Russian culture in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century. Ideological struggle and social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century "Union of struggle for the liberation of the working class"
Russia in the second half of the 19th century
On February 18, 1855, after the death of Nicholas I, his son Alexander II ascended the throne. His reign (1855-1881) passed under the sign of a deep modernization of Russian society. February 19, 1861 was made public Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and approved legislative acts that compiled the "Regulations on the peasants who came out of serfdom." Zemstvo self-government was introduced in 1864 (gradually, in 34 provinces of European Russia), jury trials and advocacy, in 1870 - city self-government, in 1874 - universal military service.
In 1863 an uprising broke out in Poland. It was suppressed. In 1864, Russia managed to end the Caucasian War, which had lasted 47 years. Accession to Russia in 1865-1876 significant territories of Central Asia put the tsarist administration in front of the need to organize the management of a remote foreign cultural outskirts.
Reforms of 1860-1870s led to a sharp growth of the economy and especially industry. The most noticeable aspect of this growth was the “railway boom” of the second half of the 1860s and early 1870s, during which the most important highways were built: Moscow-Kursk (1868), Kursk-Kiev (1870), Moscow -Brest (1871).
In the middle of the XIX century. Russia was an agricultural country, the largest producer and supplier of agricultural products. Under the terms of the abolition of serfdom, the peasants had to redeem their land plots. "Redemption payments" placed a heavy burden on rural communities and often dragged on for many years, which caused more than 1,300 mass actions of peasants, of which more than 500 were suppressed with the use of force. Communal land use (the inability to dispose of their allotments) and lack of land caused dissatisfaction among the peasants and held back the growth of the working class, and the lack of social guarantees from the state led to increased exploitation of workers.
The ideas of V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) and N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), who believed that that the ideal state structure can be established only on the principles of extending the communal orders familiar to the Russian countryside to the whole of society. They saw a general peasant uprising as a means of reorganizing public life. To prepare for this all-Russian peasant revolt, the revolutionary youth tried to organize the propaganda of their ideas among the peasants (“going to the people” in 1874-1875), but among the peasants, naive-monarchist sentiments were still very strong. Some of the youth mistakenly believed that the assassination of the tsar would automatically cause the collapse of the state apparatus, which would facilitate the revolution. Already in 1866, the first attempt on the life of Alexander II took place, and in 1879 the secret organization Narodnaya Volya arose, which set as its task terror against prominent members of the tsarist administration, and regicide as its highest goal. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed by the "populists", but the peasant revolution did not take place.
The son of Alexander II, Alexander III, became king. His reign (1881-1894) was characterized by protective tendencies. The new monarch sought in every possible way to strengthen the state apparatus and increase the manageability of the country. To do this, he went to a partial curtailment of the transformations that were carried out by Alexander II. In historiography, this period is called "period of counter-reforms". Zemstvo chiefs (nobles) appeared in the counties, managing peasant affairs; security departments were established in the provinces to combat the revolutionary movement. The rights of zemstvo self-government were significantly limited, and the electoral system was changed in order to ensure the predominance of delegates from landlords in zemstvo bodies. Reactionary changes were made to judicial and censorship matters. On the other hand, the administration of Alexander III sought to act as a social arbiter. The government was forced to pass laws restricting the exploitation of workers. In 1883 the poll tax was abolished.
Alexander III died in 1894. His son Nicholas II ascended the throne, who, like his father, fought against liberal tendencies and was a consistent supporter of absolute monarchy, which, however, did not prevent him from favoring certain innovations and transformations, if they were tactical in nature and did not affect the foundations of autocracy. In particular, during the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917), the gold backing of the ruble and the state wine monopoly were introduced, which significantly improved the country's finances. The Trans-Siberian Railway, the construction of which was completed in those years, connected the Far Eastern borders with the central regions of Russia. In 1897, a First All-Russian population census.
The liberation of the peasants from serfdom contributed to the rapid development of capitalism: the emergence of a large number of industrial and commercial enterprises, banks, the construction of railways, and the development of agricultural production. By the end of the XIX century. The number of workers has doubled and reached 1.5 million people. In 1879-1900. the share of large enterprises increased from 4 to 16%, i.e., 4 times, the workers in them - from 67 to 76%.
The growth of the proletariat was accompanied by the appearance of the first revolutionary workers' organizations. In 1883, G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918) and his associates in Geneva united in the Emancipation of Labor group, which initiated the spread Marxism in Russia. The group developed a program of Russian social democracy, the ultimate goal of which was proclaimed the creation of a workers' party, the overthrow of the autocracy, the seizure of political power by the working class, the transfer of means and instruments of production to public ownership, the elimination of market relations and the organization of planned production. The publications of this group were distributed in Russia in more than 30 provincial centers and industrial cities.
Marxist circles began to appear in Russia (by the end of the 19th century there were about 30 of them). In 1892, V. I. Lenin (Ulyanov, 1870-1924) began revolutionary activity in Samara. In 1895, together with members of the Marxist circle of students-technologists (S. I. Radchenko, M. A. Silvin, G. M. Krzhizhanovsky and others) and St. Petersburg workers (I. V. Babushkin, V. A. Shelgunov, B. I. Zinoviev and others) Lenin created an organization in St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class", which was soon defeated by the police, and Lenin had to emigrate.
In 1898, a congress of representatives of the St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Yekaterinoslav "unions of struggle" and the Bund (the party of the Jewish proletariat) was held in Minsk. The congress proclaimed the creation Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) and elected the Central Committee (CC). On behalf of the Congress of the Central Committee issued Manifesto of the RSDLP, in which the democratic and socialist tasks of the Russian proletariat and its party were briefly set. However, the party did not yet have a program and rules, its local committees were in a state of ideological and organizational confusion.
In 1855 the Kuril Islands were officially incorporated into Russia. The accession of the Amur and Primorye was formalized Aigunsky(1858) and Beijing(1860) treaties with China. Under the Aigun Treaty, the undemarcated lands along the left bank of the Amur were recognized as the possession of Russia, and under the Beijing Treaty, Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was ceded to it. In 1875, Sakhalin Island passed to Russia, and the Kuril Islands - to Japan.
In 1867, the Turkestan Governor General was formed from the annexed possessions of the Kokand Khanate and the Emirate of Bukhara. In 1868, the Samarkand and Kata-Kurgan districts of the Emirate of Bukhara were annexed to Russia, which recognized the protectorate of Russia. In 1869, the Trans-Caspian military department was formed with its center in Krasnovodsk. After 1881, the Trans-Caspian region was formed with the Center in Askhabad. By agreement with Great Britain (England), on September 10, 1885, the border of Russia with Afghanistan was established, and in 1895 - the border in the Pamirs.
