation of a word is determined by four rules that apply in the following cases:

The compared single-root words have different lexical meanings, and in their stems, in addition to the root, a different number of sound segments is singled out (the stem of one of them may be equal to the root). In this case, a word is motivated, the stem of which is longer by some sound segment, which is recognized as a word-forming affixal morph (see § 16): forest - forest-ok, stand - stand.

The compared single-root words have different lexical meanings, and the same number of sound segments is singled out in their stems. In this case, the motivated word is semantically more complex, the meaning of which is determined through another word compared with it: chemistry - chemist 'specialist in chemistry', artist - artist 'woman artist'.

The meanings of the compared single-root words are identical in all their components, except for the grammatical meaning of the part of speech. In this case: a) in the pairs "verb - noun denoting the same action" (draw - drawing, go out - exit, creak - creak) and "adjective - noun denoting the same sign" (bold - courage, graceful - grace , blue - blue), regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the noun is motivated; b) in the pair "adjective - adverb" a word is motivated, the stem of which is longer by some segment - a word-forming affixal morph (see paragraph 1): cf. today - today-sh-th and dare-th - dare-o, where -o is part of the stem (suffix).

Note. An exception to the rule formulated in paragraph For is: 1) pairs of words consisting of a noun that does not have a suffix with the meaning of action, and a verb with the suffix -nicha-, -stova-, or -ova-/-irova-/- izirova-/-izova-: in such pairs, the verb is motivated, because in the modern language, with the help of these suffixes, verbs are easily formed from nouns with the meaning of action, and nouns with the meaning of action are not formed from such verbs without the help of a suffix: focus - conjurer, blasphemy - blaspheme, salute - salute, repair - repair, terror - terrorize; 2) pairs consisting of a noun on -stv(o) and an adjective, in which -stv- is followed by a suffix: courage - courageous, ignorance - ignorant.

One of the words in the relationship of motivation is stylistically neutral, and the other has some stylistic coloring. In this case, regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the stylistically colored word is motivated: ship - shipbuilder (colloquial), individual - individual (colloquial).

A motivated word differs from a motivating word by certain derivational means. As word-building means for motivation, affixal morphs (most often) act, as well as cutting off part of the stem, a fixed order of components and a single stress on one of the components in additions and unions (for more details, see § 31).

1. Lexicology as a branch of the science of language. Subject, tasks and aspects of lexicology. Lexicology and related sciences.

Lexicology

(from Greek λεξικός - related to the word and λόγος - teaching) - a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary, vocabulary of the language. Lexicology explores ways to replenish and develop the vocabulary of a language, distinguishing 4 ways to create nominations, three of which are based on the use of the internal resources of the language - the creation of new words (see Word formation), the formation of new meanings (polysemy, transfer of meanings, and the patterns of filiation of meanings are studied) , the formation of a word-so-che-ta-ny, and the fourth - on attracting the resources of other languages ​​​​- borrowings (lexical borrowings and tracing papers). The factors and forms of integration of borrowed words are investigated.

The subject of study of lexicology are the following aspects of the vocabulary of the language: the problem of the word as the main unit of the language, types of lexical units; the structure of the vocabulary of the language; functioning of lexical units; ways of replenishment and development of vocabulary; vocabulary and extralinguistic reality. Features of lexical units and relations between them are displayed in lexico-logical categories. The problem of the word as the basic unit of language is studied in the general theory of the word. The category of lexical units includes not only individual words (solid-form units), but also stable phrases (analytical, or compound units), but the main lexical unit is the word. Since the word is a unit characterized by the correlation of form and content, the problem of the word as a unit of language is considered in three aspects: structural (singling out the word, its structure), semantic (the lexical meaning of the word) and functional (the role of the word in structure of language and in speech).

In the structural aspect, the main task of the lexical-logical theory of the word is to establish the criteria for its separateness and identity. In the first case, the word is compared with the word combination, signs of its integral form and separateness are revealed, the problem of the analytical form of the word is developed; in the second case, we are talking about establishing the invariant of the word, which underlies both its grammatical forms (in connection with this, the category of the word form is determined), and its variants - phonetic, morphological, lexico-semantic (in connection with with this, the problem of a word variant is developed).

The semantic aspect of lexical units is the subject of study of lexical semantics, or semasiology, which investigates the correlation of a word with the concept it expresses (significate) and the object designated by it in speech (denotation). Semasiology, closely intertwined with lexicology, is usually included in the framework of semantics. Lexicology studies the semantic types of words, highlighting lexical and logical categories that reflect the semantic features of lexical units, such as monosemy and polysemy, general and special, abstract and concrete, wide and narrow (hyperonym and hyponym ), logical and expressive, direct and figurative meanings of lexical units.

In the functional aspect, the word as a language unit is considered from the point of view of its role in the structure and functioning of the language as a whole, as well as from the point of view of its relationship with units of other levels. The interaction of vocabulary and grammar is especially significant: vocabulary imposes restrictions on the use of grammatical categories, grammatical forms contribute to the differentiation of the meanings of words. Lexical and grammatical means with a common meaning form lexico-grammatical fields (an expression of quantity, time, etc.).

Lexicology and related disciplines: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, stylistics, speech culture, history.