What Victorian ideas may seem shocking. Victorian era in England

During the long reign of Queen Victoria, significant changes took place in British society: industrialization, imperial expansion and the formation of democracy. Although poverty has not disappeared, the lives of many people have become more prosperous.

Victorian era

Queen Victoria ascended the throne in 1837 at the age of eighteen and reigned for 63 years, until 1901. Although this period was a time of unprecedented change, the foundations of society remained unchanged throughout the second half of the 19th century. - an era named after the Victorian queen personifying it.

Peace Workshop

The Industrial Revolution turned Britain into a country of smoking factories, huge warehouses and shops. The population increased rapidly, cities expanded, and in the 1850s the country was covered with a network of railroads. High performance and leaving

far behind other countries, Britain became the "workshop of the world", which she demonstrated at the first international industrial exhibition in 1851. The country retained its leading position until the end of the century. Against the background of rapid transformation, the negative aspects became more and more noticeable: unsanitary conditions in the dwellings of workers, child labor, low wages, poor working conditions and exhaustingly long working hours.

Victorian values

In the days of Queen Victoria, the middle class came into its own. The values ​​professed by the middle class began to prevail in society. Sobriety, punctuality, diligence, frugality and thrift were valued even before the reign of Victoria, but it was in her era that these qualities became the norm. This was natural, since it was they who proved to be the most useful in the new industrial world. The queen herself set an example: her life, completely subordinated to duty and family, was strikingly different from the lives of her two predecessors. Much of the aristocracy followed suit, abandoning the flashy, often scandalous lifestyle of the previous generation. So did the highly skilled part of the working class.

The values ​​and energy of the middle class undoubtedly underpinned all the achievements of the Victorian era. True, its representatives also possessed unattractive features: a philistine confidence that prosperity is a reward for virtue (and therefore, losers simply do not deserve better); driven to the extreme by puritanism in family life, which gave rise to feelings of guilt and hypocrisy.
Religion played an important role in the Victorian era, but a surprisingly large part of the huge population of cities hardly came into contact with it. Such Protestant trends as Methodists and Congregationalists, as well as the evangelical wing of the Anglican Church, had undeniable influence in the country. At the same time, there was a revival of the Roman Catholic faith and the Anglo-Catholic movement within the Anglican Church, committed to ritual and dogma.

Foundations and doubts

The Victorian era was, among other things, a period of doubt and disappointment, as the progress of science undermined faith in the inviolability of biblical truths. But still, atheism remained an unacceptable system of views for society and the church, which is why the generally recognized atheist Charles Bradlow managed to get a seat in the House of Commons (the lower house of the British Parliament) only in 1880, after a number of unsuccessful attempts.
The event most subversive of religious dogma was the publication in 1859 of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, since his theory of evolution implied that man was not the result of divine creation, which gave him supremacy over all other forms of life, but developed in the process of evolution of the natural peace. For much of the Victorian era, the church denied this and similar scientific hypotheses that it had to come to terms with in the 20th century.

Parties and politics

The Victorian Parliament was more representative than its predecessors and listened more to public opinion. In 1832, before Victoria's accession to the throne, parliamentary reform gave a large section of the middle class the right to vote (later laws in 1867 and 1884 gave the majority of adult men the right to vote; at the same time, a movement to give women the right to vote was launched).
The subordination of the government to the reigning monarch was ended under William IV (1830-37), and, despite all the reverence for Queen Victoria, she had only a slight influence on cabinet ministers and their political decisions. The ministers were accountable to parliament, especially the Commons, and, as party discipline was not yet rigid enough, they were not always able to enforce their decisions. By the 1860s Whigs and Tories took shape in much more clearly organized Liberal and Conservative parties, led respectively by Gladstone and Disraeli. But discipline in both parties was too liberal to keep them from splitting. The Ireland problem had a constant influence on the policy pursued by Parliament. Famine of 1845-46 forced Robert Peel to reconsider the grain trade laws that kept the price of British agricultural products high. The Free Trade Act was introduced as part of a general Victorian movement to create a more open, competitive society.
Meanwhile, Peel's decision to repeal the Corn Laws divided the Conservative Party. Twenty years later, William Gladstone's work to "appease" (his own term) Ireland, and his commitment to self-government, caused a split among the Liberals.
During this reformist period, the foreign policy environment remained relatively calm. The conflict came to a head in 1854-56, when Britain and France launched the Crimean War with Russia. But even this conflict had only a local character: the campaign was conducted with the aim of curbing Russian imperial aspirations in the Balkans. In fact, it was just one of the rounds in the protracted Eastern Question (a diplomatic issue linked to the decline of the Turkish Ottoman Empire) - the only thing that seriously affected Britain in the pan-European politics of the Victorian era. In 1878, England was on the brink of another war with Russia, but remained aloof from the European alliances that subsequently split the continent. British Prime Minister Salisbury called this policy of avoiding long-term alliances with other powers "brilliant isolation."

Imperial expansion

Meanwhile, the British Empire, which by 1837 included vast territories all over the planet, continued to expand. The colonies settled by Europeans, in particular Canada and Australia, gradually passed to self-government. At the same time, significant areas on the political map of the world, especially in Africa, acquired a red color, indicating belonging to the British possessions.
In England, the imperial outlook was surprisingly slow to develop, even after Disraeli made a purely ostentatious gesture in 1876 by proclaiming Victoria Empress of India. But by the 1890s, the British finally realized that their empire was the greatest that had ever existed in history. Thanks to the successes of domestic and foreign policy, the government enjoyed great confidence of the people. It was only partly shaken in the twilight of the Victorian era by the setbacks of the Boer War, which took three years (1899-1902) to subdue South African farmers, descendants of Dutch settlers. The hostility of Europeans to this campaign called into question the further expediency of "brilliant isolation" and became the reason for the changes that took place at the beginning of the 20th century.

At the service of a new society

The fundamental social value of that period is a deep conviction that the individual should be as free as possible from control or interference by the state. But, although outdated legal restrictions have been eliminated, the role of the state in industrial society has actually increased. Thus, state health regulations and factory laws protected workers from poverty and exploitation.
To increase the efficiency of organization and functioning, the new society needed public services such as mail (postage stamps and the principle of a fixed fee regardless of distance were innovations of this particular era). In connection with the increase in demand for skilled labor, in 1870 a state educational system was introduced that guaranteed the receipt of primary education. Universal secondary education was introduced only in 1902.

