2. The lexical system of the Russian language

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level. Study of lexical system language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of the life of words, connected with each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical-phraseological system of the native language.

Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, the linguistic features of words make it possible to group them into parts of speech according to lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In the most general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows.

In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, sign, action, etc.). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic(gr. paradeigma - example, sample).

Paradigmatic connections of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems are made up of words grouped based on similarity in meaning. They form synonymous series, various thematic groups with a hierarchy of units compared as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are quite stable and are not subject to changes under the influence of the context. However, the semantics of specific words can reflect the features of the context, which also manifests systemic connections in the vocabulary.

One of the manifestations of the systemic relations of words is their ability to connect with each other. WITHaccountabilityb words is determined by their subject-semantic connections, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, the word glass can be used in combination with the words ball, glass; combinations are possible: a glass jar (bottle, dishes), even a glass saucepan (frying pan) - made of refractory glass. But impossible - "glass book", "glass cutlet" and so on., Since the subject-semantic connections of these words exclude mutual compatibility. It is also impossible to connect the words glass and run, glass and far: their grammatical nature opposes this (an adjective cannot be combined with a verb, adverbial adverb). The lexical feature of the word glassy is its ability to develop figurative meanings, which makes it possible to construct phrases hair glass smoke (Ec.), glassy look. Words that do not have this ability (refractory, metal-cutting and under) do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their compatibility `already.

Systemic connections, manifested in the patterns of combinations of words with each other, are called syntagmatic(gr. syntagma - something connected). They are revealed when words are combined, i.e. in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection between the meanings of words, and, consequently, their systemic connections in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also determined by the lexical system of the language as a whole. The features of the compatibility of individual words largely depend on the context, therefore, syntagmatic connections, to a greater extent than paradigmatic ones, are subject to changes due to the content of speech. Thus, lexical syntagmatics reflects a change in realities (cf., for example, a glass pan), an expansion of our ideas about the world around us (walking on the moon), and the figurative energy of language (glass hair smoke).

The systemic connections of words, the interaction of different meanings of one word and its relationship with other words are very diverse, which indicates the great expressive power of vocabulary. At the same time, we must not forget that the lexical system is an integral part of a larger language system in which certain relationships have developed between the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical features, phonetic features, and also the dependence of the meaning of the word on paralinguistic(gr. para - about, near + linguistic, linguistic) and extralinguistic(lat. extra - super-, extra- + linguistic) factors: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, operating conditions, time of fixation in the language, etc.

The general language system and the lexical system, as its integral part, are identified and learned in speech practice, which, in turn, has an impact on changes in the language, contributing to its development and enrichment. The study of systemic relationships in vocabulary is a necessary condition for the scientific description of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The solution of theoretical problems gets a direct exit into practice both in the compilation of various dictionaries, and in the development of literary and linguistic norms of word usage, and in the analysis of methods for the individual author's use of the expressive possibilities of a word in artistic speech.

Word in the lexical system

All words of the Russian language are included in its lexical system, and there are no words that would be outside it, perceived separately, in isolation. This obliges us to study words only in their systemic connections, as nominative units, one way or another related to each other, close or identical in some respects, but in some ways opposite, dissimilar. The characterization of a word can be more or less complete only if its various systemic connections are established with other words that are included with it in certain lexico-semantic groups.

Take, for example, the adjective red. Its main meaning in modern Russian is having the color of one of the primary colors of the spectrum, going before orange, the color of blood. In this sense, red is synonymous with words such as scarlet, crimson, crimson, red; it has no antonym. In MAC 1, the second meaning of this word is also given: red (only in full form) - the extreme left in terms of political convictions: [Vlasich] is a liberal and is considered red in the county, but even this turns out to be boring for him (Ch.). In this case, the word is included in the synonymic series: red - left, radical; has antonyms: right, conservative. The third meaning arose relatively recently: relating to revolutionary activity, associated with the Soviet system: Shortly before this, the whites were driven out of Krasnovodsk by red units (Paust.). Synonymous relations of words also change: red - revolutionary, Bolshevik, and antonymic: white - White Guard - counter-revolutionary.

The fourth meaning of the word (like all subsequent ones) is given with a stylistic mark: outdated poetic - good, beautiful, beautiful: The hut is not red with corners, but red with pies. It is in this meaning that this word appears in the combination Red Square (the name of the square was given in the 16th century). The fifth meaning - folk poetic: clear, bright, light - is preserved in combinations red sun, spring-red: Oh, red summer! I would love you if it weren’t for the heat, and dust, and mosquitoes, and flies (P.). Both the fourth and fifth meanings in the dictionary are interpreted with the help of synonyms; you can also name antonyms for them 1) ugly, nondescript, unsightly; 2) pale, colorless, dull.