In the spring of 1875, an uprising broke out in the Turkish possessions of Russia in the Balkans. The Serbs turned to the Russian government for help, which demanded that Turkey conclude a truce with the Serbs. The refusal of the Turks caused the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. In the summer of 1877, Russian troops crossed the Danube and entered Bulgaria.
However, the forces for a decisive offensive were not enough. The detachment of General Gurko, advanced to the south, occupied the Shipka Pass on the Balkan Range, but could not advance further. On the other hand, numerous attempts by the Turks to knock the Russians off the pass also failed. The delay of the Russians with the occupation of Plevna on the western face of the Transdanubian bridgehead became especially dangerous. Turkish troops were the first to reach this strategically important point and gain a foothold in it. Three extremely bloody assaults on July 8 (20), July 18 (30) and August 30-31 (September 11-12), 1877 were unsuccessful. In autumn, the Russians occupied the fortifications of Telish and Gorny Dubnyak, finally blocking Plevna. Trying to support the encircled fortress, the Turks launched a counteroffensive immediately from Sofia and on the eastern face of the bridgehead. In the Sofia direction, the Turkish counteroffensive was repelled, and the Eastern Front of the Russian location was broken through, and only a desperate counterattack by the Russian troops, which crushed the Turkish orders near Zlataritsa, stabilized the front. Having exhausted the possibilities for resistance, after an unsuccessful attempt to break through, the Pleven garrison capitulated on November 28 (December 10), 1877. In the winter of 1877-1878. in incredibly difficult weather conditions, Russian troops crossed the Balkan Range and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turks at Sheinovo. On January 3-5 (15-17), 1878, the last Turkish army was defeated in the battle near Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and on January 8 (20) Russian troops occupied Adrianople without any resistance. According to the Berlin Treaty on July 13, 1878, South Bessarabia, Batum, Kars and Ardagan were annexed to Russia.
The trends in literature and art that developed in the first half of the 19th century were further developed and in the second half of the 19th century. - early XX century.
Reforms of 1860-1870s represented a real revolution, the consequence of which were cardinal changes in social, state and all people's life, which could not but affect the development of culture. There was not only social, but also spiritual emancipation of the people, which had new cultural needs and opportunities to satisfy them. The circle of people of intelligent labor and bearers of culture has also expanded significantly. Of no small importance was also scientific and technological progress, which served both as factors and as an indicator of the development of culture.
Early 20th century - this is the "Silver Age" of Russian culture especially in the field of literature and art. Russia has firmly entered the system of world powers closely linked by economic, political and cultural ties. In Russia, the novelties of the scientific and technological progress of the advanced countries (telephone, cinema, gramophone, automobile, etc.), the achievements of the exact sciences, were widely used; have become widespread in literature and art in various directions. And global culture has been significantly enriched by the achievements of Russian science, literature and art. Performances by Russian composers, opera singers, ballet masters were held in famous theaters in Italy, France, Germany, England, and the USA.
IN Russian literature second half of the 19th century the themes of folk life, various socio-political currents received a particularly vivid image. At this time, the flourishing of the work of outstanding Russian writers L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky, F. M. Dostoevsky. In the 1880-1890s. A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, and N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky stand out in Russian literature. The traditions of critical realism inherent in these writers found their continuation and development in the work of those who came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. writers of a new generation - A. M. Gorky, A. I. Kuprin, I. A. Bunin.
Along with this direction, especially in the pre-revolutionary decade and mainly in the poetic environment, various literary circles and associations arose, seeking to move away from traditional aesthetic norms and ideas. Symbolist associations (the creators and theoretician of Russian symbolism was the poet V. Ya. Bryusov) included K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Gippius, A. Bely, A. A. Block. The direction opposite to symbolism, acmeism, arose in Russian poetry in 1910 (N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam). Representatives of another modernist trend in Russian literature and art - futurism - denied traditional culture, its moral and artistic values (V. V. Khlebnikov, Igor Severyanin, early V. V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).
The Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg and the Maly Theater in Moscow remained the main centers of Russian theater culture in the second half of the 19th century. - the beginning of the 20th century. The plays by A. N. Ostrovsky occupied the leading place in the repertoire of the Maly Theatre. Prov Sadovsky, Sergei Shumsky, Maria Yermolova, Alexander Sumbatov-Yuzhin and others stood out among the actors of the Maly Theater. Maria Savina, Vladimir Davydov, Polina Strepetova shone on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater.
In the 1860-1870s. private theaters and theater circles began to emerge. In 1898, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Art Theater in Moscow, and in 1904, V. F. Komissarzhevskaya created the Drama Theater in St. Petersburg.
Second half of the 19th century - flourishing time Russian musical art. An important role in the development and organization of music education was played by Anton and Nikolai Rubinstein. N. G. Rubinshtein became the initiator of the creation of the Moscow Conservatory (1866).
In 1862, the “Balakirev Circle” (or, according to V. Stasov, “The Mighty Handful”) was formed in St. Petersburg, which included M. A. Balakirev, Ts. A. Cui, A. P. Borodin, M. P. Mussorgsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Mussorgsky's operas Khovanshchina and Boris Godunov, Rimsky-Korsakov's Sadko, The Maid of Pskov and The Tsar's Bride are masterpieces of Russian and world musical classics. The greatest composer of the era was P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), whose creativity flourished in the 1870-1880s. P. I. Tchaikovsky is the largest creator of symphonic, ballet and opera music (ballets Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty; operas Eugene Onegin, The Queen of Spades, Mazepa, Iolanta, etc. .). Tchaikovsky wrote over a hundred romances, mostly based on the works of Russian poets.
At the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries. A galaxy of talented composers appeared in Russian music: A. K. Glazunov, S. I. Taneev, A. S. Arensky, A. K. Lyadov, I. F. Stravinsky, A. N. Skryabin. With the help of wealthy patrons, private operas appear, among which the private opera of S. I. Mamontov in Moscow has become widely known. On her stage, the talent of F.I. Chaliapin was fully revealed.
IN Russian painting the dominant position was occupied by critical realism, the main theme of which was the image of the life of the common people, especially the peasantry. First of all, this theme was embodied in the work of the Wanderers (I. N. Kramskoy, N. N. Ge, V. N. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. E. Makovsky, G. G. Myasodoev, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, I. E. Repin, A. I. Kuindzhi, I. I. Levitan). An outstanding representative of Russian battle painting was V. V. Vereshchagin, the largest marine painter was I. K. Aivazovsky. In 1898, the creative association of artists "World of Art" arose, which included A. N. Benois, D. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lansere, B. M. Kustodiev, K. A. Korovin, N. K. Roerich, I. E. Grabar.