The problem of poverty

Despite the efforts of the state to streamline economic life, the industrialization of society had its negative consequences. Unthinkable poverty may not have increased compared to the old days, but became a real problem for society when the mass of the poor migrated to the urban slums. There was growing uncertainty about the future, because under the new economic system, ups and downs alternated, as a result of which workers lost their jobs and joined the ranks of the poor. The defenders of the system argued that there was nothing to be done, since such were the “iron laws” of the economy. But such views have been challenged by socialist thinkers such as Robert Owen and Karl Marx; their views were condemned by Charles Dickens, William Morris and other prominent writers and artists.
The Victorian era saw the birth and growth of the labor movement, from self-help and self-education programs (cooperatives, mechanic schools) to mass uprisings such as the Chartist struggles of the 1830s and 40s. for the expansion of political rights. Trade unions, which had been outside the law until the 1820s, gained real strength with the growth of socialist sentiment.

Era Achievements

Although the Victorians failed to cope with the problem of poverty, the social and economic achievements of the era were significant.
Mass production led to the emergence of new types of products, the standard of living gradually increased. The development of industry opened up new professional opportunities - for example, the growing demand for typists allowed a significant number of literate women to get a job for the first time in their lives. A new mode of transport - trains - daily transported employees from the city home to the suburbs, and workers every weekend - on excursions to the coast, which eventually became an invariable attribute of the English way of life.
Despite great changes, the Victorian era did not shake the confidence and optimism of the nation. The British believed that they could and should maintain the status of a leading world power, and only the outbreak of the First World War made them doubt this.

Victorianism. D. M. W. Turner. Rain, steam and speed. 1844

KEY DATES

1837 Victoria becomes queen
1840 Introduction of postage stamps. Victoria marries Albert
1846 Repeal of the Corn Laws
1851 First World's Fair
1854-56 Crimean War
1861 Death of Prince Albert
1867 Second parliamentary reform
1870 Education Bill: introduction of public school reform
1872 Introduction of secret ballot
1876 ​​Victoria is proclaimed Empress of India
1884 General suffrage for men
1886 Liberal Party split over Irish Home Rule
1893 Gladstone's last Home Rule Bill
1899-1902 Boer War
1901 Death of Queen Victoria

The prim British in the era of the reign of Queen Victoria seem to be an example of decorum and good manners. It's hard to imagine, but the British of those years wore pantaloons with a hole in the most interesting place, and reputable doctors saved them from hysteria with a thorough massage ... of the clitoris. Rotten food and canned food with arsenic, dead children in the photo, the glutton queen, and other strange and nasty facts about the Victorian era.

Doctors of that era treated hysteria in women with masturbation.

In those days, female "hysteria" (i.e. restlessness, irritability, nervousness and other similar symptoms) was seen as a serious problem. But doctors have discovered that these symptoms can be relieved for a while with "finger massage in the intimate area," which, if done correctly, will cause "hysterical paroxysm."

Victorian pantaloons were, as it were, cut in two, the halves for each leg were cut separately and connected with ties or buttons at the waist, on the back. Thus the crotch (i.e., the crotch) was opened, which could be very convenient in certain cases, which we, being very well-mannered, will not mention.

Many historians believe that due to the lack of special hygiene products at that time and the fact that women's clothing consisted of many layers of fabric, most women during menstruation did nothing at all and allowed blood secretions to freely flow out and soak into petticoats. Other solutions to the delicate problem were the use of cloth diapers, which were fastened with a belt, or sheep's wool, which was glued to the vulva with lard. Thank God modern women have pads and tampons.

In the Victorian era, there were no such useful items as a safety razor. And although depilation formulations were already invented then, they were very toxic and were used only to remove hair from the face and hands. So the armpits, legs and intimate area were terribly overgrown. But given that they were all hidden under several layers of clothing, it didn't matter.

By 1860, about a thousand tons of feces were dumped into the waters of the Thames every day, since there was simply no other storage for sewage. And at the same time, the river was the main source of drinking water for the inhabitants of London. People were dying like flies from dysentery, cholera and typhoid, believing that dirty air was to blame. Oh, how wrong they were!

A written certificate from 1891 by Lady Harburton states that during a short walk around London, the hem of her long dress gathered together: two cigar butts, nine cigarettes, a piece of pork pie, four toothpicks, two hairpins, a piece of cat food, half the sole of a shoe , tobacco bar (chewed), straw, dirt, scraps of paper and God knows what else.

The "Age of Crinolines" lasted from 1850 to 1870. At that time, the dome-shaped shirred skirt became the basis of the women's toilet, the shape of which was given by numerous petticoats. Sometimes a lady in such an outfit really could not squeeze through the door. And you could inadvertently touch the candle and knock it over yourself, and this is really life-threatening. The satirical magazine Punch even advised husbands to purchase insurance for their wives specifically in case of fire due to crinolines. So this fashion trend did not last long.

Before the invention of pasteurization, milk could be a source of tuberculosis. It was impossible to rely on the safety of products, especially those bought in large cities. Unscrupulous traders sold rotten meat mixed with fresh carcass fat; bakers added alum and chalk to the dough to make the bread whiter. Arsenic was added to pickles and other canned foods to enhance the taste and make it brighter. Well, kill the buyer.

Victoria hated spicy food, but as the ruler of India, she insisted on currying every day - just in case "oriental people" came to visit her.

As a child, Victoria was brought up in great strictness and was not allowed to eat much, so when she became queen, she did everything to catch up. She ate a lot and at an incredible speed, which was a problem for her guests - after all, according to etiquette, they had to finish each dish as soon as the queen finished eating it (even if they managed to bite off only a piece). In general, by today's standards, Queen Victoria was a rather obese woman.

A beauty-advice author recommended to readers: “Make a mask every night using thin slices of raw beef, which is said to protect the skin from wrinkles and give it a freshness.” Of course, if your dog does not gnaw your face in a dream.

This Russian boy was called Fedor Evtikhiev, and he suffered. Fyodor and his father Adrian were presented to the public as "the two greatest curiosities of our time." Their faces were covered with hair, which made them look like Skye Terriers. Subsequently, Andrian died from complications caused by alcoholism, but Fedor continued to "please people" for many more years.

In wealthy families, small children, regardless of gender, were usually dressed in white, elegantly decorated dresses with frills and lace. And bonnets with ribbons were also the same for both girls and boys.

The highest infant mortality rate was, of course, in the slums. The slums of Seven Dials in London and Angel Meadow in Manchester were so creepy they were called hell on earth. Manchester had over 30,000 workers, mostly Irish immigrants, in an area of ​​just one square mile. The children there were left to their own devices, eating whatever garbage they could find, and some even eating cats and rats.

