Types of human activities and their forms. Human activity - what is it in psychology

a category of social philosophy that expresses a specifically human way of relating to the world, establishing man in existence through the transformation of the natural and social conditions of his existence. In the process of D. not only nature and society are transformed, but all social properties and abilities of a person are created. The concept of D. represents diverse forms of human activity in various spheres of social life (economic, political, legal, cultural D.), as well as various aspects of human life (mental, physical, internal, external, creative, constructive, constructive, free, destructive etc.). In addition, D. is divided into spiritual and material, theoretical and practical. Spiritual (mental, theoretical) D. is the purposeful production of social ideals, values, ideas, concepts, and ideas. Through spiritual dialogue, the world is explained and constructed, goals are formed, the means to achieve them are chosen, and an ideal plan for dialogue is created. In the process of dialogue, the creative creation of culture is carried out. The structure of a dynamic is expressed by the interrelation of its structure-forming elements: goal, means, result, subject, object. In the goal, the subject recognizes an unsatisfied need, creates an ideal image of the necessary object, determines the choice of object, means and methods of action of the subject. The goal, thus, becomes a system-forming principle. D. is a complex integral system of diverse connections and relationships in which a single scheme (structure) of D., the subject-object relationship of a person to the world is realized, a substantive attitude to the world is formed as an object of subjective transformations, the most important defining characteristics of human subjectivity emerge and are confirmed. In D., social life appears as an objective-active interdependence of the lives of individuals, and a person - as a subject of knowledge and practice, the measure of whose subjectivity is the objective world created by him. The goals and norms of D. are recognized by the individual as the most important social values ​​and are experienced by him as his own life-meaning guidelines and motives for action, thereby acquiring personal meaning. The objective world created by man captures the basic social characteristics of individuals and reveals their most important properties and abilities. D., thus, becomes a space for self-realization of individuals. However, in the conditions of an antagonistic society, the objective world created by man is alienated from him and his D. , enslaves its creator, determining the goals, norms and forms of his actions. The nature of the subject's attitude towards its results is the most important characteristic of the development of society. In D. a special relationship of a person to another arises - a relationship of use, which has become a kind of substance of specific forms of social and individual existence. The appropriation of the world through D. forms in the individual a value orientation towards possession, which Marx defined as an alienated and transformed form of human sensuality. Through D. not only are human needs satisfied, but also regulating individual behavior is established and functions, the basic social relationship “dominance - subordination”, which manifests itself in all specific types and forms of D. organization. Various forms of D. are ways of socialization of the individual, the formation of personality, identification of the individual. Social identification is carried out through the identification of an individual with a certain sociocultural role, which ensures his entry into the system of social relations and their stability. In the process of socialization, two opposing tasks are solved: the self-preservation of society, which presupposes maximum adherence of individuals to given patterns, and the self-preservation of the individual, who asserts his own uniqueness and freedom by rejecting leveling standards. However, in activity oriented toward possession, freedom is possible only as a natural and social necessity recognized and applied in practice. Acting according to the logic of the object and according to the logic of the subjective goal*, the individual manifests his subjectivity as the “cunning” of a connecting and separating mind that controls the laws of various planes, due to which the activity not only satisfies, but also creates and develops a special socio-cultural need - the need for power. The category of D. in social science acquires the most important methodological significance; it is a research method for understanding and explaining the essence of the social existence of individuals, their separation and interdependence.

Any action includes a goal, a means, a result, and the process itself, and, therefore, an integral characteristic of action is its awareness. D. is the real driving force of societies. progress and the condition for the very existence of society. At the same time, the history of culture proves that D. as such is not the exhaustive basis of humanity. existence. If the basis of D. is a consciously formulated goal, then the basis of the goal itself lies outside of D., in the human sphere. motives, ideals and values. Modern scientific and technical development increasingly demonstrates that not only D. in the field of art or morality, but also scientific, cognitive. D. receives its meaning ultimately depending on its morals. orientation, from its influence on people. existence. On the other hand, the dependence of D. itself on other social factors is expressed in the fact that in different types of culture it occupies a significantly different place, sometimes acting as the bearer of the highest meaning of humanity. existence, then on the rights of a necessary, but by no means revered condition of life.

There are various classifications of the forms of D. - the division of D. into spiritual and material, production, labor and non-labor, etc. From the point of view. creative The role of creativity in social development is of particular importance when dividing it into reproductive (aimed at obtaining an already known result using known means) and productive creativity, or creativity associated with the development of new goals and corresponding means or with the achievement of known goals with the help of new means. .

In the history of knowledge, the concept of D. has played and continues to play a dual role: firstly, as a worldview, an explanatory principle, and secondly, as a methodological one. the foundations of a number of social sciences, where human life becomes the subject of study. As a worldview. principle, the concept of D. was established starting with him. classic philosophy, when in Europe. culture, a new concept of personality, characterized by rationality and diverse areas of activity and initiative, triumphed, and the prerequisites were created for considering D. as the basis and principle of all culture. Kant took the first steps towards such a point of view. D. was first elevated to the rank of the universal foundation of culture by Fichte, considering the subject (“I”) as pure self-activity, as free activity, which creates the world (“not-I”) and is oriented toward the ethical. ideal. But since Fichte introduced a number of non-activity factors (contemplation, conscience, etc.) as decisive criteria for D., he thereby undermined the unity of his concept.

The most developed rationalistic. the concept of D. was built by Hegel. From the standpoint of objective idealism, he interprets D. as an all-pervasive characteristic of abs. spirit, generated by the latter’s immanent need for self-change. Ch. He assigns a role to spiritual D. and its highest form - reflection, i.e. self-consciousness. This approach allowed Hegel to build an integral concept of D., within the framework of the center. place is taken by the clarifying and rationalizing work of the spirit. In Hegel's concept, the dialectics of the structure of democracy was analyzed (in particular, the deep mutual determination of goal and means), and a number of profound comments were made about the socio-historical. conditionality of D. and its forms.

In the post-Hegelian bourgeoisie. philosophy concept D., developed by German. classic idealism, is subjected to sharp criticism, while the emphasis moves from the analysis of the rational components of goal setting to the deeper layers of consciousness found in human life. Kierkegaard spoke out against Hegel's concept. He contrasts the rational principle in man with will, and D., in which Kierkegaard sees functioning detached from true being, he opposes life, man. existence. Voluntaristic and irrationalistic. line (Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, E. Hartmann, etc.), which considers will as the basis of world and individual existence, puts impulse and experience in place of rational goal setting (i.e. D.). This trend has continued in modern times. existentialism. At the same time, in the end. 19th century other philosophies are being implemented. a line that places emphasis on the interpersonal (universal human) components of culture, which act as regulators of dialogue and its direction (the Baden school of neo-Kantianism with its doctrine of values, Cassirer and his concept of the role of sign structures). Husserl's phenomenology denied self-sufficiency to the forms of D. that had developed in modern Europe. culture, and placed these forms in a broader context (expressed, in particular, in the concept of the “life world”).

