What is a metaphor and why is it needed. The richness of the Russian language: what is a metaphor in literature What is a metaphor in art examples

Metaphor

METAPHOR - kind of trail (see), the use of the word in a figurative sense; a phrase that characterizes a given phenomenon by transferring to it the features inherent in another phenomenon (due to one or another similarity of the converging phenomena), which is so. arr. replaces him. The peculiarity of M. as a type of trope is that it is a comparison, the members of which have merged so much that the first member (what was compared) is displaced and completely replaced by the second (what was compared), for example. “A bee from a wax cell / Flies for tribute in the field” (Pushkin), where honey is compared with tribute and a beehive with a cell, and the first members are replaced by the second. M., like any trope, is based on the property of the word that in its meaning it relies not only on the essential and general qualities of objects (phenomena), but also on all the wealth of its secondary definitions and individual qualities and properties. Eg. in the word “star”, along with the essential and general meaning (celestial body), we also have a number of secondary and individual features - the radiance of the star, its remoteness, etc. M. and arises through the use of “secondary” meanings of words, which allows us to establish between new connections with them (a secondary sign of tribute is that it is collected; cells are its tightness, etc.). For artistic thinking, these "secondary" signs, expressing moments of sensuous visualization, are a means of revealing through them the essential features of the reflected class reality. M. enriches our understanding of a given subject, attracting new phenomena to characterize it, expanding our understanding of its properties. Hence the cognitive meaning of metaphor. M., like the trope in general, is a general linguistic phenomenon, but it acquires special significance in fiction, since the writer, striving for the most concretized, individualized figurative display of reality, M. gives the opportunity to shade the most diverse properties, signs, details of the phenomenon, its convergence with others, and so on. The very quality of M. and its place in the literary style, of course, is determined by concrete historical class conditions. And those concepts with which the writer operates, and their secondary meanings and their connections with other concepts, reflecting to one degree or another the connections of phenomena in reality - all this is determined by the historically conditioned nature of the class consciousness of the writer, i.e., in the final account of the real life process that he is aware of. Hence the class character of M. , its different historical content: different styles correspond to different metaphorical systems, principles of metaphorization; at the same time, the attitude towards M. is different within the same style, depending on the direction and characteristics of literary skill, as well as within the work of one writer (Gorky's metaphors in the story "Old Woman Izergil" and in "The Life of Klim Samgin"), within one work (the image of an officer and the image of Nilovna in Gorky's Mother), even within the deployment of one image (the wealth of M., characterizing Nilovna, in the last part of the book and their absence in the first). So. arr. M. acts as one of the means of creating a given artistic image, and only in a specific analysis can the place, meaning and quality of metaphor in a given work, creativity, style be established, since we also have in metaphor one of the moments of class reflection of reality. Trope, Lexicon.

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Metaphor

(Greek metaphora - transfer), view trail; the transfer of a sign from one object to another on the basis of their associative connection, subjectively perceived similarity. Metaphor is used in works of art when describing objects to emphasize their subtle properties, to present them from an unusual angle. There are three main types of metaphors: personification - the transfer of a sign of a living person to an inanimate object - “Like a white dress sang in the beam ... "(" The girl sang in the church choir ... "by A. A. Blok); reification - the transfer of the sign of an inanimate object to a living person - " Goals we work on human Oak trees... ”(“ Worker Poet ”by V. V. Mayakovsky); distraction - the transfer of a sign of a particular phenomenon (person or object) to an abstract, abstract phenomenon - “Then humbles himself in my soul anxiety... "(" When the yellowing field is agitated ... "by M. Yu. Lermontov). There are historically stable types of metaphors that existed in different national literatures of a certain period. Such are the kennings (Icelandic kenning - definition) in the poetry of the early Middle Ages: "the horse of the sea" is the Old Norse metaphor of the ship, "the path of the whales" is the Anglo-Saxon metaphor of the ocean. Any metaphor of these main types can spread to the entire text of the work and materialize its meaning in the form of plot actions, i.e. become allegory. Metaphors are more common in verse poetic speech; in works in which the share of fiction exceeds the share of factuality. Metaphor is one of the main features of the folklore genre. puzzles.