Rich people usually took photos, and those who could not afford this expensive pleasure hired an artist. For example, a kind-hearted artist named John Callcott Horsley often visited morgues to paint portraits of recently deceased children. Such a posthumous image was often the only memory of departed relatives.

In the Victorian era, when gluttony coexisted with incredible frugality, not a single piece of food was wasted. For example, whole veal heads were boiled for dinner, and brains were cooked as a separate dish: they looked like pink blocks floating in an oily sauce. Veal ears were shaved, boiled, and then fried in boiling oil. A kind of feast in the style of Hannibal Lecter.

Darwin not only studied rare animals, but also loved to feast on them. He joined the Cambridge Gluttony Club, whose members ate unusual dishes of hawks, squirrels, grubs and owls. And while traveling, the scientist tasted an iguana, a giant tortoise, an armadillo and a cougar.

The British, who lived in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, that is, in the late Victorian and Edwardian eras, witnessed rapid changes and scientific discoveries that changed their life at its very core.

Some of the innovations brought about by the new age have had unexpected and sometimes terrible consequences.

Cheap bread with alum

In order to feed the rapidly growing population of London and other large cities and at the same time make as much profit as possible, bakery owners invented ways to make production cheaper.

Gypsum, bean flour, chalk or alum were added to the dough. Alum is an inorganic substance containing aluminum atoms, used today as a detergent.

In those days, with their help, whiteness was given to bread, replacing part of the flour with alum. A person who ate such surrogate bread suffered from malnutrition. Also, alum was the cause of diseases of the digestive tract in children, often fatal.

Boric acid in milk

Not only the bread recipe changed - an analysis of twenty thousand samples of milk taken in 1882 found foreign substances in every fifth sample. The composition of milk was changed not by merchants, but by the farmers themselves - it was believed that boric acid eliminates the characteristic smell and taste of sour milk. Buyers were assured that this is a completely harmless additive, but this was a mistake.

Even small amounts of boric acid cause nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, and diarrhea. But this was not the main danger. Before the discovery of the pasteurization process, milk often contained bovine tuberculosis pathogens, and boric acid creates an environment favorable for the growth of bacteria.

Bovine tuberculosis affects the internal organs and bones of the spine. During the Victorian era, approximately half a million children died of bovine milk-borne tuberculosis. On the site you can read about the most famous epidemics in the world.

Dangerous bathrooms

As we know, the bathroom in the house is a Victorian invention that has taken root all over the world, but at first it could be a very dangerous place. In the bathroom, one could not only get burned with boiling water, but even fly into the air.

The explosions were caused by accumulations of methane and hydrogen sulfide emitted by the waste, rising to the upper floors and exploding from the fire of a candle or a kerosene lamp. Later changes in sewer designs solved this problem.

killer stairs

The number of floors in houses grew rapidly, but stairs, especially those intended for servants, have not changed since the days of two- and three-story buildings. Too steep and narrow, with unequal intervals between steps, they were often deadly. A maid with a heavy tray, entangled in a long skirt, could easily become a victim of the negligence of the builders.

Flammable parksin

A now-forgotten British chemist, Alexander Parkes, invented an easily moldable material that today we would call plastic. The discoverer dubbed the substance parksin, but it soon became known under the American trade name "celluloid".

The industry welcomed the new material - everything from brooches to combs and billiard balls, previously available only to a few and made from ivory, was made from it. Celluloid collars and cuffs were easily cleaned of dirt.

Unfortunately, it turned out that parksin is highly flammable, and if partially decomposed, it can ignite spontaneously and even explode on impact. To put it mildly, not an ideal raw material for billiard balls.

Phenol poisoning

The Victorians regarded cleanliness as a companion of morality and respectability. The opinion is deeply rooted that external neatness is an indispensable attribute of piety. Advances in science only increased the zeal of housewives in the war against microbes, which, as they now knew, were not visible to the eye.

New household products were advertised aggressively and were highly effective, but their toxic ingredients, such as phenol or carbolic acid, were often found in the home alongside harmless substances. Cooking baking powder could easily be confused with caustic soda.

In September 1888, the Aberdeen Evening Express reported a massive phenol poisoning with five deaths. Only in 1902, a special act forbade the sale of dangerous chemicals in the same bottles as ordinary products.

Radium

In Edwardian times, a magical new element, a source of energy and light, was discovered that caused excitement in society - radium. The authorship of the discovery belongs to Maria Sklodowska-Curie and her husband. It quickly became fashionable and found use in cigarettes, condoms, cosmetics, toothpaste and even chocolate.

In addition, watches with luminous dials have become fashionable. As we all now know, radium is a source of radioactive radiation. Once inside the body, it causes anemia, bone fragility, jaw necrosis and leukemia. It is known that Marie Curie herself wore a radium medallion on her chest, and eventually died of cancer.

wonder material

Edwardian engineers thought they had discovered a marvelous material—a non-flammable, cheap, and pure mineral. It was used to make anything - hair dryers, floor tiles, toys, kitchen mitts, thermal insulation, even clothing.

As it turned out later, the miracle material, and simply asbestos, is deadly. Asbestos fibers lead to the destruction of lung tissue. We still do not know how many deaths were caused by the use of asbestos, because it can still suffer from it in our time.

Refrigerators

Home refrigerators appeared in ordinary homes during the Edwardian era. They were a symbol of progress and prosperity, but were far from reliable. Leaks of poisonous gases such as ammonia, methyl chloride and sulfur dioxide could easily lead to fatal poisoning.

Electricity

Electricity in the house was an outstanding innovation. At first, people did not understand how to use it - warning signs advised them not to approach the electrical panel with matches.

At the beginning of the 20th century, electric companies decided to interest the consumer in the use of electricity not only for lighting. Some of these attempts failed - the electric tablecloth, which could be directly connected to incandescent bulbs, did not interact well with spilled water.

But the real danger was caused by users trying to connect several devices to one outlet or fix the breakdown themselves. The newspapers were full of reports of deaths.

Even something as beautiful as progress can become a real danger. Insufficiently researched discoveries often lead to tragic consequences. The editors of the site invite you to read about the largest man-made disasters in the world.
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In the Victorian era, real erotic and pornographic literary works like My Secret Life were in circulation. There was even a pornographic magazine, The Pearl… But the Victorian code of conduct, in fact, required not the absence of sins in a person - the main thing was that they should not be known in society.
The reign of Queen Victoria

The cheerful 19-year-old girl who ascended the British throne in 1837 could hardly imagine what associations her name would evoke a hundred years later. And after all, the Victorian era was far from the worst time in British history - literature flourished, economics and science developed rapidly, the colonial empire reached the peak of its power ... However, perhaps the first thing that comes to mind when you hear the name of this queen is “Victorian morality ".