The sixth meaning appears only in the full form of the adjective and is given with the note obsolete - front door, honorary - red porch. In our time, it has become significantly archaic and therefore is not perceived surrounded by synonyms and antonyms, but retains its meaning only in stable combinations red corner - the corner in the hut where the icons hang. So the semantics of a word (gr. sema - a sign) determines its place in the lexical system of the language.

One and the same word, characterized by different features, can be assigned to several structural-semantic categories. So, red is on a par with words that name colors (yellow, blue, green), and belongs to the category of quality adjectives. The proximity of meanings allows us to build the following word-formation series: red, red, reddish, redness, blush; paint, paint, beautiful, decorate, beauty. Relationships of words of this kind are called derivational(lat. derivatio - withdrawal, assignment). Derivational relations connect single-root words, as well as those that have a common historical root. These words also reflect the associative convergence of words.

The primordially Russian character of the word red combines it with other non-borrowed words (as opposed to foreign words in origin). The possibility of using it in any style of speech gives reason to attribute the word red in its main meaning to interstyle neutral vocabulary, while in the last three meanings (see above) this word belongs to certain stylistic groups of vocabulary: obsolete, poetic, folk poetic and archaic.

There are quite a few stable phrases of a terminological nature in which this word becomes special: red line, red tie.

The combination of words can be based on denotative connections (lat. denotare - to denote), since all words denote a particular concept. Concepts, objects (or denotations) themselves suggest their grouping. In this case, the basis for the allocation of lexical groups are non-linguistic characteristics; words are highlighted denoting, for example, colors, taste sensations (sour, bitter, salty, sweet), sound intensity (loud, quiet, muffled, piercing), etc.

Another basis for identifying systemic relationships of words is their connotative meanings (lat. cum/con - together + notare - mark), i.e. those additional values ​​that reflect the assessment of the relevant concepts - positive or negative. On this basis, it is possible to combine, for example, words solemn, high (sing, imperishable, stain, sacred), lowered, playful (blessed, goof off, uncover), affectionate, diminutive (darling, sweetie, baby), etc. At the heart of Such a division is already linguo-stylistic features.

According to the sphere of use, words are divided into groups that reflect their distribution in a limited area and consolidation in a particular dialect, professional use by representatives of a certain type of activity, etc. Significant layers of vocabulary are opposed by its active or passive role in the language: some words in our time is almost never used (they are forgotten or insufficiently mastered), others are constantly used in speech; cf .: mouth, cheeks, persi, forehead - lips, cheeks, chest, forehead.

Thus, the study of the lexical system of a language reveals the multidimensional and diverse life of words. Their systemic connections imprinted the history of the language and the people themselves. The development and interaction of the meanings of a word and its relationship with other words deserve the most serious study. It can be carried out in several directions.

1. Within a single word - analysis of its meaning (or meanings), identification of new shades of meanings, their development (up to a complete break and the formation of new words).

2. Within the vocabulary - the combination of words into groups based on common and opposite features, a description of different types of semantic relationships (synonyms, antonyms, etc.).

3. Within the general language system - the study of the dependence of the semantic structure of a word on grammatical features, phonetic changes, linguistic and non-linguistic factors.

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The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level. Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, the linguistic features of words make it possible to group them into parts of speech according to lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In the most general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows.

In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, attribute, action, etc. ). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic (gr. paradeigma - example, sample).

Paradigmatic connections of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems are made up of words grouped based on similarity in meaning. They form synonymous series, various thematic groups with a hierarchy of units compared as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

One of the manifestations of the systemic relations of words is their ability to connect with each other. The compatibility of words is determined by their subject-semantic relationships, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, the word glass can be used in combination with the words ball, glass; combinations are possible - a glass jar (bottle, dishes), even a glass pan (frying pan) - made of refractory glass. But impossible - "glass book", "glass cutlet", etc., since the subject-semantic connections of these words exclude mutual compatibility. It is also impossible to connect the words glassy and run, glassy and far: their grammatical nature opposes this (an adjective cannot be combined with a verb, adverbial adverb). The lexical feature of the word glassy is its ability to develop figurative meanings, which allows you to build combinations of hair glass smoke (Yesenin), glassy look. Words that do not have this ability (refractory, metal-cutting, etc.) do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their compatibility already. Systemic connections, manifested in the patterns of combining words with each other, are called syntagmatic (gr. syntagma - something connected). They are revealed when words are combined, that is, in certain lexical combinations.