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Metaphor

METAPHOR(Greek Μεταφορά - transfer) - a type of trail, which is based on association by similarity or by analogy. So, old age can be called in the evening or autumn of life, since all these three concepts are associated according to their common sign of approaching the end: life, day, year. Like other tropes (metonymy, synecdoche), metaphor is not only a phenomenon of poetic style, but also a general linguistic one. Many words in the language are formed metaphorically or are used metaphorically, and the figurative meaning of the word sooner or later displaces the meaning, the word is understood only in its figurative meaning, which is thus no longer recognized as figurative, since its original direct meaning has already faded or even been completely lost. This kind of metaphorical origin is revealed in separate, independent words ( skates, window, affection, captivating, menacing, advise), but even more often in phrases ( wings mills, mountain ridge, pink dreams, hang by a thread). On the contrary, a metaphor, as a phenomenon of style, should be spoken of in cases where a word or a combination of words is recognized or felt both direct and figurative meaning. Such poetic metaphors can be: firstly, the result of a new word usage, when a word used in ordinary speech in one meaning or another is given a new, figurative meaning for it (for example, “And it will sink into the dark mouth year after year"; “.. mill set in magnet"- Tyutchev); secondly, the result updates, revitalization tarnished metaphors of language (e.g., "You're drinking magical poison of desire»; "Serpents of the heart remorse"- Pushkin). The ratio of two meanings in a poetic metaphor can be further different degrees. Either a direct or a figurative meaning can be brought to the fore, and the other, as it were, accompanies it, or both meanings can be in a certain balance with each other (Tyutchev’s example of the latter: confuse azure sky"). In most cases, we find a poetic metaphor at the stage of obscuring the direct meaning by the figurative one, while the direct meaning gives only emotional coloring metaphor, which is its poetic effectiveness (for example, “In the blood burning fire desires "- Pushkin). But one cannot deny or even consider as an exception those cases when the direct meaning of the metaphor not only does not lose its figurative tangibility, but is brought to the fore, the image retains visibility, becomes a poetic reality, metaphor realized. (For example, "Life is a mouse running" - Pushkin; "Her soul twitched with transparent blue ice" - Blok). Poetic metaphor is rarely limited to a single word or phrase. Usually we meet a number of images, the totality of which gives the metaphor an emotional or visual tangibility. Such a combination of several images into one metaphorical system can be of different types, which depends on the relationship between direct and figurative meaning and on the degree of visualization and emotionality of the metaphor. The normal look is extended metaphor represents the case when the connection between the images is supported by both direct and figurative meaning (for example, “We drink from the cup of being with our eyes closed” - Lermontov; “Grieving, and crying, and laughing, the streams of my poems ring”, etc.). the whole poem - Blok). It is this kind of metaphor that is easily developed in allegory(cm.). If the connection between the images included in the expanded metaphor is supported by only one meaning, only direct or only figurative, then various forms are obtained. catachresis(see) For example, in Bryusov: “I was covered in black moisture Her loose hair”, where the connection between the internally contradictory images “entangled” and “moisture” is supported by the figurative meaning of the image black moisture = hair; at Blok: “Quietly I I weave into dark curls Secret poems precious diamond”, where the contradiction is of a different order: the image of a diamond, as a metaphor of poetry, independently unfolds, is realized, forming a catachresis in relation to the main figurative meaning: verses weave into curls. Finally, we must also indicate a special kind of development of a metaphor with catachresis, namely, when the main metaphor evokes another, derivative, metaphorically timed to direct the meaning of the first. So, in Pushkin: “Live in the silence of the night are burning there are snakes of heart remorse in me," where are burning is a metaphorical predicate remorse, taken only in the literal sense: they can burn wounds, and consequently, bites, bites of a snake, but cannot burning remorse. There may be several such derivative metaphors, or one derivative metaphor may, in turn, give rise to another new derivative, and so on, so that a kind of metaphorical chain is formed. Particularly striking examples of such an unfolding of metaphors are found in Blok's poetry. (See a detailed analysis of his metaphorical style in the article by V. M. Zhirmunsky, Poetry of Alexander Blok, P. 1922). It would be difficult to accurately establish for different types of poetic metaphors the degree of their emotionality, visibility, and in general their poetic realization, since the matter depends on subjective perception and resonation with them. But the study of the individual poetics of the author (or literary group) in relation to his general worldview allows us to speak with sufficient objectivity about the aesthetic significance of metaphors in a particular poetic style. For metaphor, see poetics and style, which are indicated with these words and with the article on trails>>. The book of A. Biesse is specially devoted to metaphor. Die Philosophie des Metaphorischen, Hamburg und Leipzig 1893 and the incomplete work of Fr. Brinkmann, Die Metaphern I. Bd. Bonn 1878.