The tendency to refuse to consider D. as the essence of man and unity. the foundations of culture are strengthened in the west. philosophy at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. This is due not only to the loss of the bourgeoisie. a civilization of social optimism, but also with criticism of technicist activism, carried out by certain directions of non-Marxist philosophy.

The principle of D. as the source of origin of diverse cultural products and forms of social life played an important methodological role. role in the formation and development of a number of social sciences. For example, in cultural and historical theory of L. S. Vygotsky, thinking was considered as a result of the internalization of practical. actions and their inherent logic. The concept of D. played an important role in the development of linguistics, psychology, ethnography, etc.

At the same time, the principle of D., when deployed in specific studies, required an in-depth analysis of the mechanisms of D. and the factors that form it. This led to the identification of other components that lay outside the boundaries of D. itself, although related to it and influencing it. The theory of social action (M. Weber, F. Znaniecki), along with the analysis of the rational components of goal-setting action, emphasizes the importance of value systems and orientation, motives for action, expectations, aspirations, etc., which, however, leads to the psychologization of the concept of action.

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Incomplete definition ↓

Activity is a specifically human form of active relationship to the surrounding world, the content of which is its purposeful change and transformation. In contrast to the actions of an animal, human action presupposes a certain opposition between the subject and the object of action: a person opposes to himself the object of action as a material that resists the influence of man on him and must receive a new form and properties, transform from a material into a product of action. Any action . includes the goal, means, result and the process itself, and, therefore, an integral characteristic of data is its awareness. D. is the real driving force of social progress and a condition for the very existence of society. At the same time, the history of culture shows that D. as such is not the exhaustive basis of human existence. If the basis of action is a consciously formulated goal, then the basis of the goal itself lies outside of action, in the sphere of human ideals and values. Modern scientific and technological development increasingly demonstrates that not only creativity in the sphere of art or morality, but also scientific knowledge, or technical-instrumental creativity, receives its meaning ultimately depending on its moral orientation, on its influence on human life. existence. On the other hand, the dependence of D. itself on other social factors is expressed in the fact that in different types of culture it occupies a significantly different place, acting either as a bearer of the highest meaning of human existence, or as a necessary, but by no means revered, condition of life. There are various classifications of types and forms of D. - the division of D. into spiritual and material, production, labor and non-labor, etc. From the point of view of the creative role of creativity in social development, it is of particular importance to divide it into reproductive (aimed at obtaining an already known result using known means) and productive creativity, or creativity associated with the development of new goals and corresponding means or with the achievement of known goals using new means. In connection with the modern scientific and technological revolution, creative creativity is becoming increasingly widespread, which gives rise to a number of social problems, ranging from the need for a radical restructuring of the education system and ending with the problem of the well-known “devaluation” of the creative creativity of an individual in the context of its inclusion in industrial forms. organization of spiritual production. The development of this process emphasizes that personality is not reducible to expression only in the forms of D. and that the harmony of personality and D. is possible only on the basis of filling D. with truly human meaning. Otherwise, a purely instrumental interpretation of man is inevitable as only an instrument of the D. standing above him, and this serves as an ideological prerequisite for totalitarian forms of organization of social life. The question of the relationship between D. and personality can only be resolved as part of a broader human problem. In the history of knowledge, the concept of knowledge has played and continues to play a dual role: firstly, as a worldview principle, and secondly, as a methodological postulate, which forms the basis of a number of social sciences. As a worldview principle, the concept of D. has been established since German classical philosophy, when a new concept of personality, characterized by rationality, diverse areas of activity and initiative, triumphed in European culture, and the prerequisites were created for considering D. as the basis and principle of all culture. The first steps towards such a point of view were made by I. Kant. In his epistemology, the subject was considered not as contemplating external reality, but as creating forms of objectivity: Kant put forward the problem of two principles governing the relationship of the subject to the object - cognitive and moral; Moreover, the first determines the forms of the movement and what can be called its operational structure, and the second determines the direction, meaning and evaluation of the activity. These two principles were interpreted by Kant as fundamentally different and mutually irreducible. D. was first elevated to the rank of the universal foundation of culture by J. G. Fichte, considering the subject (“I”) as pure self-activity, as a free activity that creates the world (“not the I”) and is oriented toward an ethical ideal. But since Fichte put forward a moral criterion (conscience), etc. introduced an extra-activity factor, he thereby undermined the unity of his concept. The most developed rationalistic concept of D. was built by G. Hegel. From the standpoint of objective idealism, he interprets D. as an all-pervading characteristic of the absolute spirit, generated by the latter’s immanent need for self-change. He assigns the main role to spiritual thought and its highest form - reflection (See Reflection), that is, self-awareness. This approach allowed Hegel to build an integral concept of D., within the framework of which the clarifying and rationalizing work of the spirit occupies a central place. In this concept, the dialectics of the structure of discourse (in particular, the deep mutual determination of goal and means) is subjected to a detailed analysis, and a number of profound comments are made about the socio-historical conditionality of discourse. and its forms. In post-Hegelian bourgeois philosophy, the concept of D., developed by German classical idealism, is subjected to sharp criticism, while the emphasis moves from the analysis of the rational components of goal setting to the deeper layers of consciousness found in human life. The Danish thinker S. Kierkegaard spoke out against the Hegelian concept - against the “universal”, which suppresses the individual personality. He contrasts the rational principle in man with will, and D., in which Kierkegaard sees functioning detached from true being, contrasts life, human existence. The voluntaristic and irrationalistic line (A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche, E. Hartmann, etc.), which considers will as the basis of world and individual existence, puts impulse and experience in place of rational goal setting (i.e. D.). This trend continued in modern Existentialism. At the same time, at the end of the 19th century. Another philosophical line is also being implemented, placing emphasis on the interpersonal (universal) components of culture, which act as regulators of dialogue and its direction (the Baden school of neo-Kantianism (See Neo-Kantianism) with its doctrine of values, E. Cassirer and his concept of the role of sign structures) . Another direction of analysis is associated with the phenomenology of E. Husserl, which denied self-sufficiency to the forms of D. that had developed in modern European culture, and placed these forms in a broader context (expressed, in particular, in the concept of the life world). She tried to show that the search and determination of the meaning of human existence requires overcoming the naturalistic attitude of consciousness (perceiving a person by analogy with a physical object) and human D. The tendency to refuse to consider D. as the essence of man and the only basis of culture intensified in Western philosophy at the turn of the 19th century. 20th centuries This is due not only to the loss of social optimism inherent in bourgeois civilization, but also to the criticism of technicist activism carried out by some areas of non-Marxist philosophy. There is a comprehension of the ominous consequences to which pure activism (defended, in particular, in the actualism of the Italian philosopher G. Gentile), not subordinate to moral principles, led. The concept of D. is replaced by other, broader concepts - life, life world, existence, etc. The principle of democracy as the source of origin of diverse cultural products and forms of social life played an important methodological role in the formation and development of a number of social sciences. For example, in the cultural-historical theory of L. S. Vygotsky (See Vygotsky), thinking was considered as a result of the internalization (See Interiorization) of practical actions and their inherent logic. The concept of d. played an important role in the development of linguistics, psychology, ethnography, etc. At the same time, the principle of d., when developed in specific studies, required an in-depth analysis of the mechanisms of d. and the factors that form it. This led to the identification of other components that lie outside the boundaries of the actual dynamic, although they are connected with it and influence it. The theory of social action (M. Weber, F. Znaniecki), with which the development of bourgeois sociology in the 20th century is associated, is not limited to the analysis of the universally rational components of goal-setting action, but reveals the meaning of value systems and orientations, motives for action, expectations, and claims etc. As a result, there was a significant expansion of the original principle in these sciences. Marxist philosophy, in its interpretation of philosophy, has overcome the limitations of a narrowly rationalistic and idealistic understanding of philosophy. Marxism proceeds from a holistic understanding of philosophy as objective, as an organic unity of sensory, practical and theoretical forms of history. This integrity is synthesized in the Marxist concept of practice (See Practice), including diverse forms of human activity and placing Labor as the highest form of D. The Marxist concept of the active essence of man has become the initial methodological basis for a number of social sciences. It was the basis for Marx’s theory of value, F. Engels’s labor theory of anthropogenesis, Marxist pedagogy, etc. Lit.: Marx K., Theses on Feuerbach, Marx K. and Engels F., Works, 2nd ed., vol. 3; Kakabadze Z. M., The problem of “existential crisis” and the transcendental phenomenology of E. Husserl, Tb., 1966; Trubnikov N.N., On the categories “goal”, “means”, “result”, M., 1968; Batishchev G.S., The activity essence of man as a philosophical principle, in the book: The problem of man in modern philosophy, M., 1969; Gaidenko P. P., The Tragedy of Aestheticism, M., 1970. A. P. Ogurtsov, E. G. Yudin.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978.