The current attitude towards this phenomenon is at best ironic, more often frankly negative. In English, the word "Victorian" is still a synonym for the concepts of "sanctimonious", "hypocritical". Although the era named after the queen had little to do with her personality. The social symbol "Her Majesty Queen Victoria" meant not her personal views, but the basic values ​​​​of the time - the monarchy, the church, the family. And these values ​​were postulated even before the crown was placed on Victoria.

The period of her reign (1837-1901) for the internal life of England was a time of calm digestion after a grandiose gluttony. The previous centuries were filled with revolutions, riots, Napoleonic wars, colonial conquests... And regarding morality itself, British society in previous times was by no means distinguished by excessive strictness of morals and stiffness of behavior. The British knew a lot about the joys of life and indulged in them quite unbridled - with the exception of a not too long period of existence in the country of a powerful puritan movement (which for a time turned England into a republic). But with the restoration of the monarchy, a long period of considerable relaxation of morals began.

Generations of Hanover

The generations of Hanoverians preceding Victoria led a very dissolute life. For example, King William IV, Victoria's uncle, made no secret of the fact that he had ten illegitimate children. George IV was also known as a womanizer (despite the fact that his waist circumference reached 1.5 meters.), An alcoholic, and also drove the royal house into huge debts.

Prestige of the British Monarchy

was at that time as low as ever - and no matter what Victoria herself dreamed of, time pushed her to a fundamentally different strategy of behavior. She did not demand high morality from society - society demanded this from her. The monarch, as you know, is a hostage of her position ... But there were reasons to believe that she inherited the extremely passionate temperament of the Hanoverians. For example, she collected images of male nudes… She even presented one painting to her husband, Prince Albert, and never did this again…

Victorian code of conduct

She got her husband quite appropriate to the trends of the times. Albert was so puritanical that he "felt physically unwell at the mere thought of adultery." In this, he was the exact opposite of his closest relatives: his parents divorced; father, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Ernst I, was just an enchanting womanizer who did not miss a skirt - as well as Albert's brother, Duke Ernst II.

The Victorian code of conduct is a declaration of every conceivable virtue. Diligence, punctuality, moderation, thriftiness et cetera… In fact, no one calculated or formulated all these principles. The most concise summary of their essence is contained, oddly enough, in the novel by American Margaret Mitchell "Gone with the Wind": "You are required to do a thousand of some unnecessary things just because it has always been done" ...

Of course, the notion that “it has always been done this way” was a lie. But in any society suddenly engulfed in the struggle for morality, a look at the past acquires a “Chinese accent”: history is presented not as it was, but as it should have been.

Victorian persecution of sensuality

Victorianism erected especially cruel persecutions on sensuality. Men and women had to forget that they had a body. The only parts of it that were allowed to be opened in the house were the hands and face. On the street, a man without a high standing collar and tie, a woman without gloves, were considered naked. All of Europe has long been fastening pants with buttons, and only in England did they use ropes and laces.

There were a huge number of euphemisms, for example, to call hands and feet otherwise than “limbs” was very indecent. Feelings and emotions were written and spoken mainly in the language of flowers. The curve of the neck of a shot bird in a still life was perceived in the same way as an erotic photograph is now (it is not surprising that offering a bird's leg to a woman at dinner was considered rude) ...

The principle of "separation of the sexes"

At the feast, the principle of “separation of the sexes” was observed: at the end of the meal, the women left, the men remained to smoke a cigar, skip a glass of port wine and talk. By the way, the custom of leaving the company without saying goodbye (“departure in English”) really existed, but in England it was called “departure in Scotch” (in Scotland - “departure in French”, and in France - “departure in Russian” ).

Open manifestations of sympathy between a man and a woman were strictly forbidden. The rules of everyday communication recommended that the spouses address each other officially in front of strangers (Mr. So-and-so, Mrs. So-and-so), so that the morality of those around them would not suffer from playfulness of tone. The height of swagger was considered an attempt to speak with a stranger.

The word "love" was completely taboo. The limit of frankness in the explanations was the password "Can I hope?" with the response "I have to think."

courtship

Courtship consisted of ritual conversations and symbolic gestures. For example, a sign of affection was the gracious permission of a young man to carry the young lady's prayer book upon his return from Sunday service.

A girl was considered compromised if she was left alone with a man for a minute. The widower was forced either to leave with an adult unmarried daughter, or to hire a companion in the house - otherwise he would be suspected of incest.

Girls were not supposed to know anything about sex and childbearing. It is not surprising that the wedding night often became a tragedy for a woman - up to suicide attempts.

The pregnant woman was a sight that offended Victorian morality beyond measure. She locked herself within four walls, hid the "shame" from herself with the help of a dress of a special cut. God forbid to mention in a conversation that she is “pregnant” - only “in an interesting situation” or “in happy waiting”.

It was believed that a sick woman was more worthy to die than to allow a male doctor to perform “shameful” medical manipulations on her. Doctors' offices were equipped with blank screens with a hole for one hand, so that the physician could feel the pulse or touch the patient's forehead to determine the heat.

statistical fact

: in the years 1830-1870, about 40% of English women remained unmarried, although there was no shortage of men. And the point here is not only the difficulties of courtship - the matter also rested on class and group prejudices: the concept of misalliance (unequal marriage) was brought to the point of absurdity.

Who to whom is a couple and not a couple - was solved at the level of a complex algebraic problem. Thus, the conflict that occurred between their ancestors in the 15th century could prevent the marriage of the offspring of two aristocratic families. A successful rural merchant did not dare to marry his daughter to the butler's son, for the representative of the "senior master's servants", even without a penny behind his soul, stood immeasurably higher than the shopkeeper on the social ladder.

Classes in English society

However, harsh Victorian rules were introduced into English society only to the level of the lower middle class. The common people - peasants, factory workers, small traders, sailors and soldiers - lived very differently. It was in high society that children were innocent angels who had to be protected from the world in every possible way - children from the lower social strata began working in mines or factories as early as 5-6 years old ... What can we say about other aspects of life. Ordinary people have never heard of all sorts of politeness in relations between the sexes ...

However, things were not so simple in high society either. It circulated real erotic and pornographic literary works like "My Secret Life". There was even a pornographic magazine The Pearl… But the Victorian code of conduct, in fact, required not the absence of sins in a person - the main thing was that they should not be known in society.