M. Petrovsky. Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925

Synonyms:

See what "Metaphor" is in other dictionaries:

- (transfer, Greek) the most extensive form of the trope, rhetoric. a figure, which is the likening of one concept or representation to another, the transfer of significant features or characteristics of the latter to it, its use in ... ... Encyclopedia of cultural studies

- (Greek metaphora transfer, meta, and phero I carry). Allegorical expression; trope, which consists in the fact that the name of one concept is transferred to another based on the similarity between them. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (from the Greek metaphora - transfer, image) substitution of an ordinary expression for a figurative one (for example, a ship of the desert); metaphorically - in a figurative sense, figuratively. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. 2010. METAPHOR ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Metaphor- METAPHOR (Greek: Μεταφορα transference) is a kind of trope based on association by similarity or by analogy. So, old age can be called the evening or autumn of life, since all these three concepts are associated according to their common sign of approach ... Dictionary of literary terms

METAPHOR- METAPHOR, metaphor (Greek metaphorá), type of path, transferring the properties of one object (phenomenon or aspect of being) to another, according to the principle of their similarity in any respect or in contrast. Unlike comparison, where both terms are present ... ... Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary

metaphor- METAPHOR (from the Greek. metaphora transfer) the central trope of the language, a complex figuratively semantic structure, representing a special way of cognition, carried out through the generation of images resulting from interaction ... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

Metaphor- Metaphor ♦ Métaphore A stylistic figure. Implicit comparison, the use of one word for another based on some analogy or similarity between the things being compared. The number of metaphors is truly endless, but we will only give ... ... Philosophical Dictionary of Sponville

This is called personification, which is singled out into a separate kind of expressive ways.

« reifying«:

"deep sadness"
"brisk argument"
"iron character"
"subtle thoughts"
"bitter truth",
"sweet lips"
"door handle"

They can safely be called epithets.

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Different ways of expressing feelings

The metaphor in our everyday speech makes it more emotional and expressive, but to make the verses more lively, bright and colorful. A beautiful metaphor will evoke the desired response from the reader, will give rise to many different associations. By itself, it affects not only the mind, but also the feelings, our subconscious. It is not for nothing that poets devote so much time to the selection of the necessary metaphors in their text.

All poets, in their work, very rarely confine themselves to one phrase-metaphor. There are a lot of them. They clearly form a memorable image. Unfortunately, there are both original and banal words. Not escaped this fate and metaphor. Such clichés as: take root, the forest of legs, the toe of a boot and others have become firmly established in our everyday life. But in poetry, they will not give imagery to the verses. It is necessary to carefully approach their choice and not to stoop to complete banality.

Such Russian poets as Yesenin, Mayakovsky, Lermontov very often used expressive metaphors in their work. “The lonely sail turns white” can be said to have become a designation of loneliness. Feelings need to be described, not named. Readers should be imbued with our image. In this case, the poet manages to influence aesthetically.

It should be the brightest, abstract from the essence, unexpected. Otherwise, where to get imagery in your text? However, it must have realistic roots. Do not turn into a beautiful set of words and letters, but evoke beautiful associations.