Implementation into architecture achievements of industrial progress and technical innovations contributed to the construction of structures characteristic of the industrial development of the country: factory buildings, railway stations, banks, shopping centers. Art Nouveau becomes the leading style, along with which buildings of the Old Russian and Byzantine styles were erected: the Upper Trading Rows (now GUM, architect A.N. Pomerantsev), the buildings of the Historical Museum in Moscow (architect V.O. Sherwood) and the Moscow City Duma ( architect D.N. Chichagov) and others.
A significant event in social and cultural life was the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880, sculptor A. M. Opekushin). Among the outstanding sculptors of this time are: M. M. Antakolsky, A. S. Golubkina, S. T. Konenkov.
Successfully developed the science. The name of the great scientist D. I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) is associated with the discovery of the Periodic Table of Elements; I. M. Sechenov’s research in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity was continued by I. P. Pavlov; II Mechnikov created the doctrine of the protective factors of the body, which formed the basis of modern microbiology and pathology.
The "father of Russian aviation" E. N. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of modern aerodynamics, invented the wind tunnel, and in 1904 founded the Aerodynamic Institute; K. E. Tsiolkovsky laid the foundation for the theory of the movement of rockets and jet instruments. Academician V. I. Vernadsky gave rise to many scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology, and ecology with his work. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology.
Technical discoveries and inventions are associated with the development of the natural sciences: the creation of an electric incandescent bulb (A. N. Lodygin), an arc lamp (P. N. Yablochkov), and radio communications (A. S. Popov).
The outstanding scientist S. M. Solovyov developed the fundamental work “The History of Russia from Ancient Times”, in which he substantiated a new concept that explained Russian history by the natural and ethnic characteristics of the Russian people.
The abolition of serfdom, despite its incompleteness, created the conditions for the rapid development of capitalism. In 1861-1900. Russia has turned from an agricultural into an agrarian-industrial capitalist country, one of the great world powers. At the end of the XIX century. in industrial production, it took the fifth place, after the USA, England, Germany and France.
As a result of imperial policy, Russia annexed a huge space in Central Asia, stopping the expansion of England in this area and obtaining a raw material base for the textile industry. In the Far East, the Amur Region and Ussuri Primorye were annexed, and possession of Sakhalin was secured (in exchange for the cession of the Kuril Islands). Political rapprochement with France began.
The emerging revolutionary movement of the populists was unable to raise the peasants to revolt, the terror against the tsar and senior officials turned out to be untenable. In the 1880s the spread of Marxism began, in 1892 - the revolutionary activity of Lenin, in 1898 the RSDLP was created.
§ 34. RUSSIAN SOCIETY IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY
NOBILITY AND OFFICIALS. One high-ranking official remarked: “The line of the nobility is so boundless with us that one end touches the foot of the throne, and the other is almost lost in the peasantry.” Observation for the second half of the XIX century. very characteristic. By 1897, the total number of nobles had almost doubled. But its composition was blurred due to people from other classes.
In the post-reform years, landownership of the nobility decreased quite significantly. This process affected the landlords of the non-Chernozem provinces especially noticeably. By the beginning of the XX century. only 30 - 40% of the nobles were provided with land.
The sources of income for the nobility increasingly became the public service, interest on shares (as they said then, “coupon clipping”), and entrepreneurship.
At the beginning of the XX century. 1894 noblemen owned 2090 enterprises with at least 15 workers. The nobility was helped to switch to entrepreneurial activity by the capitals amassed in pre-reform times or as a result of a redemption operation. The right to own land and its subsoil also helped.
In general, after the reform, the first estate had a hard time. It lost the free serf labor of the peasants. The nobles were deprived of the exclusive right to produce alcoholic beverages and other benefits. The new conditions forced a mass of landowners to adapt to the market, but it was difficult for them to compete with the rural and urban bourgeoisie. In general, the nobility found it difficult to find a place in the new conditions.
Another class of Russian society, the bureaucracy, was gaining more and more strength. As before, different layers were distinguished in it depending on the place of service (ministerial, provincial, county) and on the class established by the Table of Ranks.
There was a peculiar contradiction in the position of the bureaucracy: the official himself was helpless before the throne and society, but the bureaucratic machine as a whole remained omnipotent. The role of bureaucracy in the country has been growing year by year. Its numbers also grew.
PEASANT AND PROLETARIAT. The peasantry, having found itself, like the local nobility, in difficult conditions, proved to be a much more flexible social force. Almost half of the peasants worked not only on their own farm, but also additionally to feed their families. In the countryside, there was a rapid stratification of the once more or less single estate into the rural bourgeoisie (kulaks), the middle peasants and the poorest stratum.
The main sign of the rural bourgeois was the high level of marketability of his economy. The market brought significant and stable profits. By the end of the XIX century. the kulaks accounted for one-fifth of the households and provided about half of the agricultural output, twice as much as the landlords. The kulaks looked with envy at the poorly used landowners' lands, actively participating in the all-peasant struggle for their redistribution.
Peasant hut
The position of the middle peasant, who managed to keep the economy in order, was on the whole better than that of the skilled worker. The affairs of the middle peasant could go even more successfully, but he was oppressed by the increasing lack of land, taxes and dependence on the community.
Speaking about the poor households, it should be noted that the allotment became economically unprofitable for them. He did not even provide the villagers with the necessary products, fettered them, limiting their ability to move and making it difficult to earn money "on the side." But the peasants still held on to their allotment: the hard work of the otkhodnik did not guarantee sufficient income, and there was hope in their souls for a new, “fair” redistribution of land. In addition, when the owner left, the life of the family was upset for a long time, or even forever. Therefore, the preservation of even an unprofitable allotment was expedient in its own way, primarily from a psychological point of view. Little help to the peasants and resettlement to the outskirts of the empire. The poor, and it made sense for her to move, rarely had enough material opportunities. State assistance was often insufficient.
THE LARGEST CITIES OF RUSSIA in 1863 and 1897
GROWTH OF URBAN POPULATION. 1862 - 1897
The peasants were the main source of education for the working class. This is not surprising, given that the rural poor made up about a third of all households.
The position of the village handicraftsmen was also very unstable. "Proletarianization" also affected the workers of the former serf manufactories, as well as people from many philistine families. The rapid development of industry required a rapid increase in the number of workers. In just 15 years (1865 - 1879), the ranks of the industrial proletariat grew 1.5 times. By the beginning of the 80s. There were about one million workers.