Born a little before the accession of Her Majesty, Victorianism died before her. This is well seen in English literature. The three Brontë sisters are complete mature Victorians. The late Dickens recorded signs of the destruction of the Victorian codex. And Shaw and Wells have only described the "Canterville Ghost" of the Victorian era. Wells was a particularly remarkable figure: the author of popular novels was a desperate, top-notch womanizer. And he was proud of it.

(1837-1901) - the period of the reign of Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India.
A distinctive feature of this era is the absence of significant wars (with the exception of the Crimean war), which allowed the country to develop intensively, in particular in the field of infrastructure development, construction of railways.

In the field of economics, the industrial revolution and the development of capitalism continued during this period. The social image of the era is characterized by a strict moral code (gentlemanship), which consolidated conservative values ​​and class differences. In the field of foreign policy, British colonial expansion continued in Asia (the "Great Game") and Africa (the "fight for Africa").

Historical overview of the era

Victoria succeeded to the throne on the death of her uncle, the childless William IV, on 20 June 1837. The Whig cabinet of Lord Melbourne, which the queen found upon her accession, was supported in the lower house by a mixed majority, only partly composed of old Whigs. It included, in addition, the radicals who sought to expand the suffrage and short-term parliaments, as well as the Irish Party, led by O'Connell. The opponents of the ministry, the Tories, were animated by a firm determination to oppose any further triumph of the democratic principle. New elections, called after the change of the monarch, strengthened the conservative party. The great cities of England, Scotland and Ireland voted predominantly in favor of the Liberal and Radical factions, but the English counties for the most part chose the opposition to the ministry.

Meanwhile, the policy of previous years created significant difficulties for the government. In Canada, the discord between the mother country and the local parliament assumed dangerous proportions. The Ministry received permission to suspend the Canadian constitution and sent the Earl of Dergham to Canada with extensive powers. Dergam acted energetically and skillfully, but the opposition accused him of abuse of power, as a result of which he had to resign his position.
The weakness of the government showed itself even more clearly in regard to Irish affairs. The Irish Tithes Bill could not be approved by the Ministry except by the complete removal of the appropriation clause.

Foreign and domestic policy

In the spring of 1839, the British successfully fought Afghanistan, which since that time has become, as it were, the front cover for their East Indian possessions and the subject of jealous guardianship on the part of England.
In May of the same year, a ministerial crisis broke out, the immediate cause of which was the affairs of the island of Jamaica. Disagreements between the mother country, which abolished Negro slavery in 1834, and the interests of the planters on the island threatened to lead to the same rupture as in Canada. The ministry proposed suspending the local constitution for several years. This was opposed by both the Tories and the Radicals, and the ministry's proposal was passed by a majority of just 5 votes. It resigned, but took over again the conduct of business when Wellington and Peel's attempts to form a new cabinet ended in failure - by the way, due to the fact that Peel demanded that the stats ladies and ladies-in-waiting of the Queen, who belonged to the Whig families, be replaced by others from the camp. Tories, and the Queen did not want to agree to this (in English constitutional history, this issue is known as the Bedchamber question). The parliamentary session of 1840 was opened with a solemn announcement of Queen Victoria's impending marriage to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; The wedding took place on February 10th.

On July 15, 1840, the representatives of England, Russia, Austria and Prussia concluded an agreement aimed at putting an end to the strife between the Porte and the Egyptian Pasha. Mehmed-Ali rejected the decision of the conference, counting on the help of France, offended by the exclusion from participation in such an important matter; but this calculation was not justified. An English squadron, reinforced by Turkish and Austrian military forces, landed in Syria in September and put an end to Egyptian rule there.
The triumph of foreign policy did not in the least strengthen the position of the ministry; this came to light during the parliamentary session that opened in January 1841. The government suffered one defeat after another. Already in 1838, in Manchester, under the leadership of Richard Cobden, the so-called anti-corn law league (en: Anti-Corn Law League) was formed, which set itself the task of abolishing the existing patronage system and, mainly, duties on imported bread. Enraged by the aristocracy and the landowners, who profited enormously from the high tariff, the league demanded the free importation of all foodstuffs as the only means of raising declining state revenues, improving the condition of the working classes, and facilitating competition with other states. Partly under the pressure of financial difficulties, partly in the hope of finding support in the opponents of the grain tax, the ministry announced its intention to start revising the Corn Laws. It was subsequently defeated on the question of the sugar tax by a majority of 317 votes to 281. The Ministry dissolved Parliament (23 June).

The Conservative Party, superbly organized and led by Peel, prevailed, and when the ministerial draft address was rejected by a strong majority in the new parliament, the ministers resigned. On September 1, 1841, a new cabinet was formed. Peel was at its head, and the chief members were the Dukes of Wellington and Buckingham, Lords Lyndhurst, Stanley, Aberdeen, and Sir James Graham. And earlier, on the issue of the emancipation of Catholics, Peel, who had shown some sensitivity to the requirements of the time, in February 1842, spoke in the lower house with a proposal to lower the import duty on bread (from 35 shillings to 20) and adopt the principle of gradually lowering tariff norms. All the counter-projects of the unconditional free-traders and protectionists were rejected, and Peel's proposal was accepted, as well as other financial measures aimed at covering the deficit (introduction of income tax, reduction of indirect taxes, etc.). At this time, the Chartists stirred again and submitted to Parliament a gigantic petition in terms of the number of signatures, outlining their demands. They found a strong foothold in the displeasure of the factory workers, fueled by the commercial crisis, the lull in industrial activity, and the high prices of the necessities of life. Disagreement with the North American States from abroad was settled by convention on August 9, 1842. The strain on France caused by the 1840 treaty still continued; its echo was the refusal of the French government to sign the convention concluded by the great powers on the destruction of the slave trade and on the right to search suspicious ships (English droit de visite).

The old quarrels with China over the opium trade led as early as 1840 to open war. In 1842, this war took a favorable turn for the British. They climbed up the Yantsekiang to Nanjing and dictated peace to the Chinese. The British ceded the island of Hong Kong; 4 new harbors were opened for trade relations.
In Afghanistan, the rapid success of 1839 blinded the British; they considered themselves masters of the country and were taken by surprise by the uprising of the Afghans, which broke out unexpectedly in November 1841. Trusting the insidious enemy, the British negotiated for themselves a free exit from the country, but on the return trip to India they suffered terrible losses from the climate, deprivation and fanaticism of the inhabitants. The Viceroy, Lord Ellenborough, decided to take revenge on the Afghans and in the summer of 1842 sent new troops against them. The Afghans were defeated, their cities destroyed, the surviving British prisoners were released. The devastating nature of the campaign was strongly condemned by the opposition in the House of Commons. The year 1843 passed uneasily.