We dare to hope that today you have found answers to your questions in our article.

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora "transfer") is one of the most powerful and frequent means of secondary nomination. This is a universal phenomenon in the language. Its universality is manifested in space and time, in the structure of the language and in its functioning. It is inherent in all languages and in all eras; it covers different aspects of the language. In linguistics, the problem of metaphor - both as a process that creates new meanings of linguistic expressions in the course of their rethinking, and as a ready-made metaphorical meaning - has been considered for a long time, but until now there are disagreements between scientists in the linguistic understanding of metaphor.

We find serious information about the features of metaphor already in ancient and Roman theories of language and style. Aristotle described the metaphor most fully, in comparison with other ancient authors, defining it as “the transfer of words with a changed meaning from gender to species, or from species to gender, or from species to species, or in the form of proportion” [Ancient theories of language and style 1996: 184]. Describing the features of the metaphor, Cicero noted that this means of secondary nomination “gives the greatest brightness and brilliance to speech, strewn with it, as it were, with stars” [Ibid: 223]. All ancient authors drew attention to the close relationship between metaphor and comparison, for example: “comparison is also a metaphor” (Aristotle) [Ibid: 190], “metaphor is a shortened comparison” (Quintilian) [Ibid: 232], “metaphor is comparison reduced to one word” (Cicero) [Ibid: 229]

Some modern definitions also speak of metaphor as a transfer: “metaphor (from the Greek. metaphora transfer), tropes, transferring the properties of one object (phenomenon) to another based on a feature that is common or similar for both compared members (“talk of waves”, "bronze of muscles")" [Universal Encyclopedia].

In the explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov and Shvedova, we find the following explanation for the word: “The appearance of a trail, a hidden figurative comparison, the likening of one object, a phenomenon to another (for example, a cup of being), as well as a figurative comparison in general in different types of arts. In linguistics: the figurative use of the word" [Ozhegov, Shvedova].

Here is how the term “metaphor” is defined in the encyclopedia Krugosvet: “a metaphor (Greek “transfer”), a trope or a figure of speech, consisting in the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects (objects, persons, phenomena, actions or signs), to designate another , similar to the data, a class of objects or a single object; for example: a wolf, an oak and a club, a snake, a lion, a rag as applied to a person; sharp, dull - about the properties of the human mind, and so on ”[Encyclopedia Around the World].

In the essay by A.N. Baranov to the Dictionary of Russian Political Metaphor, metaphor is defined from the point of view of cognitive theory as “a complex cognitive phenomenon resulting from the interaction of two semantic complexes - content/focus/source and shell/frame/goal” [A.N. Baranov, Essay on the cognitive theory of metaphor]. This definition is based on the terminology of M. Black, who “focus” refers to a word in an expression used in a figurative sense, that is, metaphorically, and “frame” (“frame”) a word or a word surrounding “focus”, used in the usual sense [M. Black, Metaphor].

“Metaphor,” according to the figurative expression of M. Black, “is the top of a flooded model [Black: 1979]. And many sought to give it a floating state, hoping to see it in action. Without a doubt, we can state that there is an extensive literature on this topic. Work on the study of metaphor is still ongoing. Linguist T.N. Markova speaks about metaphorical space in the prose of Pelevin (2004), A.P. Chudinov considers phytonymic metaphor in modern political speech (2005) and defines metaphor as the main mental operation that combines two conceptual spheres and creates the opportunity to use the potential of structuring the source sphere with the help of a new sphere [Chudinov A.P., 2000: 7]. Linguistics also considers various areas that study metaphor.

Through the efforts of modern linguists, in particular Cherkasova E.T., Serebrennikov B.A., Kubryakov E.S., linguistic concepts and processes that determine the emergence and functioning of metaphor in speech were determined. These include: the main meaning of the word, a common semantic element, which is the result of the formation of a semantic duality of a metaphorical meaning; lexico-semantic connections of words that logically do not correspond to the real connections of objects and phenomena of reality, a certain semantic type of a word, grammatical categories of animation - inanimateness of nouns.