The proletariat of Russia had certain peculiarities in those years. The working man was still firmly connected with the land, with the village, where his family often remained. At the same time, he represented the peculiarity of his new position very clearly. Factories and factories in Russia were very large. At one enterprise sometimes thousands of people worked. The high level of concentration of workers in large enterprises contributed to their rallying. They more and more clearly felt the closeness of their position and interests.
BOURGEOISIE AND OTHER SPLIES OF THE POPULATION. The post-reform bourgeoisie grew at the expense of people from the nobility, farmers, merchants, tenants. Many of them enjoyed the moral and material support of the government. A particularly prominent role in the formation of the bourgeoisie was played by employees of trading companies, foreign entrepreneurs, founders of trading companies, engineers, and technicians. However, the main source of its growth remained merchants and peasants who managed to put together large capitals.
To Moscow for work
Bank collapse. Artist V. E. Makovsky
In post-reform Russia, however, individual capital no longer played its former role. Entrepreneurship, having acquired a significant size, required such large investments that private individuals simply did not have them. Joint-stock companies and partnerships came to the fore, and the connection between commercial and industrial enterprises increased.
Since that time, it is legitimate to talk about the presence in Russia of the "old" and "new" bourgeoisie. The "old" bourgeoisie dominated long-established industries. Here, changes in the composition of business owners occurred most often at the family level, as a result of the division of property, marriages, and inheritance.
The "new" bourgeoisie - the recent peasants - founded their own business and quickly lost the features of national origin, trying to correspond to the new situation.
Industrial development has increased the demand for professionally trained specialists in both the technical and humanitarian fields.
The owner of the Trekhgornaya manufactory in Moscow I. Ya. Prokhorov
As before, the intelligentsia, in essence, remained "all-class". It represented the nobility, the clergy, the children of peasants and raznochintsy. Hence, probably, her more acute sense of the time, the sharpness of her reaction to injustice and political lack of rights. The irreconcilability of the intelligentsia to the existing system by the end of the 19th century. intensified.
LIFE OF THE MAIN LAYERS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY After the reform of 1861, an increasing number of nobles settled in the cities for permanent residence (mainly in St. Petersburg and Moscow). First of all, this applies to landlords who have sold or mortgaged their estates. The resulting capital was lived by them in the capitals, because the title of nobility still required a certain way of life. Nobles rented apartments or bought houses in aristocratic areas, maintaining the appearance of a "noble" existence.
Attempts of the first estate to engage in commerce or trading activities are noticeable - to open shops, workshops, fashion salons, restaurants, boarding houses. Very often, these undertakings failed because of their lack of experience and business acumen of the former landlords, which made them uncompetitive, and also because the noble arrogance prevented them from entering the circle of entrepreneurs, becoming “their own” in it. But the title of a nobleman helped its owner to take a position in the city duma and to a large extent determine the life of the townspeople.
In the countryside, only the owners of thousands of acres of land, who received huge capital for them, could lead the old way of life.
Arrival of the governess to the merchant's house. Artist V. G. Perov
The life of the middle and petty nobility drew closer and closer to the life of the prosperous peasantry. The former landowner's "nests" dilapidated and fell into disrepair - their owners huddled in outhouses for servants. At the same time, the process of revival of many former estates was underway due to the appearance of new owners in them. It is difficult to name any surname from among the commercial and industrial elite, which would not have acquired in the 1860s - 1890s. landowner's estate.
The life of the post-reform merchant class seems to have changed little in comparison with previous decades. The dwelling, clothes, food of the average merchant remained basically traditional, inherited from their fathers and grandfathers. Merchant houses in the provinces were easily recognizable and differed from the mansions of the nobility and the houses of the townspeople. Thick brick or log walls, small windows, blind fences with locked gates symbolized the isolation from the life of "others". In fact, the merchants took an increasingly active part in the public life of the city, being engaged in city administration, patronage, and charity.
In the second half of the XIX century. lined up a new generation of the bourgeoisie - the second and third generations of commercial and industrial dynasties. They made up the highest stratum of the urban third estate, which, in terms of lifestyle and intellectual demands, was close to the best representatives of the Russian nobility. Business acumen made the commercial and industrial elite related to Western businessmen. Hospitals, schools, houses of charity, museums, libraries were built on her donations in cities.
In the post-reform era, the number and importance of the intelligentsia increased sharply. The city government, and judicial institutions, and trading firms, and credit societies, and zemstvo institutions needed it. Great was the demand for engineers, doctors, lawyers, teachers. Earnings of the average intellectual at that time amounted to 1000 - 1200 rubles. per year, which made it possible to buy books, subscribe to newspapers and magazines, rent a modest apartment, spend a vacation in an inexpensive resort abroad. The intelligentsia also grew more and more into village life, becoming zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists or statisticians. Settling at schools or hospitals, the intellectual quickly "easier": started a household plot, dressed in a semi-peasant dress, forgot his city habits.
Skating on Palm Sunday on Red Square. Artist B. Rossinsky
The innovations of the post-reform development hardly touched the Russian countryside. Peasants still covered the huts with straw, iron roofs were rare. The rural house had the usual size and accommodated 6 - 7 tenants. In winter, due to the lack of a warm barn, young cattle were taken here. Of course, the dwellings of wealthy peasants differed markedly from the huts of the poor. Urban furniture appears in them, necessarily samovars, cattle were kept in a warm barn in winter. In general, the huts were poorly ventilated in order to save heat, and the mustiness and poor lighting of the room affected the well-being of its inhabitants. The high mortality of peasants was also provoked by frequent epidemics, the village was “mowed down” by measles and smallpox, diphtheria and scarlet fever. The death of children happened not only because of diseases and difficult living conditions, but also due to an oversight on the part of parents - high rates of child mortality fall on the village suffering.
Not only housing, but also household utensils with clothes fundamentally changed until the end of the 19th century. have not endured. Purchased chintz pressed, but did not make homespun fabrics disappear. At the holidays in the village, the Russian costume dominated; during working hours, a women's sundress gave way to a skirt with an oversized shirt.
The working and living conditions of workers in the cities gradually improved. In terms of standard of living, the position of the workers was homogeneous. Skilled workers - metalworkers, foundry workers, welders - had earnings of 30 - 40 rubles. per month; textile workers, food workers - 20 - 25 rubles. Most of the earnings (40 - 50%) went to pay for housing and food. The bulk of the workers lived in the barracks or rented a bed in the so-called corner apartments, where corners were rented out in common rooms.
Reading in a peasant family
It had a bad effect on the health of workers and their nutrition. The singles used either the factory canteen or the landlady's dinners. An indispensable part of the menu was millet porridge or kulesh on bacon and cabbage soup; meat was usually eaten 2-3 times a week.