The lexical system is an integral part of a larger language system in which certain relationships have developed between the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical features, phonetic features, and also the dependence of the meaning of the word on paralinguistic (gr. para - about, near + linguistic, linguistic) and extra-linguistic (lat. extra - super-, extra- + linguistic) factors: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, functioning conditions, time of fixation in the language, etc.

Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language - M., 2002.

Term vocabulary(gr. lexikos- verbal, dictionary) serves to designate the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to determine the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language ( bookstorevocabulary ), in a separate work ( vocabulary "Words about Igor's Campaign"); you can talk about the vocabulary of the writer ( vocabulary Pushkin) and even one person ( The speaker has a richvocabulary ).

Lexicology(gr. lexis- word + logos- doctrine) is a section of the science of language that studies vocabulary. Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronous (gr. syn- together + chronos- time), then she explores the vocabulary of the language in its current state, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia- through + chronos- time), then its subject is the development of the vocabulary of a given language.

The course of the modern Russian language deals with descriptive lexicology. The synchronous study of vocabulary involves the study of it as a system of interrelated and interdependent elements at the present time.

However, the synchronous system of language is not fixed and absolutely stable. There are always elements in it that are fading into the past; there are also just emerging, new ones. The coexistence of such heterogeneous elements in one synchronous section of the language testifies to its constant movement and development. Descriptive lexicology takes into account this dynamic balance of language, which is a unity of stable and moving elements.

The tasks of lexicology include the study of the meanings of words, their stylistic characteristics, the description of the sources of the formation of the lexical system, the analysis of the processes of its renewal and archaization. The object of consideration in this section of the course of the modern Russian language is the word as such. It should be noted that the word is in the field of view of other sections of the course. But word formation, for example, focuses on the laws and types of word formation, morphology is the grammatical doctrine of the word, and only lexicology studies words on their own and in a certain connection with each other.

2. The lexical system of the Russian language

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level. Study of lexical system language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of the life of words, connected with each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical-phraseological system of the native language.

Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, the linguistic features of words make it possible to group them into parts of speech according to lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In the most general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows.

In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, sign, action, etc.). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic(gr. paradeigma example, example).

Paradigmatic connections of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems are made up of words grouped based on similarity in meaning. They form synonymous series, various thematic groups with a hierarchy of units compared as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are quite stable and are not subject to changes under the influence of the context. However, the semantics of specific words can reflect the features of the context, which also manifests systemic connections in the vocabulary.

One of the manifestations of the systemic relations of words is their ability to connect with each other. Compatibility words is determined by their subject-semantic connections, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, the word glass can be used in combination with words ball, glass; possible combinations glass jar (bottle, dishes), even glass saucepan (frying pan)- from fire-resistant glass. But impossible - "glass book", "glass patty" and so on, since the subject-semantic connections of these words exclude mutual compatibility. You can't link words either. glass and run, glass and long away: this is opposed by their grammatical nature (an adjective cannot be combined with a verb, a circumstantial adverb). The lexical feature of the word glass is its ability to develop figurative meanings, which allows you to build phrases hairglass smoke(Es.), glass sight. Words that do not have this ability ( refractory, metal cutting and below), do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their compatibility `already.

Systemic connections, manifested in the patterns of combinations of words with each other, are called syntagmatic(gr. syntagma- something connected). They are revealed when words are combined, i.e. in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection between the meanings of words, and, consequently, their systemic connections in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also determined by the lexical system of the language as a whole. The features of the compatibility of individual words largely depend on the context, therefore, syntagmatic connections, to a greater extent than paradigmatic ones, are subject to changes due to the content of speech. Thus, lexical syntagmatics reflects the change in realities (cf., for example, glass pan), expanding our understanding of the world around us ( walk on the moon), figurative energy of language ( glass smoke hair).

The systemic connections of words, the interaction of different meanings of one word and its relationship with other words are very diverse, which indicates the great expressive power of vocabulary. At the same time, we must not forget that the lexical system is an integral part of a larger language system in which certain relationships have developed between the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical features, phonetic features, and also the dependence of the meaning of the word on paralinguistic(gr. para- about, near + linguistic, linguistic) and extralinguistic(lat. extra- over-, out- + linguistic) factors: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, functioning conditions, time of fixation in the language, etc.