The above provisions have already become traditional, classical in the theory of metaphor, for example: statements about the semantic duality of metaphors, about semantic components common to the main and figurative meanings, about an unusual metaphorical environment, about certain semantic classes of words capable of developing figurative meanings.

In the study of metaphors, the main value is given to the main lexical meaning of the word. But even here there are some problems, since in this case we are talking about a noun in the role of a metaphor for the position of the predicate, application and combination with the genitive case of another noun. But the characterizing function of metaphor requires its expression in the form of a predicate. N.D. Arutyunova writes: “The thesis that a metaphor is correlated with the position of a predicate does not imply that any predicate that is figurative in its meaning is a metaphor. The metaphor in the predicate faces limitations due to morphological and lexico-semantic factors. [Arutyunova N.D., 1988: 5] The issue of the syntactic design of metaphors is also considered unresolved, and its complexity is aggravated by the possibility of combining several tropes in the same language unit. So, a metaphor can be hyperbolic, metonymic, ironic, there are metaphorical comparisons, metaphorical paraphrases.

It should be noted that the metaphor exists in the language as a real semantic-syntactic unit. Therefore, here we can talk about the signs of a metaphor:

1) a sign of semantic duality. This sign should, first of all, be considered from the point of view of interpretation of direct and figurative meaning. Many interpretations can be given, where the direct and figurative meanings are revealed in such a way that their common features emerge. So, the main and figurative meanings in the word "pulse" are combined in the idea of tempo, rhythm, in the word "wrong side" - about the hidden, reverse side of something.
2) a sign of distraction. In the press of metaphorization, the word does a great deal of semantic work, as a result of which its meaning becomes generalized and thus less definite;
3) a sign of expressiveness. The sign of a metaphor is its evaluative quality. Based on the sign of the main and figurative meanings, comparing them, it turns out that the metaphor draws attention to some semantic feature contained in the main meaning;
4) syntactic feature. This feature is expressed in the syntactic conditions of word metaphorization, which are given by dictionaries and reference books;
5) morphological feature. It is a numerical characteristic of metaphor-nouns. Given in dictionaries or reference books. [Telia V.N., 1977: 36]

A metaphor is a statement about the properties of an object based on some similarity with the already indicated in the rethought meaning of the word. Here a hypothetical conjecture is possible and the subjective principle prevails in the view of the real. Therefore, the metaphor is so widely exploited in the qualifying and evaluative activity of consciousness. The metaphor technique is the main method of indirect nomination. This pattern is due to the fact that when forming indirect names in a rethought meaning, those signs that are significant in relation to the meaning and detonation of the reference name are updated. This creates the conditions for predication to objects of new features that are not their own, and thus for the abrupt development of a new meaning due to the interference of the properties of the object already indicated by the previous meaning and the fusion with it of the features attributed to the newly designated “from the outside” of the reference name. [Kubryakova E .S., 1978: 64]

from the Greek metaphora - transfer, image) - the use of a word in a figurative sense based on the similarity in any respect of two objects or phenomena; replacing the usual expression with a figurative one (for example, golden autumn, the sound of waves, an airplane wing).