The leisure of factory workers remained monotonous. Many preferred to sleep off after hard work, others spent their hours of rest in taverns and taverns. However, proletarians appeared who attended Sunday schools, self-education circles, and libraries. It was from this thin layer of workers that a genuine “labor aristocracy” was developed - people who aspired to participate in the socio-political life of the country.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1) The number of nobility in the 60s - 90s. grew. Can it be argued on this basis that his social position was stable? Why?
2) What has changed in the social structure of Russia after the reform?
3) Describe the position of the post-reform peasantry. Why is it impossible without taking into account its differentiation?
4) What is the "old" and "new" bourgeoisie?
5) What features were characteristic of the position of the proletariat?
6) Having considered the diagram on p. 193, what was the significance of the growth of cities and urban population for the Russian economy.
EVENT - CONTEMPORARY
POST-REFORM VILLAGE
Comparing the present (90s - L. L.) I see a big difference between the peasantry and the one I found in 1870. Firstly, its overall solvency has significantly decreased, and cash costs have increased against the previous one: an abyss of items that were mined at home in the seventies are bought: homemade bast shoes, linen, canvas and other fabrics have been replaced by purchased products and a need has arisen for previously unfamiliar to the peasants purchased household trifles. and household chores. Undoubtedly, more money appeared in the peasant turnover, but the economic and domestic culture of the rural man in the street rose very little from this phenomenon. The huts are just as cramped, dark and cold in winter ... having won only one thing - they all drown in white: the yards are just as untidy and dirty ... the cultivation of the land is still mostly poor, careless; just as inexperienced in spring and autumn, vast pastures are grassed and clogged with horses and cattle; improvement is noticed only in an increase in the amount of fertilized land and in the availability of peasants ... improved tools.
From the memoirs of N. V. Davydov “From the Past”
1) What has changed in the life of the peasantry in the post-reform years?
2) What changes do you consider positive?
FACTORY WORKERS
During the year I had to work at the factory in almost all its departments.<…>With the exception of the stoker and edged, in all other departments of the factory, work was carried out day and night, and the workers alternated: one week day and another night. Ordinary workers received salaries from eight to ten rubles a month, and boys, girls and women from five to seven rubles. per month. Work in the factory itself ... was not particularly difficult, but each department had its own inconvenience; casts and presses are very wet; in self-drawing and edged it is not safe, because it is easy to get under a knife or into a gear; and in the bleaching room and steam room ... unbearable; the caustic and suffocating gas unbearably hurt the eyes, produced an incessant sharp cough and took away the breath.
From "Notes of a Lost Man" by N. I. Sveshnikov
Was the work of workers in the factory safe? Justify your answer.
LIFE OF MERCHANTS
Until the sixties of our century, reading, thinking and artistic-creating Moscow was exclusively a master's, aristocratic.<…>In the last twenty years, from the beginning of the sixties, the everyday world of Zamoskvorechye and Rogozhskaya started to move: children began to be taught; the young fell not only to the commercial academy, but also to the university, the daughters spoke English and sang Chopin's nocturnes. Heavy, stupid tyrants degenerated into businessmen.<…>There is no way to compete with some businessmen who have already risen to the lordly tone and habits.<…>A millionaire industrialist, a banker and a barn owner not only occupy public places, they make their way into a director, into vowels, into representatives of various private institutions ... they begin to support mental and artistic interests with their money.
From "Letters about Moscow" by the writer P. D. Boborykin
1) What changes have taken place in the life of the Zamoskvoretsky merchants, according to the observations of P. D. Boborykin?
2) Why do merchants “begin to support intellectual and artistic interests with their money”?
A MYSTERY FROM A CONTEMPORARY
S. Cherikover in the book “Petersburg” (late 1870s - early 1880s) writes: “They now attacked the offices, departments, all sorts of positions in the main departments, in banks, in joint-stock companies.<…>Little by little they settled here and live, conspicuous everywhere, making up a significant part of the population of St. Petersburg. What social class is the author talking about?
MYSTERY FROM THE HISTORIAN
V. S. Polikarpov in the book “The History of Morals in Russia from Alexei the Quietest to Nicholas II” writes: “He likes a “useful” tragedy or an understandable and colloquial play. He does not like opera, because behind the music he does not understand the words of the aria, and ballet, since the latter is a silent action.
What segment of the Russian population are we talking about?
BET?
(Topics for discussion)
1) Why didn’t prosperity come to the Russian village after the reform of 1861?
2) The nobility in post-reform Russia: could the "cherry orchard" be saved?
Before characterizing the socio-political thought of Russia in this period, one should study the social composition of society that developed in the post-reform period, the internal state of the country.
Russian society at the end of the 19th century
The transitional nature of the historical development of post-reform Russia and the multiformity of the economy determined the uniqueness of the social structure of its society. The class division of society has been preserved. Each class (nobles, peasants, merchants, philistines, clergy) had clearly defined privileges or restrictions. The development of capitalism gradually changed the social structure and appearance of estates, formed two new social groups - the classes of capitalist society (the bourgeoisie and the proletariat).
The dominant position in the country still belonged to the nobles. Their some economic weakening did not affect the socio-political influence. The nobility remained the backbone of the autocracy, occupied key positions in the bureaucracy, the army and public life. Some nobles, adapting to new conditions, actively participated in industrial and financial activities.
The bourgeoisie grew rapidly, which was formed from the merchants, the bourgeoisie, and representatives of the wealthy peasantry. It gradually gained economic strength, but played an insignificant role in the political life of the country. Weak and unorganized, it supported the autocracy, which ensured an expansionist foreign policy and the possibility of exploiting the working people.
Peasants remained the most numerous social group. For this class, numerous restrictions continued to be maintained in a wide variety of social spheres. The community remained unshakable, limiting the legal, economic and personal life of the peasant. However, the penetration of capitalist relations into the village contributed to the division of rural residents into kulaks (rural bourgeoisie) and the bulk of the poor.
The impoverished peasantry and the urban poor served as the source of the formation of the proletariat. The peculiarity of the working class in Russia was that it did not break its ties with the countryside. Therefore, the maturation of the cadre proletariat proceeded at a slow pace. The position of the Russian working class differed significantly from that of Western Europe. Difficult working and living conditions developed in Russia, there were no trade unions and no insurance system for workers. All this raised them to fight for economic rights. The anti-government activities of the revolutionaries fell on the fertile ground of proletarian dissatisfaction with the harsh system of exploitation that had developed in the country.