The Catholic direction of some part of the Anglican clergy (see Puseism) grew more and more. In Scotland there was a rupture between the state church and the Presbyterian nonintrusive sect. The main difficulties faced the government in Ireland. From the moment he took office in the Thorian ministry, Daniel O'Connell resumed his agitation in favor of the dissolution of the union between Ireland and England (eng. Repeal). He was now gathering gatherings of 100,000 people; armed clashes could be expected. O'Connell and many of his supporters were prosecuted. The trial was postponed several times, but the agitator was eventually found guilty. The House of Lords appealed the verdict due to formal violations of the law; the government abandoned further persecution, but the agitation no longer reached its former strength.

In the session of 1844 the question of the Corn Laws again came to the fore. Cobden's proposal for the complete abolition of the grain duty was rejected by the lower house by a majority of 234 votes to 133; but already during the discussion of the Factory Bill, when the famous philanthropist Lord Ashley (later Earl of Shaftesbury) succeeded in passing a proposal to reduce the working day to 10 hours, it became clear that the government no longer had the previous strong majority.
The most important financial measure in 1844 was Peel's Banking Bill, which gave the English bank a new organization.
In the same year an important change took place in the supreme administration of the East Indies. In December 1843, Lord Ellenborough undertook a victorious campaign against the Gwalior district in Northern Hindustan (even earlier, in 1843, Sindh was conquered). But it was precisely this belligerent policy of the viceroy in connection with unrest and bribery in the civil administration that caused the intervention of the directorate of the East India Company. In the exercise of her legal right, she succeeded Lord Ellenborough and appointed Lord Harding in his place. In 1845, the internal disintegration of the former parties was completed.

Everything that Peel did in this year's session was achieved by him with the help of his former political opponents. He proposed an increase in funds for the maintenance of the Catholic Seminary at Minooth, which, being the only public institution of its kind in Ireland, represented a deplorable contrast to the luxurious furnishings of the Anglican schools. This proposal aroused the strongest opposition on the ministerial benches, which vividly outlined all the callousness of the old Torhorian and Anglican orthodoxy. When the bill was admitted to the second reading on April 18, the former ministerial majority no longer existed. Peel acquired the support of 163 Whigs and Radicals. Church agitation received new food when the ministers came up with a proposal to establish three higher secular colleges for Catholics, without the right to interfere with the state or the church in religious teaching.
Because of this measure, Gladstone, then still a strict churchman, left the office; when it was introduced into Parliament, Anglican high-churchists, Catholic fanatics and O'Connell alike burst into denunciations against the godless project. Nevertheless, the bill was passed by a huge majority. This changed position of the parties became even more pronounced in economic questions. The results of the last financial year were favorable and showed a significant increase in income tax. Peel petitioned for the continuation of this tax for another three years, assuming, at the same time, to allow a new reduction in customs duties and the complete abolition of export duties. His proposals aroused the displeasure of the Tories and landowners, but they met with ardent support in the former opposition and were accepted with her help.

Meanwhile, a terrible famine suddenly broke out in Ireland due to a crop failure for potatoes, which constituted almost the only food of the poorest classes of the population. The people were dying and tens of thousands sought salvation in emigration. Thanks to this, the agitation against the Corn Laws reached its highest degree of tension. The leaders of the old Whigs openly and irrevocably joined the movement, which until then had been in the hands of Cobden and his party. On December 10, the ministry resigned; but Lord John Rossel, who was commissioned to draw up a new cabinet, met with no less difficulty than Peel, and returned his powers to the queen.
Peel reformed the Cabinet, which Gladstone re-entered. Peel then proposed the gradual abolition of the Corn Laws. Part of the old Tory party followed Pil into the free trade camp, but the main body of the Tories raised a furious agitation against their former leader. On March 28, 1846, the second reading of the Corn Bill was passed by a majority of 88 votes; all changes, partly proposed by the protectionists, partly tending to the immediate abolition of all grain duties, were rejected. The bill also passed in the upper house thanks to the influence of Wellington.

In spite of this success, however, and the immense popularity which Peel had acquired by carrying out his great economic reform, his personal position became more and more precarious. In the struggle against the poisonous attacks of the protectionists, especially Disraeli, who, together with Bentinck, took over the leadership of the old Tories, Peel, of course, could not count on the protection of his long-term opponents. The immediate reason for his downfall was the issue of emergency measures against Ireland, resolved in the negative by a coalition of Whigs, Radicals and Irish deputies. External affairs at the time of the removal of the Tory ministry were in a very favorable position. The former strained relations with France gradually gave way to a friendly rapprochement. There were disagreements with North America due to mutual claims to the Oregon region, but they were peacefully settled.
In June 1846, the Sikhs raided British possessions in India, but were defeated.

On July 3, 1846, a new Whig ministry was formed under Lord John Rossel; its most influential member was the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston. It could count on a majority only if Peel supported it. Parliament, which opened in January 1847, approved a number of measures taken to help the distress of Ireland. About the same time O'Connell died, on his way to Rome, and in him the National Party of Ireland lost its chief foothold.
The issue of Spanish marriages led to a chill between the London and Paris cabinets. Taking advantage of this, the Eastern powers decided to annex Krakow to Austria, disregarding the belated protests of the British Foreign Minister.
In the general election of 1847, the protectionists were in the minority; the Peelites constituted an influential middle party; the combined Whigs, Liberals and Radicals formed a majority of 30 votes. The Chartists found a representative in the talented lawyer O'Connor. Inside the country, the situation was bleak. Increasing crime in Ireland called for a special repressive law. In the English manufacturing districts, poverty and unemployment also assumed appalling proportions; bankruptcy followed one after another. The shortfall in public revenues due to the general stagnation in business and the impossibility of reducing spending led the ministry to propose a law to increase income tax by another 2 percent. But the increase of this unpopular tax caused such a storm within and outside Parliament that at the end of February, 1848, the proposed measure was withdrawn.

Victorian architecture(Eng. Victorian architecture) is the most general term that is used in English-speaking countries to refer to the whole variety of varieties of eclectic retrospectivism common in the Victorian era (from 1837 to 1901). The dominant trend of this period in the British Empire was neo-gothic; entire neighborhoods in this style have been preserved in almost all former British colonies. British India is also characterized by the Indo-Saracenic style (a free combination of Neo-Gothic with national elements).

In the field of architecture, the Victorian era was marked by the general spread of eclectic retrospectivism, especially neo-Gothic. In English-speaking countries, the term " victorian architecture».