The concept of "activity". Activity structure. Skills and abilities as structural elements of activity. Types of human activity, their classification

Activity- this is the process of a person’s active relationship to reality, during which the subject achieves previously set goals, meets various needs and masters social experience.

Activity structure:

1) Subject – the one who carries out the activity (person, group of people, organization, government body);

2) The object is what it is aimed at (natural materials, various objects, spheres or areas of people’s lives);

3) Motives - those internal forces that are associated with the needs of the individual and encourage him to perform certain activities;

4) Goals are the most significant objects, phenomena, tasks and objects for a person, the achievement and possession of which constitute the essence of his activity. The goal of an activity is an ideal representation of its future result;

5) Methods and techniques (actions) – relatively complete elements of activity aimed at achieving intermediate goals, subordinated to a common motive.

Every activity includes internal and external components. Initially, objective actions are performed and only then, as experience accumulates, a person acquires the ability to perform the same actions in the mind. The transfer of external action to the internal plane is called internalization. The implementation of mental action externally, in the form of actions with objects, is called exteriorization. Activities are carried out in the form of a system of actions.

Action– the main structural unit of activity, which is defined as a process aimed at achieving a goal. There are practical (objective) and mental actions.

Skills and abilities as structural elements of activity:

1) Human knowledge about the world appears initially in the form of images, sensations and perceptions. Processing of sensory data about consciousness leads to the formation of ideas and concepts. Actions with objects give a person knowledge both about their properties and about the possibilities of handling them;

2) A skill is a stereotyped way of performing individual actions - operations, formed as a result of their repeated repetition and characterized by the collapse (reduction) of its conscious control. Skills are formed through exercise, i.e. purposeful and systematic repetition of actions. To maintain a skill, it should be used systematically, otherwise deautomation occurs, i.e. weakening or almost complete destruction of developed automatisms;

3) Skill is a method of performing actions mastered by the subject, provided by the totality of acquired knowledge and skills. Skills are formed as a result of the coordination of skills, their integration into systems through actions that are under conscious control. Skills are based on active intellectual activity and necessarily include thinking processes. Conscious intellectual control is the main thing that distinguishes skills from skills.

Types of human activity, their classification:

1) Game is a form of human activity in conditional situations, aimed at recreating and assimilating social experience, fixed in socially fixed ways of carrying out objective actions;

2) Teaching is a type of activity whose purpose is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. The main goal of the study is preparation for future independent work;

3) Labor is an activity aimed at creating a socially useful product that satisfies the material or spiritual needs of people.

To understand the essence and content, structure and functions of social work, it is necessary to define the concept of “activity”.

Activity - a way of existence and development of social reality, manifestation of social activity, purposeful reflection and transformation of the surrounding world. R.S. Nemov defines activity as a specific type of human activity aimed at knowledge and creative transformation of the surrounding world, including oneself and the conditions of one’s existence. The main features of human activity: consciousness; productive, creative, constructive character; it is associated with objects of material and spiritual culture that are used by people either as tools, or as objects to satisfy needs, or as means of their own development; exchange of activities, communication between acting individuals. Other researchers identify the following as the main elements of activity: motive, goal, subject, structure and means. The motive of an activity is what prompts it, for the sake of which it is carried out. The motives of human activity can be very different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual. M.S. Kagan identifies three main elements of activity: the subject, who directs his activity to the object and other subjects; the object to which the activity is directed; activity itself, which is expressed in the subject’s establishment of communicative interaction with others.

For various reasons, activities can be divided into practical and spiritual; economic, political, social; progressive and reactionary (regressive); legal and illegal, creative and uncreative. In all these types of activities, its main carrier is man. In the last decade, new types of activities have been actively developing that were not typical for our society and state. One of these types of activities is social work. It cannot be argued that it did not take place before. As long as humanity has existed, so many types of social activities have existed (social work refers specifically to this type of activity). However, formalizing the process of supporting and helping a person in such a form as social work is a new type of social activity for our state.