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

METAPHOR

from the Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope (see tropes) of a word, which consists in transferring the properties of one object, process or phenomenon to another on the basis of their similarity in some respect or in contrast. Aristotle in "Poetics" noted that M. is "an unusual name transferred from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy." Of the four genera of M., Aristotle wrote, in the Rhetoric M., based on analogy, deserve the most attention, for example: “Pericles spoke of the youth who died in the war as the destruction of spring among the seasons.” Aristotle considers action to be especially strong, that is, one where the analogy is based on the representation of the inanimate by the animate, depicting everything moving and living. And Aristotle considers Homer as a model for the use of such M.: “The bitter sting of an arrow ... bounced back from copper. A sharp arrow rushed into the midst of enemies, to the intended greedy sacrifice ”(Iliad). And here is how, with the help of M., the actions of B.L. Pasternak creates the image of a cloud: “When a huge purple cloud, standing on the edge of the road, silenced the grasshoppers, sultry crackling in the grass, and in the camps sighed and drums trembled, the earth’s eyes darkened and there was no life in the world ... The cloud looked over look at the low baked stubble. They crept up to the horizon. The cloud easily reared up. They extended further, beyond the very camps. The cloud landed on its front legs and, smoothly crossing the road, silently crawled along the fourth rail of the siding ”(Airways). When creating M., according to Quintilian (compendium "Twelve Books of Rhetorical Instructions"), the following four cases will be the most typical: 1) replacement (transfer of property) of one animate object by another animate Greeks and Romans considered only humans to be animate). For example: “There were horses - not horses, tigers” (E. Zamyatin. Russia); the walrus "...rolls up again onto the platform, on his fat powerful body Nietzsche's mustachioed, bristly head with a smooth forehead is shown" (V. Khlebnikov. Menagerie); 2) one inanimate object is replaced (property transfer occurs) by another inanimate object. For example: “A river swirls in the desert fog” (A. Pushkin. Window); “Above him is a golden ray of the sun” (M. Lermontov. Sail); “A rusty leaf fell from the trees” (F. Tyutchev. N.I. Krol); "The boiling sea below us" (song "Varangian"); 3) replacement (transfer of property) of an inanimate object by an animate one. For example: “The word is the greatest master: it looks small and imperceptible, but it does wonderful things - it can stop fear and turn away sadness, cause joy, increase pity” (Gorgy. Praise to Elena); “The night is quiet, the desert listens to God, and the star speaks to the star” (M. Lermontov. I go out alone on the road ...); “The rusty bolt will burst into tears at the gate” (A. Bely. Jester); “Light Kolomna, hugging her sister Ryazan, wets her bare feet in the weeping Oka” (N. Klyuev. Ruin); “Linden trees were chilled to the bone” (N. Klyuev. Linden trees were chilled to the bone ...); 4) replacement (transfer of properties) of an animate object by an inanimate one. For example: “Strong heart” (i.e. mean, cruel) - the officer says about the usurer Sanjuelo (R. Lesage. The Adventures of Gil Blas from Santillana); “Sophists are poisonous shoots that have stuck to healthy plants, hemlock in a virgin forest” (V. Hugo. Les Misérables); “The Sophists are magnificent, magnificent flowers of the rich Greek spirit” (A. Herzen. Letters on the study of nature). Aristotle in "Rhetoric" emphasized that M. "has a high degree of clarity, pleasantness and a sign of novelty." It was M., he believed, along with the common words of the native language, that are the only material useful for the style of prose speech. M. is very close to comparison, but there is also a difference between them. M. is a trope of rhetoric, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity in some respect, and comparison is a logical device similar to the definition of a concept, a figurative expression in which the depicted phenomenon is likened to another. Usually comparison is expressed using words like, like, as if. M., in contrast to the comparison, has a greater expression. The means of the language make it possible to separate comparison and M. quite strictly. This is done in Aristotle's Rhetoric. Here are the comparisons of I. Annensky in “The Shamrock of Temptation”: “A merry day burns ... Among the sagging herbs, all the poppies are stained - like greedy impotence, like lips full of temptation and poison, like scarlet butterflies unfolded wings.” They are easy to turn into a metaphor: Poppies are scarlet butterflies with spread wings. Demetrius in his work "On Style" considered another aspect of the relationship between M. and comparison. If M., he wrote, seems too dangerous, then it is easy to turn it into a comparison, inserting, as it were, and then the impression of riskiness inherent in