The general language system and the lexical system, as its integral part, are identified and learned in speech practice, which, in turn, has an impact on changes in the language, contributing to its development and enrichment. The study of systemic relationships in vocabulary is a necessary condition for the scientific description of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The solution of theoretical problems gets a direct exit into practice both in the compilation of various dictionaries, and in the development of literary and linguistic norms of word usage, and in the analysis of methods for the individual author's use of the expressive possibilities of a word in artistic speech.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language or vocabulary. The set of words of a language that serve to designate objects, phenomena and concepts is called the vocabulary, or vocabulary of the language.

One of the main tasks of lexicology is the study of the meanings of words and phraseological units, the study of polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and other relationships between the meanings of words. The scope of lexicology also includes changes in the vocabulary of the language, reflection in the vocabulary of social, territorial, professional characteristics of native speakers. Lexicology explores the layers of words distinguished for various reasons: by origin (original and borrowed vocabulary), by historical perspective (obsolete words and neologisms), by sphere of use (popular, special, colloquial, etc.), by stylistic coloring (interstyle and stylistically colored vocabulary).

The basic unit of language is the word. F. de Saussure believed that "the word, despite the difficulty of defining this concept, is a unit that relentlessly appears to our mind as something central in the entire mechanism of language." This status of a word is determined by the functions it performs, namely: 1) nominative (words-names of the realities of the world); 2) significative (words contain information about reality); 3) cumulative (cumulative, associated with the enrichment of the semantic side of the word in the course of its life in the language); 4) pragmatic (associated with the sphere of use of the word, with connotative information); 5) building (or constructive, proves that the word is the building material of the language).

It is the variety of functions performed by the word that determines the complexity of the definition of this concept. So, for example, V.V. Vinogradov believed that “the word is the ultimate (i.e., already more indecomposable into grammatically separate and at the same time lexically integral units of speech) linguistic “symbol”, which, firstly, serves for a certain social environment, a designation (nominative sign) of a particular content, emotion, relationship, in a word, some “object” in the world of reality, in the world of material culture or social ideology and psychology, often expressing an assessment, the attitude of this social environment to reality and thus the understanding and perception of reality inherent in this social environment; secondly, it is or can be a receptacle for several meanings common to the entire given collective, and thirdly, finally, it is a structural speech unity that forms speech, utterance, message or is distinguished from speech as one of its correlative with other members, divided into phonemes and morphemes and entering into syntactic chains according to the laws of the grammar of a given language. In turn, D. N. Shmelev gives the following definition to the word: "A word is a unit of naming, characterized by its integral design (phonetic and grammatical) and idiomaticity."

In lexicology, the word is considered, first of all, from the point of view of the meaning, meaning and connections of this word with other words. Not a single word in a language exists in isolation from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, the linguistic features of words make it possible to group them into parts of speech according to lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows. In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, attribute, action, etc. ). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic.

Paradigmatic connections of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems are made up of words grouped based on similarity in meaning. They form synonymous series, various thematic groups with a hierarchy of units compared as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

So, the lexical system is an integral part of a larger language system in which certain relationships have developed between the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical features, phonetic features, and the dependence of the meaning of the word on paralinguistic and extralinguistic factors has formed: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, operating conditions , fixation time in the language, etc.

Now we can say with confidence that the current era of the development of linguistics is the era of the science of semantics. Semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of language units. Semantics answers the question of how a person, knowing the words and grammatical rules of a natural language, is able to convey with their help a wide variety of information about the world (including his own inner world), even if he encounters such a task for the first time. . This section of the science of language allows a person to understand what information about the world is contained in any statement addressed to him, even if he hears it for the first time.

The central position of semantics in the circle of linguistic disciplines follows directly from the fact that human language in its main function is a means of communication, encoding and decoding information. Already in ancient times, questions were raised about the meaning of the word. Disputes about life and death, the origin of language, thinking and various philosophical problems, one way or another, came down to the actual meaning of the word. In terms of proper linguistics, up to the 19th century, inclusive, only one discipline - etymology - touches on the problems of semantics, since, explaining the formation of some words from others, it is forced to both register and explain changes in the meanings of words. Only in the second half of the 19th century, due to increased interest not only in the sound, but also in the “psychological” side of the language, the question arose of the need to single out semantics as a doctrine of changes in the meaning of words. The term "semantics" itself was introduced by the French linguist M. Breal. Today, the main applied, i.e. The practical task of semantics is the rapid search for information in artificial systems (for example, the Internet). The theory of semantic analysis is aimed at solving problems related to the possibility of understanding the meaning of a phrase and issuing a query by a search engine in a given form.