Social work is an activity that allows people and organizations to recognize difficulties (personal, situational, social) and overcome them through support, protection, correction and rehabilitation. The goal of social work as a type of activity is to satisfy socially guaranteed and personal interests and needs of various groups of the population, to create conditions that facilitate the restoration or improvement of people’s abilities for social functioning. Therefore, the specificity of this type of activity is that it is aimed at providing assistance and support to people who find themselves in difficult life situations, i.e. a situation that a person cannot cope with on his own. As a type of social activity, social work is a type of social action: the main efforts in the process of targeted manipulations in professional social work are focused on creating conditions under which the object of action (client) will successfully socially function on the principles of self-sufficiency, as well as on carrying out correctional and rehabilitation work with different categories of the population. The boundaries of social work as a sphere of social action are determined by specific spatiotemporal coordinates, since social work is largely determined by the social policy of the state at a particular stage of development.

Every activity has a certain structure. It usually identifies actions and operations as the main components of activity. An action is a part of an activity that has a completely independent, human-conscious goal.

A feature of social work in modern conditions is the combination of a specific type of professional activity (when it comes to social work as a profession) and non-professional (volunteer) activity. Professional activity is realized through the functioning of a number of specializations aimed at solving specific human problems (medical, legal, economic, educational, etc.).

1.3. Definition of a project as a type of human activity

ny elements of the managerial activity of the entrepreneur. Knowledge of the basic approaches and methods of forecasting, as well as rapid comprehensive assessment of the possibilities of technical implementation of the solutions (projects) found, become necessary for managers of any level.

3. The price of a non-optimal solution has increased. Errors in choosing the type of activity can lead to:

For an individual entrepreneur - to financial collapse and psychological

logical breakdown; - for a separate production - to bankruptcy with the prospect of subsequent

ongoing liquidation;

For a district, region, region, federation – to a loss of development rates,

loss of economic, food or information independence. The consequence of this may be the emergence of many negative phenomena, for example, crises (industrial, food, raw materials, energy, environment, labor, etc.).

4.Development of the Internet and transport communications between countries

This became the basis for the creation of a global goods market, and competition between producers became fiercer. It turned out that when designing various types of activities, it is necessary to take into account a much larger number of factors and trends in the development of needs, not only in Russia, but throughout the world.

5. Reforming the economy is not only a change in the usual connections, management methods used, established structures, but also a breakdown of established ideas about how to manage organizational structures, conduct business, and achieve success. The transition to a market radically changed the requirements for norms, rules, and values ​​of organizational relationships

a team. “Stability” must give way to “change.” At the same time, it is desirable that “changes in the team proceed faster than changes in the external environment.” Thus, personnel at all levels must be constantly ready to make decisions independently, take responsibility, assess possible risks, and identify reserves.

Unfortunately, to date there is no single definition of the term “project”. In the well-known literature one has to deal with very diverse interpretations of it. Analysis of these definitions shows that the difference between them mainly lies in identifying the “weight” (degree of importance) of individual assessments of the essence of the work, as well as in the features of the methodological approach to design procedures.

Here are some of the most typical definitions of the concept “project”: 1. A project aimed at creating technical structures, equipment

vaniya, construction sites, etc. . In this case, a project is understood as a system of goals formulated within its framework, the definition of physical objects and technological processes created or modernized for their implementation; technical and organizational documentation, justification

material, financial, labor and other resources, as well as a set of management decisions and measures for their implementation.

2. The project from the investor’s point of view (in accordance with operational guidelines No. 2.20.1997 of the World Bank). A project is a set of interrelated activities that allow, within a given period of time and with an established budget, to resolve assigned tasks with clearly defined goals.

3. The project from the entrepreneur's point of view. A project is a temporary enterprise designed to create new, unique goods, products or services “demanded” by the population.

4. The project from the point of view of project developers. The project is an op-

optimal satisfaction of the sum of potential consumer needs when attracting a certain set of conditions.

5. The project from the point of view of philosophers. A project is a creative activity

activity that brings into being something new and useful that did not exist before.

6. The project from the point of view of sociologists. A project is a program of action

viy, measures to implement a specific, substantive socio-economic plan.

7. The project from the point of view of science (educational and methodological literature). A project is a time-limited, purposeful change to a separate system with established requirements for the quality of results, a possible framework for the expenditure of funds and resources, and the involvement of specific organizations for these purposes.

Despite the apparent differences between the above definitions, they have a lot in common. The commonality of semantic concepts can be considered as signs of a project. The most characteristic signs usually include:

A sign of change - any project is aimed at changing the properties or parameters of the designed system, at transferring it from some existing state to some desired state in order to obtain new properties, qualities, and economic indicators. The desired state is elements of novelty in the quality of the services or goods provided, increased profitability, etc. From this point of view, projects do not include such work as supply, repair, construction according to available documentation;

A sign of time limitation of the project. This sign indicates

affects the duration of the project over time. Project timelines may vary significantly depending on the amount of work required to complete the project. For example, projects to search for new markets, restoration work, and identify new goods and services rarely exceed 3-6 months. At the same time, projects to develop medicines, develop machine tool manufacturing and enter it into the world market, achieve economic or food independence of a specific area can be implemented within 3-7 years;

A sign of limited required resources. At first glance

the sign is obvious. There is always a strong desire to spend less and get more, so traditionally investors try to reduce their costs. WITH

on the other hand, resources (financial, labor, material, energy, information) are always limited and interconnected. The essence of the attribute comes down to the fact that for each project such an optimal ratio between individual types of resources must be determined so that their total value, recalculated, for example, into a financial equivalent, is minimal. There are no uniform criteria in the approach to determining the set and amount of resources required to carry out design work. However, the desire of some investors to “save on matches” often undermines the project in its first stages;

Sign of “budgeting”. This is one of the most important signs, because... in its absence, the project is not feasible. Financing can be rigid (strictly defined by contract, agreement) or certain limits can be specified for the expenditure of certain types of resources and financial resources. The attribute requires strict reporting of costs, defining reporting milestones and taking appropriate action when financial benchmarks are not met. The influence of the amount of funding on the results of work is reflected in Parkinson’s humorous law: “Low funding - small results, medium funding - average results, large funding works wonders”;

A sign of legal and organizational support. The essence of the sign:

To carry out medium and large projects, it is desirable (necessary) to create an independent special structure with unambiguous regulation of relations both between project participants and between investors and interested organizations. A common mistake is that the head of the project structure is appointed from among the administrative apparatus. In this case, “what is needed” and “the honor of the uniform” become decisive; new products that even slightly affect the structure of the native enterprise are often rejected outright;

A sign of delimitation - each project has a clearly defined framework of its subject area, its ultimate goal. If the project is an integral part of another, more general project, then criteria for assessing the degree of its implementation must be developed;

A sign of complexity. The project involves considering all environmental factors from the same positions and from different points of view: the structures that take part in the design, the structures with which the project implementers will come into contact;

Sign of a time-limited goal. Any goal loses its meaning after a certain period of time. Therefore, the time allotted for project development should be less than the lifetime of the goal. This sign must always be monitored throughout the entire duration of the project. If due to any external conditions the goal becomes meaningless, the project must automatically be terminated.