These were the main participants in domestic political relations in the second half of the 19th century. Let's look at these relationships.
After the assassination of the tsar on March 1, 1881, his son Alexander III (1818-1881) ascended the throne. In character, Alexander III was the complete opposite of his father and resembled his grandfather, Nicholas I. In a short time, in his policy, he retreated from the line of Alexander II in almost all spheres of public life.
In the 80-90s. the autocracy carried out a number of reactionary measures. In the historical literature, they are known as "counter-reforms", because. pursued the goal of limiting the effect of the reforms of the 60-70s, which, according to the ideologists of the new course, weakened the legitimate power in the country and led to a crisis. The ideological inspirers of the reactionary political course at that time were the former mentor of Alexander III, Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K.P. Pobedonosnoye and the editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti M.N. Katkov.
On March 8, 1881, the Council of Ministers rejected the draft Constitution developed by M.T. Loris-Melikov. Instead, on April 29, 1881, the Manifesto "On the Inviolability of Autocracy" was promulgated, proclaiming the tsar's faith "in the strength and truth of autocratic power", which he is obliged to protect "from any encroachments on it." Orlov A.S. and others. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: Textbook. - 2nd ed.. - M .: PBOYUL L.V. Rozhnikov, 2000.- P.256
In accordance with the "Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Order and Public Peace" published on August 14, 1881, a state of emergency was actually declared in the country: each of its inhabitants could be arrested, exiled without trial to a remote area for 5 years or brought to a military court. Local authorities were given the right to close educational institutions and press organs, to suspend the activities of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas.
In the cycle of counter-reforms, the law of 1889 on the introduction of the position of zemstvo chiefs seems to be very important. He approved a new social institution of zemstvo officials from among hereditary nobles, which towered over all peasant self-government bodies. Zemstvo chiefs concentrated in their hands all administrative and judicial power in the localities.
The courts were also under the control of the zemstvo chiefs. The Institute of Justices of the Peace ceased to exist. Part of the court cases passed to the consideration of the Zemstvo chief, the rest of the cases were transferred to the jurisdiction of the volost court.
Instead of the classless curiae, the "Regulations of 1890" established estate curia of nobles and urban estates. The peasantry was actually deprived of elective representation: the governor himself appointed vowels from among the candidates elected by the peasants.
In 1892, the counter-reform changed the procedure for elections to the City Duma. A significant part of the urban population (clerks, small traders, intelligentsia) was deprived of the right to vote. At the same time, industrialists, merchants, and high-ranking officials began to predominate in the City Duma; wealthy part of the urban population.
Counter-reforms did not bypass the sphere of culture and education. So, all the lower schools were removed from the jurisdiction of the zemstvos and transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod. Most of the schools become parochial. If in 1882 there were 4.5 thousand parochial schools, then in 1894 there were 32 thousand of them, Russian history: Textbook for universities / G.B. Polyak, A.N. Makarova, N.S. Krivtsova and others. - M .: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1997. - P. 170, the increase was not due to the opening of new educational institutions, but as a result of the transition of zemstvo schools to the status of parish schools.
The government sought to completely subordinate the secondary school to the control of the state and the church, represented by the Synod. In 1887, a circular on "cook's children" was introduced, which did not allow children of lackeys, laundresses, petty shopkeepers, etc. to be admitted to the gymnasium.
In 1884, the new University Charter eliminated the autonomy of universities. At the same time, police supervision of students was strengthened and tuition fees were increased. Many progressive professors were dismissed from universities. Women's higher education was curtailed.
The Provisional Rules on the Press of 1882 put an end to the liberal censorship policy of the 1960s. The right to close any publication was given not only to the Ministry of the Interior, but also to the chief prosecutor of the Synod. The government provided support to the "right" publications, among which Moskovskie Vedomosti by M.N. Katkova. Censorship under Alexander III was even more severe than under Nicholas I.
The strengthening of the authoritarian regime was supposed to serve to stabilize the internal political situation, but still did not weaken the development of the opposition movement. The complex socio-political structure of Russia has also led to an extraordinary alignment of forces in the domestic political arena. In the countries of Western Europe, during the period when feudalism was replaced by capitalism, the nationwide struggle against absolutism was led by the bourgeoisie, whose slogans were demands for political freedoms, the establishment of a republic, or the limitation of the power of the monarch by legislative acts. Otherwise happened in Russia. In the development of the opposition movement, two main directions were formed - the bourgeois-liberal and the revolutionary-democratic.
Great Reforms of Alexander 2. All of them are connected with the abolition of serfdom. Local self-government reforms: zemstvos and city dumas are being created. Peasants also took part in the Zemstvo elections, but they elected according to a multistage system.
Judicial reform. The court becomes public, adversarial. A profession appears lawyer. A jury appeared. Gradually, the most important cases were removed from the competence of the jury. because the government concluded that such courts unjustifiably deliver acquittals . Vera Zasulich, who shot at a police general and was acquitted by a jury, despite the fact that she did not deny her guilt. But the court showed that the general she shot at was a bad person. After that, they decided not to rely on a jury trial. Corporal punishment was abolished, with the exception of the verdict of the peasant hair courts.
Cancellation of recruiting kits and reduction of service life. From 25 to 6 years old. Active discussion of reforms begins in society , there is publicity and this leads to the activation of the opposition, the revolutionaries.
In the 60-70s, the most popular was populism. The main idea of the populists is movement towards socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the peasant community. Lavrov and others believed that it was necessary to prepare the people for revolution. Second direction - rebellious, leader Bakunin. They believed that the people had been ready for a revolution for a long time, it was necessary to raise an uprising. 3 direction - conspiratorial. Leader - Tkachev. They believed that the people were not ready for revolution and would never be ready. So you just need to organize a group of conspirators and stage a coup.
By the mid-1960s, a revolutionary youth group which was headed Ishutin. IN 1862 Karakozov shoots Alexander 2. After that, he was arrested, repressions began, many reforms were stopped. But soon a new organization appeared, headed by Nechaev. He creates a secret organization, divided into 5s.
In 1874 famous going to the people. The result of propaganda - most of the propagandists were arrested by the peasants themselves. In the late 1970s, an organization emerged that made stake on terror. A hunt for Alexander 2 is arranged.
In 1871 March 1 Alexander 2 was killed. Comes to power Alexander 3 who rules from 1881-1894 . Alexander 3, first of all, seeks to restore order in the country, suppresses organizations, introduces a state of emergency in many regions of the country, in addition, a number of reforms were limited, in particular the zemstvo, the control of governors over zemstvos was strengthened, a special position appeared - zemstvo chiefs who controlled the peasant institutions. There is a crisis of populism. Marxism is gradually gaining popularity. Its main idea is the most advanced layer is the industrial workers. By the end of the 19th century, Marxists were most popular among the revolutionaries.