Victorian art and literature

Typical writers of the Victorian era are Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, Anthony Trollope, the Brontë sisters, Conan Doyle and Rudyard Kipling; poets - Alfred Tennyson, Robert Browning and Matthew Arnold, artists - Pre-Raphaelites.
British children's literature is taking shape and flourishing, with a characteristic departure from direct didactics towards nonsense and "bad advice": Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear, William Rands.

The Victorian era is not very easy to describe, if only because the reign of Queen Victoria turned out to be incredibly long. Styles and trends in literature and art changed, but the fundamental worldview remained.
We have already said that the old, stable world was disintegrating before people's eyes. Green hills and valleys were built up with factories, and the development of science called into question the very origin and essence of man: is he really the image of God, or a descendant of strange creatures that crawled out a million years ago from the primitive mud? Therefore, through the whole era, through all art, there is a desire of people to somehow hide from reality or recreate it themselves. (This is done by Turner and Constable: in their paintings they seem to re-create light and color). Some try to escape modernity by hiding in the Middle Ages, like the Pre-Raphaelites, Morris and Pugin.

Others try to oppose a crumbling world with simple, reliable middle-class values: family, children, home, honest work. Queen Victoria herself sets an example. In her youth, Victoria was very beautiful, and the stereotype that arises at the mention of her - the image of an overweight old woman in eternal mourning - is her later years. Victoria was an exemplary wife, remaining faithful to her beloved husband even after his death (hence the lifelong mourning), perpetuating his memory in monuments such as the Albert Hall. They were the perfect family, true to middle class values. It was Prince Albert who introduced the Christmas tree and the custom of giving gifts to children at Christmas into English use, and gradually this desire to find warmth and joy in a cruel world turns into syrupy sentimentality so characteristic of Victorianism - or, conversely, moralizing. The Victorian of the Victorians in this sense is Charles Dickens, with his innocent angel children and the inevitable punishment of vice.
At the same time, revolutionary changes were taking place in the country. Industrialization affected more and more areas of life. Mass production appears (the same porcelain dogs, lithographs and postcards), the phonograph, photography. The level of education is also growing: if in 1837 in England 43% of the population was illiterate, then in 1894 - only 3%. The number of periodicals has grown 60 times (among others, fashion magazines such as Harpers Bazar appear), a network of libraries and theaters have emerged.

Perhaps mass production is the reason why when we use the term "Victorian", especially in relation to design and interiors, we most often think of a room with lush, heavy furniture, where it is impossible to turn around because of the numerous tables, armchairs, ottomans, shelves with figurines, where the walls are completely hung with paintings and photographs. This eclecticism was not some single style; this was for the most part a middle-class house, and for the most part such interiors belong to the period that is commonly called High Victorian (1850s - 70s).

Moreover, even in the furniture, the Victorians expressed their strict morality: where did such long tablecloths come from, where did the chair covers come from? But the fact is that even an armchair and a table cannot be shown legs, this is indecent. "Decent" is one of the fundamental values ​​in that era. Everyday costume was quite strict and restrained (however, at a ball or a reception one could still show off the beauty of the dress and jewelry). But even going to the ball, it was not customary to use cosmetics - this is indecent, only fallen women put on makeup. A monument to the Victorian concept of decency will forever remain the bathing cabin, which allowed ladies to bathe away from male eyes. They changed in these booths - bathing suits were not much different from the usual ones! - and then the cabins were taken out to sea so that you could enter the water and leave it without witnesses.

Around this time, people begin to realize that children are not miniature adults, but very special creatures. Education is another of the words that run like a red thread through the era. Childhood stands out in a separate period of human life, and combines all the incompatible features of Victorianism: on the one hand, children are innocence, purity, gifts for Christmas; on the other hand, children need to be brought up in strictness so that they learn the moral norms of society, accustom them to hard work and good manners.

The Victorian era is full of contradictions. This is the time of extreme optimism and extreme pessimism, the time of strict moral rules and the time when prostitution flourished in London, the time of the triumph of the empire and the time of Jack the Ripper. All this must be remembered when we speak of art, because all this is most directly reflected in it.

The Victorian era gave rise to the women's emancipation movement, but the focus was still on jewelry and accessories. Men's fashion gravitated toward greater austerity of style, and new methods of making clothes spread rapidly.
The 19th century - the century of the bourgeoisie and technological progress - had a radical impact on fashion. Thanks to the mass industrial production of clothing, the development of means of communication, fashion is becoming the property of ever wider sections of society. The accelerated pace of life and the development of civilization leads to a rapid change in fashion trends.
Despite the fact that a woman is gradually winning her rights from men, the fashion of the 19th century is still chaste and bashful in a bourgeois way. The female silhouette is now entirely determined by clothing. The open body is becoming less and less, although it is by no means forbidden to emphasize certain “places” with clothing

The Victorian Age can be divided into three periods:
- early Victorian (1837-1860)
- Middle Victorian (1860-1885)
- Late Victorian (1885-1901)

The early Victorian period is also known as the "Romantic" period. This is the queen's youth, marked by ease and a certain freedom of temper, as well as an ardent love for Prince Albert. The queen adored jewelry, and her subjects ladies, imitating her, adorned themselves with cute enamel trinkets, cabochons and corals.
Wide-brimmed hats decorated with feathers and flowers, fashionable at the beginning of the century, were replaced by practical caps, which influenced the female silhouette as a whole.
In the 20s of the XIX century, the figure of a woman resembles an hourglass: rounded "swollen" sleeves, a wasp waist, a wide skirt. The neckline of the dress almost completely exposes the shoulders. A strongly open neck allows you to "highlight" the head, and complex hairstyles, usually raised, come into fashion.

Although the skirts are wide, their length was shortened: first the shoes opened, and then the ankles. This was quite revolutionary, because the woman's legs for a long time (almost the entire European history of "AD") remained securely hidden from prying eyes.
Women's fashion of that time was complemented by long gloves, which were removed in public only at the dinner table. An umbrella becomes an obligatory fashionable attribute of women for a long time. There was not so much coquetry in this as it might seem at first glance. The umbrella had a rather pragmatic purpose - to protect the woman's skin from the sun. Until the 1920s, tanning was considered indecent, "village", pale "alabaster" skin was in fashion, so corresponding to the period of romanticism.

Also, by 1820, the corset returned to the attire of fashionistas, which would leave clothes only after a century. The waist, which in Empire times was located almost under the breast, again occupies a natural position, but an unnatural volume is required from it - about 55 cm! The desire to achieve an "ideal" waist often led to tragic consequences. So, in 1859, a 23-year-old fashionista died after a ball due to the fact that three ribs compressed by a corset stuck into her liver.