Thus, in the modern understanding, a project is something that changes

1.4. Project classification

The above definitions of a project are designed for some “average, normal” project, which is characterized by a full set of the characteristics (factors) discussed above. It is also assumed that in a “normal” project all these factors are approximately equal. However, even without complex research, it is clear that for different projects these signs are by no means equivalent. Moreover, it is possible to provide examples where some features play a dominant role, while others can simply be missed or neutralized using standard control procedures during the work process. A classification of projects will help to understand this situation, where individual characteristic factors will be highlighted as priorities.

The following classification criteria are widely accepted in the literature:

1. By type of project (by nature of activity):

Organizational - the creation of a new organization or structure (medical, educational, cultural, social, etc.), the creation of a new management system, for example, reforming enterprises. Features of projects of this type: goals are basically defined, but the expected quantitative and qualitative results are difficult to determine, much less measure in the future, resources are provided whenever possible, costs are controlled, adjustments of costs are allowed;

Economic - privatization of enterprises, creation of an audit, introduction of a new system of taxes, tariffs, excise taxes, etc. The goal is to improve economic indicators. Goals are outlined in advance, but due to their high dependence on external factors they can be significantly adjusted;

Technical – creation of production of goods and services, development of technologies, housing construction, improvement of territories, etc. Here the goals are obvious, it is possible to determine quantitative parameters of project results.

2. By project class (composition and structure):

A mono project is small in scale, simple and limited in volume: individual industrial enterprises, business structures, experimental industrial installations, construction sites, farms, service enterprises. Mono-projects allow for a number of simplifications in design procedures (use of standard projects, previous experience). For such projects, coordination of all work by one person, interchangeability of team members, a simplified view of the project network diagram, clear knowledge of each team member’s responsibilities, and combination of design and subsequent implementation work are allowed. A monoproject is relatively weakly connected with the “external environment”; more precisely, it has practically no significant impact on the external environment. As a rule, the “contribution” of a monoproject to the economy of a region or region is insignificant;

A multi-project is a complex project, often structurally consisting of a number of mono-projects, which has an impact on the environment. Multi-projects include the conversion of defense enterprises, the formation of modern market structures, and the reform of local government structures. These projects require more careful consideration of the initial state, continuous monitoring of the main potential indicators of the functioning of the system and its environment, determining trends in their changes and forecasting subsequent development, making decisions on further changes to the system. Essentially, a multi-project is a comprehensive strategic program for reforming individual industries. One of the important expected results of the implementation of single-projects is the identification of promising directions for the development of individual structures of a given region, areas of priority investment of resources. (Instead of uniform development - search for the main link). Unfortunately, the strategy for implementing multi-projects has not yet been worked out in Russia. There are no legal, financial and methodological foundations for the joint consideration of tasks of different profiles, and as a consequence of this, there are no specialists trained to perform work of this kind;

Megaprojects are targeted programs containing many interrelated projects united by a common goal, allocated resources and time allotted for their implementation. These primarily include projects of national importance (border protection, expanded labor production, healthcare, legal protection, cultural development, environmental problems, etc.). No less important tasks are the development of science and ensuring the economic, energy and information security of the country. In some respects, this is a further development of the ideas of comprehensive, long-term economic planning, previously used in the USSR. The final results of megaprojects can be: development of a general concept for the country's development in order to achieve economic independence, development of an economic development strategy, development of measures to transfer the country to a market economy, etc. Unfortunately, for a number of reasons, megaprojects have not received much attention in Russia lately.

3. By the scale of the project (size, number of participants). This

the sign is quite arbitrary and is associated mainly with the amount of costs for the project.

4. By project duration: short-term (up to 3 years), medium-term (3-5 years), long-term (over 5 years).

5. By type of project:

– investment. The main goal of the project is the creation or modernization of fixed assets. The size of the investment is determined by the expected performance;

– innovative. The main goal is the development and application of new technologies, individual innovations that ensure the development of systems. This may include the development of a new product, software,

scientific research, creation of educational programs. Features of innovative projects: the main goal is clearly defined, but individual private goals are expected to be clarified as work progresses; cost planning depends on the allocated allocations.

1.5. “Project management” (PM) as a type of activity of a manager

There is currently no unambiguous definition of the concept of “project management”. In different literary sources one comes across alternative, but similar in meaning, definitions:

1. In projects aimed at creating technical systems and construction

physical objects. Project management is the art of managing and coordinating human and material resources throughout the life cycle of a project through the use of systems of modern management methods and techniques to achieve the results defined in the project in terms of the composition and scope of work, cost, time, and quality.

2. UE from the point of view of entrepreneurs. PM is the art and science of coordinating people, equipment, materials, funds and schedules to complete a specific project within a given time frame, within budget and to meet customer requirements.

3. UE from the point of view of designers and sociologists. PM is the science of determining

dividing the goals of the activity, organizing the work of a group of people aimed at achieving these goals.

4. UP, adopted in educational and methodological literature. PM is a methodological

the art of organizing, planning, directing, coordinating labor, financial and material and technical resources aimed at effectively achieving the goals of design work through the use of modern technology methods

and technologies for managing cost, quality, time and volume of work. What these definitions have in common is the emphasis on complexity in the sub-

moves towards managing project activities. The project manager must organize and coordinate all work to implement the project, promptly recognize all emerging problems and promptly and successfully resolve them within budget, taking into account the satisfaction of customer requirements and possible changes in the surrounding situation (environment).

The project manager must optimally distribute all available resources: performers, equipment, materials, information, financial resources - and at the same time anticipate the emergence of possible risks, resolve conflicts and much more. That is, by definition, the range of questions of a project manager, in comparison with the activities of a classical manager, expands significantly and requires a greater amount of knowledge.