M. will weaken. In the treatises of rhetoricians, in the works of experts in the field of poetics and stylistics, most attention is paid to M. himself. Quintilian called it the most common and most beautiful of the tropes of rhetoric. It is, the Roman rhetor believed, something innate, and even in complete ignoramuses it often breaks out in the most natural way. But it is much more pleasant and beautiful when M. tastefully crafted and in high speech shines with its own light. It multiplies the richness of the language by changing or borrowing everything that is lacking in it. M. is used in order to strike the mind, to designate the subject more strongly and present it, as it were, before the eyes of the audience. Of course, its role cannot be exaggerated. Quintilian noted that an excess of M. bothers the listener's attention, turns speech into an allegory and a riddle. You should not use low and indecent M., as well as M., based on a false likeness. Aristotle saw one of the reasons for the loftiness, coldness of the speaker's speech in the use of inappropriate M. He believed that three types of M. should not be used: 1) having a funny meaning; 2) the meaning of which is too solemn and tragic; 3) borrowed from afar, and therefore having an unclear meaning or a poetic look. The subject of constant discussions, starting from antiquity, was the question of how many M. can be used simultaneously. Already the Greek theoreticians of rhetoric accepted as a "law" the simultaneous use of two, maximum three M. Having agreed, in principle, with this provision, Pseudo-Longin in the treatise "On the Sublime" nevertheless believes that the justification for the large number and courage of M. is “appropriate passion of speech and its noble sublimity. It is natural for the growing tide of stormy feeling to carry everything along and carry it with it. It was these properties of M. that M.V. superbly demonstrated. Lomonosov: “The master of many languages, the Russian language, not only by the vastness of the places where it dominates, but also by its own space and contentment is great before everyone in Europe ... Charles the Fifth ... if he were skilled in the Russian language, then. .. I would find in it the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, the richness and brevity of the Greek and Latin language, strong in images ”(M. Lomonosov. Russian Grammar). Description of boron by E.I. Zamyatin is given through the use of numerous M.: “... Blue winter days, the rustle of snow chunks - from top to bottom, a vigorous frosty crack, a woodpecker hammers; yellow summer days, wax candles in clumsy green hands, transparent honey tears down hardened strong trunks, cuckoos are counting the years. But clouds swelled in the stuffiness, the sky split into a crimson crack, dripped with fire - and the age-old forest lit up, and by morning red tongues were buzzing all around, a thorn, whistle, crackle, howl, half the sky in smoke, the sun in the blood was barely visible ”(E. Zamyatin, Russia). B. paid much attention to the assessment of the role of M. in fiction. L. Pasternak: “Art is realistic as an activity and symbolic as a fact. It is realistic in that it did not invent M. on its own, but found it in nature and faithfully reproduced it ”(B. Pasternak. Safeguarding). “Metaphorism is a natural consequence of the fragility of man and the long-term conceived immensity of his tasks. With this discrepancy, he is forced to look at things in an eagle's vigilant manner and explain himself with instantaneous and immediately understandable insights. This is poetry. Metaphorism is a stenography of a great personality, cursiveness of its spirit” (B. Pasternak. Notes on translations from Shakespeare). M. is the most common and most expressive of all tropes. Lit .: Antique theories of language and style. - M.; L., 1936. - S. 215-220; Aristotle. Poetics // Aristotle. Op.: In 4 vols. - M., 1984. - T. 4. - S. 669-672; Aristotle. Rhetoric // Ancient rhetoric. - M., 1978. - S. 130-135, 145-148; Arutyunova N.D. Metaphor//Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 1990; Demetrius. About style // Antique rhetoric. - M., 1978; Jolls K.K. Thought. Word. Metaphor. - Kiev, 1984; Quintilian. Twelve books of rhetorical instructions. In 2 parts. - St. Petersburg, 1834; Korolkov V.I. On extra-linguistic and intra-linguistic aspects of the study of metaphor // Uch. app. MSPIIA. - M., 1971. - Issue. 58; Lomonosov M.V. Brief guide to eloquence: Book one, which contains rhetoric showing the general rules of both eloquence, that is, oratorio and poetry, composed for the benefit of those who love verbal sciences // Anthology of Russian rhetoric. - M., 1997. - S. 147-148; Lvov M.R. Rhetoric: Textbook for students in grades 10-11. - M., 1995; Panov M.I. Rhetoric from antiquity to the present day // Anthology of Russian rhetoric. - M., 1997. - S. 31-32; Freidenberg O.M. Metaphor // Freidenberg O.M. Myth and literature of antiquity. - M., 1978; Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic: For Wednesdays and Seniors. school age / Comp. IN AND. Novikov. - M., 1988. - S. 167-169. M.I. Panov