36. The second half of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century
Treaty of Paris 1856. Achieve a revision of the terms of the Paris peace. It was necessary to find allies, and those who could help us. And initially at the end of the 50s of the 19th century Russia moves closer to France. France was one of the guarantors of this peace.
Border between Russia and Austria-Hungary. The parties came to an unclear agreement. France did not explicitly promise that it would consider the disclosures of the Paris peace. War between France and Austria-Hungary. Outcome the emergence of Italy. The lands of Italy were part of Austria-Hungary.
France is a weakening ally. Russia finds a new ally in the 60s and draws closer to the enemy of France - Prussia. At the head of Prussia the famous Bismarck. He believed that his country should be friends with Russia. German lands around Prussia. Russia and Prussia sign an agreement. Then came the Franco-Prussian War.
The political system of France was liquidated. France ceased to be a monarchy, and never was again. 1871 is a republic. Unification of Germany. Unified German Empire. Russia received again the rights to keep the fleet in Chernobyl. Union of three emperors. Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary.
Russo-Turkish War(1877-1878). We defeated the Turkish army. As a result of this war- It is Russia that dominates the Balkans. The West didn't like it. In the summer of 1978 in Berlin is going to Berlin Congress. The Treaty of San Stefano was revised. Russia was ordered to withdraw troops from the Balkans. Russia was shown that she is not the master. The alliance of the three emperors began to fall apart. Austria-Hungary opposed Russia most of all, because it had an interest in the Balkans.
In the early 80s of the 19th century, a new union arises, which is called Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. It was already a military alliance. At the end of the 80s of the 19th century Russian-German contract of reinsurance. Bismarck resigns. Russia draws closer to France in the 90s of the 19th century. military union. Europe and the world are preparing for war. Attempts to salvage the situation.
A conference is being held in The Hague. Decisions were made on the humane treatment of prisoners of war, on the prohibition of barbaric weapons. Far East. Contradictions of the three powers. Russia, Japan, USA. Russo-Japanese War. 1907 Russian-English agreement.
1912 First Balkan War. Türkiye is weakening and the Slavic countries have tried to take advantage of this. Bulgaria in the Balkans became the most powerful state. The Russian Empire in the First World War. The triple alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey, and then Bulgaria joined it. Everyone was preparing for a short war. Spring-summer 1915 offensive on the Russian front. The most unfortunate year for the Russian army. Loss of the Baltic States, Poland, Galicia.
Result 1915 - The German flag is finally torn down. 1916 - Brusilovsky breakthrough in the Austrian fleet. In the rear, the situation is getting worse and worse. Very big food problems. Hunger in the cities. The criticism of Nicholas 2 begins. Rasputin was the same lightning rod, and he was killed. In early 1917, a revolution took place in Russia.
Despite the factors hindering scientific progress and technology, the second half of the XIX century. - this is a period of outstanding achievements in science and technology, which allowed Russian research activities to be introduced into world science. Russian science developed in close connection with European and American science. Russian scientists took part in experimental and laboratory research in scientific centers in Europe and North America, made scientific reports, published articles in scientific journals.
Capitalism, with its increased technical potential and the scope of industrial production, which required an increase in the raw material base, led to profound shifts in the field of domestic science and technology. The general ideological atmosphere of the first post-reform decades, the democratic upsurge that stirred up the whole country, the ideas of revolutionary democrats about the enormous social role of science also contributed to the “extraordinary success of the mental movement” (K.A. Timiryazev).
The Academy of Sciences, universities, scientific societies retained the importance of the main scientific centers. In the post-reform period, the authority of university science grew. Large scientific schools arose here, and the works of some university professors received worldwide recognition. In the mid-1960s, Sovremennik noted that "in many branches of science, representatives of our university scholarship are not only not inferior, but even surpass the representatives of academic scholarship in their merits."
New scientific centers arose in the country: the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography (1863), the Society of Russian Doctors, and the Russian Technical Society (1866). A serious contribution to the development of the natural and social sciences was made by scientific societies that, as a rule, existed at universities. In 1872, there were more than 20 such societies in Russia, the majority of which arose in the second half of the 19th century. (Russian Mathematical Society; Russian Chemical Society, later transformed into a physical and chemical society; Russian Technical Society; Russian Historical Society, etc.).
St. Petersburg became a major center of mathematical research, where a mathematical school was formed, associated with the name of the outstanding mathematician P.L. Chebyshev (1831-1894). His discoveries, which still influence the development of science, relate to the theory of approximation of functions, number theory and probability theory.
In the second half of the XIX century. domestic science, based on materialistic and scientific traditions, has achieved unprecedented success. The achievements of Russian science, connected with the development of world science, have greatly raised its international prestige. “Take any book from a foreign scientific journal,” wrote K.A. Timiryazev in the mid-90s - and you will almost certainly come across a Russian name. Russian science has declared its equality, and sometimes even superiority.
A.M. Lyapunov (1857-1918) created the theory of equilibrium stability and motion of mechanical systems with a finite number of parameters, which influenced the further development of world science.
It is also worth mentioning the first female professor of mathematics S.V. Kovalevskaya (1850-1891), who discovered the classical case of the solvability of the problem of rotation of a rigid body around a fixed point.
The brilliant scientist-chemist who created the periodic system of chemical elements was D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907). (Appendix 2.) He proved the inner strength between several kinds of chemicals. The periodic system was the foundation in the study of inorganic chemistry and advanced science far ahead. The work of D.I. Mendeleev "Fundamentals of Chemistry" was translated into many European languages, and in Russia it was only published seven times during his lifetime.
Scientists N.N. Zinin (1812-1888) and A.M. Butlerov (1828-1886) - the founders of organic chemistry. Butlerov developed the theory of chemical structure and was the founder of the largest Kazan School of Russian Organic Chemists.
The founder of the Russian physical school A.G. Stoletov (1839-1896) made a number of important discoveries in the field of magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, in the theory of gas discharge, which was recognized throughout the world.
From the inventions and discoveries of P.N. Yablochkov (1847-1894), the most famous is the so-called "Yablochkov candle" - practically the first electric lamp suitable for use without a regulator. Seven years before the invention of the American engineer Edison A.N. Lodygin (1847-1923) created an incandescent lamp using tungsten for incandescence.
The discoveries of A.S. Popov (1859-1905), on April 25, 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society, he announced his invention of a device for receiving and recording electromagnetic signals, and then demonstrated the operation of a “lightning detector” - a radio receiver that soon found practical application.