Semantics is now understood as a special component, without which it is impossible to fully understand the word, the process of encoding and decoding speech, in other words, the language cannot be studied in isolation from its conceptual side, its meaning.

Thus, people who know the language can perform the following operations with it:

• 1) build a text in this language that expresses the desired meaning (coding), as well as extract meaning from the perceived text (decoding);
• 2) connect words with each other idiomatically, that is, in accordance with the norms of syntactic, semantic and lexical compatibility that have developed in a given language;
• 3) to establish various semantic relations between statements, in particular:
  • a) the relationship of synonymy;
  • b) relations of logical consequence . When speaking, this ability is manifested in the ability to paraphrase the constructed text in different ways, leaving its content unchanged. And in understanding - in the ability to see the complete or partial semantic identity of outwardly different texts.
• 4) Set various semantic properties of sentences, in particular:
  • a) distinguish semantically correct sentences from semantically incorrect ones;
  • b) distinguish semantically coherent texts from semantically incoherent ones.

So, the semantic component has long been recognized as a necessary part of a complete description of a language - grammar. Various theories of language contribute to the formation of general principles of semantic description. For example, the foundations of semantic research were laid by linguists J. Katz and J. Fodor and further developed by R. Jackendoff, Yu.D. Apresyan, A.K. Zholkovsky, I.A. Melchuk and others.

The semantic component necessarily includes a dictionary (lexicon), in which each word is reported about what it means, as well as the rules for combining it with other words. The meaning of a word in a dictionary is described using a dictionary definition, or interpretation, which is an expression in the same natural language or in an artificial semantic language specially developed for this purpose, in which the meaning of the interpreted word is presented more fully (explicitly) and, ideally, , strictly.

Lexicology

The concept of vocabulary and lexicology

Term vocabulary(gr. lexikos- verbal, dictionary) serves to designate the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to determine the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language (book vocabulary), in a separate work (lexicon "Words about Igor's Campaign"), you can talk about the vocabulary of the writer (Pushkin's vocabulary) and even one person (The speaker has a rich vocabulary).

Lexicology(gr. lexis- word + logos- teaching) is a section of the science of language that studies vocabulary. Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronous (gr. syn- together + chronos- time), then she explores the vocabulary of the language in its current state, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia- through + chronos- time), then its subject is the development of the vocabulary of the given language.

The tasks of lexicology include the study of the meanings of words, their stylistic characteristics, the description of the sources of the formation of the lexical system, the analysis of the processes of its renewal and archaization.

It should be noted that the word is in the field of view of other sections of the course. But word formation, for example, focuses on the laws and types of word formation, morphology is the grammatical doctrine of a word, and only lexicology studies words on their own and in a certain connection with each other.

The lexical system of the Russian language

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interrelated and interdependent units of the same level. Study of lexical system language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of the life of words, connected with each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical and phraseological system of the native language.

Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In the most general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows.

In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are united in their category of essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, attribute, action, etc.). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic(gr. paradeigma- example, pattern).

Paradigmatic connections of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems are made up of words grouped based on similarity in meaning. They form synonymous series, various thematic groups with a hierarchy of units compared as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

One of the manifestations of the systemic relations of words is their ability to connect with each other. Compatibility words is determined by their subject-semantic connections, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, the word glass can be used in combination with words ball, glass; possible combinations glass jar (bottle, dishes), even glass saucepan (frying pan)- from fire-resistant glass. But impossible - ".glass book", "glass cutlet" and so on, since the subject-semantic connections of these words exclude mutual compatibility. You can't link words either. glass and run, glass and long away: this is opposed by their grammatical nature (an adjective cannot be combined with a verb, a circumstantial adverb). The lexical feature of the word glass is its ability to develop figurative meanings, which allows you to build phrases hair glass smoke(Her), glass sight. Words that do not have this ability (refractory, metal-cutting etc.), do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their compatibility already.

Systemic connections, manifested in the patterns of combinations of words with each other, are called syntagmatic(gr. syntagma- something connected). They are revealed when words are combined, that is, in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection between the meanings of words, and, consequently, their systemic connections in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also determined by the lexical system of the language as a whole.

The features of the compatibility of individual words largely depend on the context, therefore, syntagmatic connections, to a greater extent than paradigmatic ones, are subject to changes due to the content of speech. Thus, lexical syntagmatics reflects the change in realities (cf., for example, glass pan) expanding our understanding of the world around us (walk on the moon) figurative energy of language (glass hair smoke).