The already long corset (starting under the bust, it covered the buttocks by a quarter, pulling them in) by 1845 lengthened so much that a classic V-silhouette appeared, complemented by wide sleeves. As a result, women of fashion could hardly move their arms, and their ability to move was seriously limited. Helplessness and dependence on a man made the ladies of the Victorian era even more attractive in the eyes of their gentlemen. The color scheme became more muted, in contrast to the variegation of fabrics inherent in the beginning of the century, small details came to the fore, which made it possible to radically change the appearance. Usually these were wide belts with buckles. Women's modesty was also emphasized by white scarves around the neck, as well as white undersleeves - "engageantes". After almost a long absence, exquisite cashmere shawls are back in fashion. However, this time they were much wider and almost completely covered the female shoulders. The upper skirt gradually lost its former round shape, becoming much wider and taking on the shape of a bell. By 1850, the word "crinoline" came into fashion, denoting a woman's overskirt. The wider the crinoline, the better. Wearing it was quite problematic, so this accessory was soon abandoned.

Curls were fashionable hairstyle at that time. Laid around the head, descending to the shoulders, stabbed into a knot or gathered at the back of the head.

Women's costume sample 1833

Fashion lady in the park

The Middle Victorian period was marked by a tragic event - the death of Prince Consort Albert. Victoria, who passionately loved her husband, plunged into the abyss of sorrow and mourning. She constantly mourned and mourned her dead husband and always dressed only in black. It was followed by the entire royal court, and then, in general, by the whole society. However, the ladies concluded that they look extremely attractive in black and managed to benefit from the general grief.

The women's clothing of the middle Victorian period was one of the most uncomfortable costumes: tight corsets, long heavy skirts with many pleats, high collars rising to the throat. Men's clothing was much more comfortable.
Nevertheless, even when the struggle for the reform of women's dress was being fought in England, female travelers stubbornly continued to wear corsets and hats and carefully took care to maintain the proper appearance of a woman, no matter how difficult it was. Moreover, according to them, only this clothing was the only suitable and appropriate for a woman in unusual conditions.

The 60s of the XIX century became a turning point in the history of the development of world fashion, turning it into a real industry. Such significant changes have occurred largely due to the invention of the sewing machine, as well as the emergence of artificial dyes. At the same time, one of the main directions in the development of modern fashion, haute couture, emerged and institutionalized. From now on, fashion trends have ceased to be some kind of frozen and slowly changing form, turning into something much more dynamic and creative.

The famous dome-shaped crinoline skirt has sunk into oblivion, it was replaced by a much more elegant elongated shape. However, the very concept of "crinoline" lingered in fashion for quite a long time due to the extraordinary popularity of the creator of haute couture Charles Worth. Worth himself considered the crinoline to be a rather bulky and unattractive structure, but since his name was strongly associated with this particular accessory, he continued to experiment with the form, creating an increasingly sophisticated image. As a result, after a few years, the overskirt rose significantly and was gathered into elegant pleats just below the waist.

By 1867, the crinoline had finally disappeared from the fashionable horizon and was replaced by bustles. Experiments with upper and lower skirts literally captured almost all sections of English society. As a result, by 1878 the ladies bore a very distant resemblance to their early Victorian predecessors. A thin, graceful silhouette with a long train finally defeated massive forms. From now on, designers began to pay special attention to the figures of customers, giving the latter the desired grace, which meant further improvement in the skill of the couturier, who often had to turn the ugly duckling into a real princess.

Speaking of crinoline. The crinoline acquires its true meaning only from 1850. It was then that it is a shirred domed skirt, the shape of which was supported by numerous petticoats. Until 1856, six more petticoats were worn under the overskirt, mostly handmade, very elaborate. Making them was difficult and took an infinite amount of time. This was due to the fact that improved sewing machines began to be used in Parisian salons, at best, around 1850. Everywhere, these machines were brought into them only in 1857. From 1859, artificial crinolines were introduced, where elastic steel hoops - a technically modernized memory of the former ryfrock with its hoops - seemed to support the lighter modern material like springs. This change affected not only the outer outline of the dress, but also changed the very nature of the clothes. The skirt has taken on a new, unexpected movement. The former petticoats have disappeared, and the faux crinoline has become a machine-made commodity. As soon as the skirt expanded to the crinoline, the sleeves of the bodice narrowed, which in the 40s already tightly fitted the arm, and the bodice itself began to be complemented by a wide frill at the collar, called "berte".
Small hats, decorated with feathers and veils, came back into fashion; ladies preferred modest hairstyles - a bun or curls, tucked into French braids on the sides. Particularly relaxed ladies experienced the first model haircuts, but they have not yet received distribution.

Lady and Gentleman Model 1850

Dresses with bustles 1869

Dress with a narrow silhouette, 1889

Lady in an Amazon dress

Late Victorian period.

Industrialization is proceeding across the planet with leaps and bounds: the telephone and telegraph have already been invented, experiments are being carried out with computers, the Kodak camera has appeared, the luxurious World Exhibition has died down. Life has become dynamic and hasty, which is reflected in fashion trends. It was at this time that the famous "bloomers" were invented - wide harem pants like the clothes of harem slaves, the skirts became narrower, the silhouette began to take shape, familiar to us now. Tournament and crinoline, although they are worn everywhere, are gradually going out of fashion, giving way to practical strict dresses (most often from the atelier), Amazon cut suits and mermaid skirts (narrow top and puffy bottom). Women begin to cut their hair; perm and bangs are in fashion.
But all this concerns mainly wealthy women, representatives of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie. For ladies from the lower classes, the clothes remain unchanged - a closed dark dress with a blank collar of the most simple cut, a hard bustle made of cheap materials that mercilessly rubs the skin even through undershirts, rough ("goat") shoes or shoes with low heels.

It is characteristic that men's clothing from the beginning of the XIX century. almost didn't change. Only the details and materials changed, but not the cut. After 1875, the type of men's clothing that we know today was established - trousers, waistcoat and jacket, all from the same material - solid English fabrics.
The tuxedo is in fashion. Initially, it was worn in smoking parlors, and then when visiting theaters and restaurants. The tuxedo was worn mostly by young people. The cuffs were starched so that they could be written on.
In the 1860s, the famous bowler hat was invented, originally intended to be worn by lackeys and clerks, but then rapidly ascending to the very upper strata of society. Say what you like, but the compact and solid headdress with narrow brim was much more comfortable than the usual top hat. However, this one has also undergone changes - some models of cylinders have become folding.