Major scientific and technical discoveries were made by the physicist P.N. Lebedev (1866-1912), who proved and measured the pressure of light.
The founder of modern aerodynamics was N.E. Zhukovsky (1847-1921). He owns numerous works on the theory of aviation. The first studies in the field of aero- and rocket dynamics by K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), a gymnasium teacher in Kaluga, the founder of modern astronautics.
The works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), one of the pioneers of astronautics. A teacher at a gymnasium in Kaluga, Tsiolkovsky was a scientist on a wide scale, he was the first to indicate the development of rocket science and astronautics, and found solutions for the design of rockets and rocket diesel engines.
A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) explored the possibilities of creating aircraft. In 1876, a flight demonstration of his models was a success. In the 80s. he worked on the creation of the aircraft.
The biological sciences have made great strides. Russian scientists have discovered a number of laws of development of organisms. The largest discoveries were made by Russian scientists in physiology.
In 1863, I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) "Reflexes of the brain", which laid the foundations of materialistic physiology and psychology, which was of great importance for the development of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. The largest researcher, propagandist and popularizer of scientific knowledge, Sechenov created the physiological school, from which I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936). In the 1970s, he began his career as a physiologist.
I.P. Pavlov (1894-1936) - scientist, physiologist, creator of the science of higher nervous activity and ideas about the processes of digestion regulation; the founder of the largest Russian physiological school made a huge contribution to the development of world science.
Russian natural scientists were staunch propagandists and continuers of Charles Darwin's teachings. A Russian translation of his main work, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, appeared in Russia six years after its publication in England, in 1865.
Among the first Russian Darwinists was the founder of the evolutionary morphology of plants A.N. Beketov (1825-1902). The development of evolutionary teaching in Russia is associated with the name of I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916) and A.O. Kovalevsky (1840-1901), who convened comparative embryology. Mechnikov also worked in the field of comparative pathology, laid the foundations of the doctrine of immunity, having discovered in 1883 the phenomenon of phagocytosis, the ability of the body's protective properties. Mechnikov's works were world famous. He was elected an honorary doctor of the University of Cambridge, worked at the Louis Pasteur Institute in France.
In the development of Darwinism and natural-science materialism in Russia, the merits of K.A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), one of the founders of the Russian scientific school of plant physiology. He was a brilliant popularizer of science and did much to promote Darwinism. Timiryazev considered the evolutionary doctrine of Darwin as the greatest achievement of science in the 19th century, which affirmed the materialistic worldview in biology.
V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - the creator of modern genetic soil science, studied the soil cover of Russia. His work "Russian Chernozem", recognized in world science, contains a scientific classification of soils and a system of their natural types.
The expeditions organized by the Russian Geographical Society for the study of Central and Central Asia and Siberia by P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), N.M. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), Ch.Ch. Valikhanov (1835-1865). With the name of N.N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888) are connected with discoveries of world significance in the field of geography and ethnography, which he made while traveling in Southeast Asia, Australia, Oceania.
In the second half of the XIX century. in Russia, humanities scientists fruitfully worked in the field of history, linguistics, literary criticism, and economics, creating important scientific research.
In the field of philology and linguistics, I.I. Sreznevsky (1812-1880) - the founder of the St. Petersburg school of Slavists. He wrote valuable works on the history of the Russian Old Slavonic language, the history of Old Russian literature. A prominent linguist, the founder of the Moscow linguistic school was F.F. Fortunatov (1848-1914). In the post-reform period, a foundation was laid for the study of A.S. Pushkin. The first scientific edition of the works of the great poet was prepared by P.V. Annenkov (1813-1887). He also wrote a number of studies on his life and work.
Intensive work was carried out in the field of Russian folklore, the collection and study of oral folk art was expanding. The published works were extremely valuable for the rich factual material contained in them. Vast work on collecting and studying folk art was done by V.I. Dahl (1801-1872), who published in the 60s the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, which has not lost its scientific significance to this day. In Soviet times, the dictionary of V.I. Dahl has been reprinted several times. (Appendix 3.)
Russian scientists paid special attention to the study of national history. In the 50-70s. the talented Russian historian S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879). On the basis of vast factual material, he showed the transition from tribal relations to statehood, the role of autocracy in the history of Russia.
Of great importance for Russian historiography was the emergence of a Marxist trend associated with the name of G.V. Plekhanov (1856-1918), theorist and propagandist of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. By 1883, his first Marxist work, Socialism and the Political Struggle, dates back.
IN. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) taught the Course of Russian History, which organically combined the ideas of the state school with an economic and geographical approach, studied the history of the peasantry, serfdom and the role of the state in the development of Russian society. In the works of N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) paid great attention to the history of the liberation war of Russia and Ukraine against the Polish invaders, the history of medieval Novgorod and Pskov. He is the author of "Russian history and biographies of its main figures." Thus, in the field of science, the 19th century represents the stunning successes of Russian science, bringing it to a leading position in the world. There are two lines in the development of Russian philosophical thought: Slavophiles and Westernizers, who, despite a fundamental divergence of philosophical views on the past and future of Russia, converge in relation to the existing regime of tsarism and its policies.
One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought in the 19th century was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. The clash of the historical views of the Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, T.T. Granovsky, I.S. Turgenev) and the Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers Kireevsky, Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin) over time, it developed into an irreconcilable ideological conflict.
Westerners believed in the unity of human civilization and argued that Western Europe is at the head of this civilization, most fully implementing the principles of parliamentarism, humanity, freedom and progress, and showing the way for the rest of humanity.
The Slavophiles argued that there is no single universal civilization, and, consequently, a single path of development for all peoples. Each nation lives its own independent original life, which is based on a deeply ideological principle, the “folk spirit”, penetrating all aspects of collective life.
Despite all the ideological differences, the Slavophiles and the Westernizers unexpectedly agreed on the practical issues of Russian life: both trends had a negative attitude towards serfdom and the contemporary police-bureaucratic regime, both demanded freedom of the press, speech, and therefore were unreliable in the eyes of the tsarist government.
A distinctive feature of the scientific life of the post-reform period was the extensive social and educational activities of scientists, the popularization of scientific knowledge through public lectures, and the publication of popular science literature. At this time, the number of scientific and special periodicals increased (from about 60 in 1855 to 500 by the end of the century), and this growth primarily affected the provinces (instead of 7, about 180 scientific journals began to be published) .
The development of science, achievements in the field of natural sciences had a huge impact on social and cultural life. This was reflected in the literature, left an imprint on the state of the school, influenced to some extent on the way of thinking, the level of public consciousness.
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