Distinctive features of the working conditions of the project manager and manager at the existing production are given in Table. 2.1.1.

Table 2.1.1

Distinctive features of working conditions

Criteria

Working conditions for a su-

Working conditions for the manager

existing production

Availability of organiza-

There is a structure within which

Necessary

form

national

carried out

production

small structure that allows

structures

military activity

solve problems effectively

Number of re-

A number of mutual

Within the framework of the formulated goal

related tasks (production,

only one problem is resolved -

tasks to be solved

sales, suppliers, social issues

nary situation (task)

millet, etc.)

The nature of the re-

Most functions and tasks are

A new problem is being solved that has not been tried before.

repeated in time, if possible

used in the structure in question -

tasks to be solved

unpredictable

tour that will lead to radical

actions of people and machines

changes to the existing system

The degree of determination

The main emphasis is on reliability

Deals only with trends

laziness

new (reasonable) plans and pro-

development

problematic situation,

tasks to be solved

difficult to predict

Periodicity

The activity is related to the procedure-

Activity

disposable,

mi, repeating periodically

tasks (problems) of action

activity stops

Focus

Committed to supporting sustainable

Searches for changes (times

state of the structure (status quo)

destroys the status quo)

Conducting price

Cost of performing individual

Cost of work (and individual

stages can be reliably

stages) can be determined from some

our work

predictable based on pre-

It is likely that costs may

previous experience

increase

Requirements for employees:

Requirements for employees:

professionalism;

professionalism;

comprehensive increase in efficiency

breadth of thinking;

activity of the operations performed;

– non-standard thinking, on-

– strict adherence to standards and

focus on novelty;

rules adopted in the organization,

search for contradictions in issues being solved

Requirement for

security

rhythmicity

in problem analysis.

water processes;

from template actions;

staff

the atmosphere in the team is

– the atmosphere is aimed at creative

Lena on long-term stability

given, directions are supported

cooperation;

to solve problems unproposed

the team is stable, active

predicate actions;

team

team

temporary, created

predictable

supplied only for solution

task

Acceleration paths

Increase

(expand

Find the optimal amount of use

production,

attract

fillers with a certain qualification

resources, personnel, etc.)

fiction. Too many people can

reduce work efficiency

Unambiguous, according to the entered criteria-

Not unambiguous, according to the final re-

performers

riyam, norms

result, comprehensive

Dates for carrying out

According to plan

In terms of execution of individual stages

research work

pov allowable reasonable spread

Regulation

Standard rules apply

Standard rules are rejected

Administrative

Part of the administrative structure

Excluded

to administrative

dependency

structure

Activity- this is a specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at understanding and transforming the external world and the person himself.

The main feature of activity is that its content is not determined entirely by the need that gave rise to it. Need as a motive (motivation) gives impetus to activity, but the very forms and content of activity determined by public goals, requirements and experience.

Distinguish three main activities: play, learning and work. Purpose games is the “activity” itself, and not its results. Human activity aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities is called teaching. is an activity whose purpose is the production of socially necessary products.

Characteristics of activities

Activity is understood as a specifically human way of actively relating to the world - a process during which a person creatively transforms the world around him, turning himself into an active subject, and the phenomena being mastered into the object of his activity.

Under subject Here we mean the source of activity, the actor. Since it is, as a rule, a person who exhibits activity, most often it is he who is called the subject.

Object call the passive, passive, inert side of the relationship, on which activity is carried out. The object of activity can be a natural material or object (land in agricultural activities), another person (a student as an object of learning) or the subject himself (in the case of self-education, sports training).

To understand an activity, there are several important characteristics to consider.

Man and activity are inextricably linked. Activity is an indispensable condition of human life: it created man himself, preserved him in history and predetermined the progressive development of culture. Consequently, a person does not exist outside of activity. The opposite is also true: there is no activity without a person. Only man is capable of labor, spiritual and other transformative activities.

Activity is a transformation of the environment. Animals adapt to natural conditions. A person is capable of actively changing these conditions. For example, he is not limited to collecting plants for food, but grows them in the course of agricultural activities.

Activity acts as a creative, constructive activity: Man, in the process of his activity, goes beyond the boundaries of natural possibilities, creating something new that did not previously exist in nature.

Thus, in the process of activity, a person creatively transforms reality, himself and his social connections.

The essence of the activity is revealed in more detail during its structural analysis.

Basic forms of human activity

Human activity is carried out in (industrial, domestic, natural environment).

Activity- active interaction of a person with the environment, the result of which should be its usefulness, requiring from a person high mobility of nervous processes, fast and accurate movements, increased activity of perception, emotional stability.

The study of a person in the process is carried out by ergonomics, the purpose of which is to optimize work activity on the basis of rational consideration of human capabilities.

The whole variety of forms of human activity can be divided into two main groups according to the nature of the functions performed by a person - physical and mental labor.

Physical work

Physical work requires significant muscle activity, is characterized by a load on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, neuromuscular, etc.), and also requires increased energy costs from 17 to 25 mJ (4,000-6,000 kcal) and higher per day.

Brainwork

Brainwork(intellectual activity) is work that combines work related to the reception and processing of information, requiring attention, memory, and activation of thinking processes. Daily energy consumption during mental work is 10-11.7 mJ (2,000-2,400 kcal).

Structure of human activity

The structure of an activity is usually represented in a linear form, with each component following the other in time.

Need → Motive→ Goal→ Means→ Action→ Result

Let's consider all components of the activity one by one.

Need for action

Need- this is need, dissatisfaction, a feeling of lack of something necessary for normal existence. In order for a person to begin to act, it is necessary to understand this need and its nature.

The most developed classification belongs to the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and is known as the pyramid of needs (Fig. 2.2).

Maslow divided needs into primary, or innate, and secondary, or acquired. These in turn include the needs:

• physiological - in food, water, air, clothing, warmth, sleep, cleanliness, shelter, physical rest, etc.;
• existential— safety and security, inviolability of personal property, guaranteed employment, confidence in the future, etc.;
• social - the desire to belong and be involved in any social group, team, etc. The values ​​of affection, friendship, love are based on these needs;
• prestigious - based on the desire for respect, recognition by others of personal achievements, on the values ​​of self-affirmation and leadership;
• spiritual - focused on self-expression, self-actualization, creative development and use of one’s skills, abilities and knowledge.
• The hierarchy of needs has been changed many times and supplemented by various psychologists. Maslow himself, in the later stages of his research, added three additional groups of needs:
• educational- in knowledge, skill, understanding, research. This includes the desire to discover new things, curiosity, the desire for self-knowledge;
• aesthetic- desire for harmony, order, beauty;
• transcending- a selfless desire to help others in spiritual self-improvement, in their desire for self-expression.

According to Maslow, in order to satisfy higher, spiritual needs, it is necessary to first satisfy those needs that occupy a place in the pyramid below them. If the needs of any level are fully satisfied, a person has a natural need to satisfy the needs of a higher level.

Motives for activity

Motive - a need-based conscious impulse that justifies and justifies an activity. A need will become a motive if it is perceived not just as a need, but as a guide to action.

In the process of motive formation, not only needs, but also other motives are involved. As a rule, needs are mediated by interests, traditions, beliefs, social attitudes, etc.

Interest is a specific reason for action that determines. Although all people have the same needs, different social groups have their own interests. For example, the interests of workers and factory owners, men and women, youth and pensioners are different. So, innovations are more important for pensioners, traditions are more important for pensioners; Entrepreneurs' interests are rather material, while artists' interests are spiritual. Each person also has his own personal interests, based on individual inclinations and likes (people listen to different music, play different sports, etc.).

Traditions represent a social and cultural heritage passed on from generation to generation. We can talk about religious, professional, corporate, national (for example, French or Russian) traditions, etc. For the sake of some traditions (for example, military ones), a person can limit his primary needs (by replacing safety and security with activities in high-risk conditions).

Beliefs- strong, principled views on the world, based on a person’s ideological ideals and implying a person’s willingness to give up a number of needs (for example, comfort and money) for the sake of what he considers right (for the sake of preserving honor and dignity).

Settings- a person’s predominant orientation towards certain institutions of society, which overlap with needs. For example, a person may be focused on religious values, or material enrichment, or public opinion. Accordingly, he will act differently in each case.

In complex activities, it is usually possible to identify not one motive, but several. In this case, the main motive is identified, which is considered the driving one.

Activity goals

Target - This is a conscious idea of ​​the result of an activity, an anticipation of the future. Any activity involves goal setting, i.e. ability to independently set goals. Animals, unlike humans, cannot set goals themselves: their program of activity is predetermined and expressed in instincts. A person is able to form his own programs, creating something that has never existed in nature. Since there is no goal-setting in the activity of animals, it is not an activity. Moreover, if an animal never imagines the results of its activity in advance, then a person, starting an activity, keeps in his mind the image of the expected object: before creating something in reality, he creates it in his mind.

However, the goal can be complex and sometimes requires a series of intermediate steps to achieve it. For example, to plant a tree, you need to purchase a seedling, find a suitable place, take a shovel, dig a hole, place the seedling in it, water it, etc. Ideas about intermediate results are called objectives. Thus, the goal is divided into specific tasks: if all these tasks are solved, then the overall goal will be achieved.

Tools used in activities

Facilities - these are techniques, methods of action, objects, etc. used in the course of activity. For example, to learn social studies, you need lectures, textbooks, and assignments. To be a good specialist, you need to receive a professional education, have work experience, constantly practice in your activities, etc.

The means must correspond to the ends in two senses. First, the means must be proportionate to the ends. In other words, they cannot be insufficient (otherwise the activity will be fruitless) or excessive (otherwise energy and resources will be wasted). For example, you cannot build a house if there are not enough materials for it; It also makes no sense to buy materials several times more than are needed for its construction.

Secondly, the means must be moral: immoral means cannot be justified by the nobility of the end. If goals are immoral, then all activities are immoral (in this regard, the hero of F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “The Brothers Karamazov” Ivan asked whether the kingdom of world harmony is worth one tear of a tortured child).

Action

Action - an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. An activity consists of individual actions. For example, teaching activities consist of preparing and delivering lectures, conducting seminars, preparing assignments, etc.

The German sociologist Max Weber (1865-1920) identified the following types of social actions:

• purposeful - actions aimed at achieving a reasonable goal. At the same time, a person clearly calculates all the means and possible obstacles (a general planning a battle; a businessman organizing an enterprise; a teacher preparing a lecture);
• value-rational- actions based on beliefs, principles, moral and aesthetic values ​​(for example, a prisoner’s refusal to transfer valuable information to the enemy, saving a drowning man at the risk of his own life);
• affective - actions committed under the influence of strong feelings - hatred, fear (for example, flight from an enemy or spontaneous aggression);
• traditional- actions based on habit, often an automatic reaction developed on the basis of customs, beliefs, patterns, etc. (for example, following certain rituals in a wedding ceremony).

The basis of activity is the actions of the first two types, since only they have a conscious goal and are creative in nature. Affects and traditional actions are only capable of exerting some influence on the course of activity as auxiliary elements.

Special forms of action are: actions - actions that have value-rational, moral significance, and actions - actions that have a high positive social significance. For example, helping a person is an act, winning an important battle is an act. Drinking a glass of water is an ordinary action that is neither an act nor an act. The word "act" is often used in jurisprudence to denote an action or omission that violates legal norms. For example, in legislation “a crime is an unlawful, socially dangerous, guilty act.”

Result of activity

Result- this is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of study can be knowledge, skills and abilities, the result of scientific activity can be ideas and inventions. The result of the activity itself can be, since in the course of the activity it develops and changes.

Reaches the goal.

Human activity can be viewed from two perspectives:

• as a special form of activity characteristic of a person;
• as a system of interactions with the World, real and imaginary.

In the course of activity, active interaction with the surrounding reality occurs, in which a living being acts as a subject purposefully influencing the object and satisfying its needs. Due to the extreme complexity and continuous variability of external conditions, already at the early stages of phylogenesis, mental forms of control of the practical interaction of a living being with the environment arise. The development of indicative research activities is of particular importance. The main type of human activity that played a decisive role in the origin and development of human physical and spiritual properties is labor. Many other types of human activity (play, learning) are also genetically related to difficulty. On the basis of labor, in the course of socio-historical development, mental labor arises as a special, socially necessary theoretical activity. In the process of animal evolution, their practical interaction with the surrounding reality, and at the same time their orientation and research activities, become more and more complex and diverse. But at all stages of their development, the activity of animals retains a rather narrowly adaptive instinctive character; they are able to focus only on the external, directly perceived or visually represented side of surrounding objects and phenomena. Activity, depending on the goal, can be constructive or destructive. Activities are regulated by a system of values ​​and controlled by motivational processes.

Activities can be called any activity of a person or organization to which some meaning is attached. A person engaged in any activities - Actor:

• Statesman;
• Politician;
• and so on.

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  In activities, both positive and negative, the following processes, generally performed, can be distinguished (presumed to be present):

  1) the decision-making process, 2) the process of involvement in activities, 3) the goal-setting process, 4) the process of designing an action plan (program), 5) the process of implementing the action plan (program), 6) the process of analyzing the results of actions and comparing them with the goals set . 7) organizational processes, including the creation of structures, management and planning processes.

  It is possible to use other bases for the structural representation of activity, determined by the tasks and goals of the study. Activity models in this case are built for reasons of convenience, usefulness and sufficiency.

  The first author and developer in Soviet psychology of a multi-level concept of the organization of behavior, psychology of activity, psychology of personality and the psychological theory of the development of the subject in activity and communication, which was later developed by S. L. Rubinshtein, V. S. Merlin and A. N. Leontyev, B .G. Ananyev, G.V. Sukhodolsky was M.Ya. Basov.

  Synonyms for "activity"

  Types of activities in relation to the subject to the object being sold

  Types of activity are distinguished by the type of relationship of the subject to the world of objects realized in these forms of activity:

  • Practical activity is aimed, first of all, at transforming the world in accordance with the goals set by man.
  • Cognitive activity serves the purpose of understanding the objective laws of the existence of the world, without which it is impossible to carry out practical tasks.
  • Aesthetic activity is a concept that reflects the forms and manifestations of human activity, determined by aesthetic needs, and involves the translation (transmission) of meanings determined by the value orientations of a particular society and individual.
  • Management activities aimed at managing organizations.

  see also

  • activity structure

  Notes

  Activities are certain actions that are performed by a person in order to produce something significant for himself or for the people around him. This is a meaningful, multi-component and quite serious activity, which is fundamentally different from relaxation and entertainment.

  Definition

  The main discipline that studies human activity as part of the curriculum is social science. The first thing you need to know to correctly answer a question on this topic is the basic definition of the concept being studied. However, there may be several such definitions. Another says that activity is a form of human activity that is aimed not only at adapting the body to the environment, but also at its qualitative transformation.

  All living beings interact with the surrounding world. However, animals only adapt to the world and its conditions; they cannot change it in any way. But man differs from animals in that he has a special form of interaction with the environment, which is called activity.

  

  Main components

  Also, to give a good answer to a social studies question about human activity, you need to know about the concepts of object and subject. The subject is the one who performs the actions. It doesn't have to be a single person. The subject can also be a group of people, an organization or a country. The object of activity in social science is what the activity is specifically aimed at. This could be another person, natural resources, or any area of ​​public life. The presence of a goal is one of the main conditions under which human activity is possible. Social science, in addition to the goal, also highlights the action component. It is carried out in accordance with the set goal.

  Types of actions

  The expediency of an activity is an indicator of whether a person is moving towards the result that is important to him. The goal is the image of this result, which the subject of activity strives for, and the action is a direct step aimed at realizing the goal facing a person. The German scientist M. Weber identified several types of actions:

  1. Purposeful (in other words - rational). This action is carried out by a person in accordance with the goal. The means to achieve the desired result are chosen consciously, and possible side effects of the activity are taken into account.
  2. Value-rational. Actions of this kind occur in accordance with the beliefs that a person has.
  3. Affective is an action that is caused by emotional experiences.
  4. Traditional- based on habit or tradition.

  

  Other activity components

  Describing human activity, social science also highlights the concepts of result, as well as the means to achieve a goal. The result is understood as the final product of the entire process carried out by the subject. Moreover, it can be of two types: positive and negative. Belonging to the first or second category is determined by the correspondence of the result to the set goal.

  The reasons why a person may get a negative result can be both external and internal. External factors include changes in environmental conditions for the worse. Internal factors include such factors as setting an initially unattainable goal, incorrect choice of means, inferiority of actions, or lack of necessary skills or knowledge.

  

  Communication

  One of the main types of human activity in social science is communication. The purpose of any type of communication is to obtain some result. Here the main goal is often the exchange of necessary information, emotions or ideas. Communication is one of the basic qualities of a person, as well as an indispensable condition for socialization. Without communication, a person becomes antisocial.

  A game

  Another type of human activity in social studies is a game. It is characteristic of both people and animals. Children's games simulate situations in adult life. The main unit of children's play is the role - one of the main conditions for the development of children's consciousness and behavior. A game is a type of activity in which social experience is recreated and assimilated. It allows you to learn methods of carrying out social actions, as well as master the objects of human culture. Play therapy has become widespread as a form of correctional work.

  Work

  It is also an important type of human activity. Without work, socialization does not occur, but it is important not only for personal development. Labor is a necessary condition for the survival and further progress of human civilization. At the level of an individual, work is an opportunity to ensure one’s own existence, to feed oneself and one’s loved ones, as well as the opportunity to realize one’s natural inclinations and abilities.

  Education

  This is another important type of human activity. The social studies topic devoted to activity is interesting because it examines its various types and allows us to consider the whole variety of types of human activity. Despite the fact that the human learning process begins in the womb, at a certain period of time this type of activity becomes purposeful.

  For example, in the 50s of the last century, children began to be taught at the age of 7-8 years; in the 90s, mass education was introduced in schools from the age of six. However, even before the start of targeted learning, the child absorbs a huge amount of information from the world around him. The great Russian writer L.N. Tolstoy emphasized that at the age of 5 years a small person learns much more than in the rest of his life. Of course, one can argue with this statement, but there is a fair amount of truth in it.

  The main difference from other types of activity

  Often, schoolchildren receive a social studies question as homework: “Activity is a way of people’s existence.” In preparing for such a lesson, the most important thing to note is the characteristic difference between human activity and the usual adaptation to the environment that is characteristic of animals. One of these types of activity, which is aimed directly at transforming the world around us, is creativity. This type of activity allows a person to create something completely new, qualitatively transforming the surrounding reality.

  

  Types of activity

  The time when students study the social studies topic “Man and Activity”, according to the Federal State Educational Standard - 6th grade. At this age, students are usually old enough to distinguish between types of activities, as well as understand their importance for the overall development of a person. In science, the following types are distinguished:

  • Practical- aimed directly at transforming the external environment. This type, in turn, is divided into additional subcategories - material and production activities, as well as social and transformative ones.
  • Spiritual- an activity that is aimed at changing a person’s consciousness. This type is also divided into additional categories: cognitive (science and art); value-oriented (determining the negative or positive attitude of people towards various phenomena of the surrounding world); as well as prognostic (planning possible changes) activities.

  All these types are closely related to each other. For example, before carrying out reforms (refer to), it is necessary to analyze their possible consequences for the country (forecasting activities.