A metaphor is an expression or a word in a figurative sense, the basis of which is a phenomenon or an object that has a similarity with it. In simple words, one word is replaced by another that has a similar sign with it.

Metaphor in literature is one of the oldest

What is a metaphor

Metaphor has 4 parts:

Context - a complete passage of text that combines the meaning of the individual words or sentences included in it.
An object.
The process by which the function is executed.
Application of this process or its intersection with any situations.

The concept of metaphor was discovered by Aristotle. Thanks to him, now a view has been formed on it as a necessary accessory of the language, which makes it possible to achieve cognitive and other goals.

Ancient philosophers believed that the metaphor was given to us by nature itself and was so established in everyday speech that many concepts do not need to be called literally, and its use replenishes the lack of words. But after them, it was assigned the function of an additional application to the mechanism of the language, and not to its main form. It was believed that for science it is even harmful, because it leads to a dead end in the search for truth. Against all odds, the metaphor continued to exist in literature because it was necessary for its development. It was mostly used in poetry.

Only in the 20th century was metaphor finally recognized as an integral part of speech, and scientific research using it began to be carried out in new dimensions. This was facilitated by such a property as the ability to combine materials of different nature. in literature, it became clear when they saw that the extended use of this artistic technique leads to the appearance of riddles, proverbs, allegories.

Building a Metaphor

Metaphor is created from 4 components: two groups and properties of each of them. Features of one group of objects are offered to another group. If a person is called a lion, then it is assumed that he is endowed with similar characteristics. Thus, a new image is created, where the word "lion" in a figurative sense means "fearless and mighty."

Metaphors are specific to different languages. If the Russians "donkey" symbolizes stupidity and stubbornness, then the Spaniards - diligence. A metaphor in literature is a concept that may differ among different peoples, which should be taken into account when translating from one language to another.

Metaphor Functions

The main function of metaphor is a vivid emotional assessment and figuratively expressive coloring of speech. At the same time, rich and capacious images are created from incomparable objects.

Another function is nominative, which consists in filling the language with phraseological and lexical constructions, for example: bottle neck, pansies.

In addition to the main ones, the metaphor performs many other functions. This concept is much broader and richer than it seems at first glance.

What are metaphors

Since ancient times, metaphors have been divided into the following types:

Sharp - connecting concepts that lie in different planes: "I'm walking around the city, shot with my eyes ...".
Erased - so commonplace that the figurative character is no longer noticed ("Already in the morning to me people were reaching out"). It has become so familiar that the figurative meaning is difficult to grasp. It is found when translating from one language to another.
Metaphor-formula - its transformation into a direct meaning is excluded (the worm of doubt, the wheel of fortune). She has become a stereotype.
Expanded - contains a large message in a logical sequence.
Implemented - used for its intended purpose (" Came to my senses, and there again a dead end).

It is difficult to imagine modern life without metaphorical images and comparisons. The most common metaphor in literature. This is necessary for a vivid disclosure of images and the essence of phenomena. In poetry, the extended metaphor is especially effective, presented in the following ways:

Indirect communication using or history using comparison.
A figure of speech using words in a figurative sense, based on analogy, similarity and comparison.

Consistently disclosed in the text fragment: “ A fine rain with dawn washes the dawn», « The moon gives New Year's dreams».

Some classics believed that a metaphor in literature is a separate phenomenon that acquires a new meaning due to its occurrence. In this case, it becomes the goal of the author, where the metaphorical image leads the reader to a new meaning, an unexpected meaning. Such metaphors from fiction can be found in the works of the classics. Take, for example, the Nose, which acquires a metaphorical meaning in Gogol's story. Rich in metaphorical images where they give characters and events a new meaning. Based on this, it can be said that their widespread definition is far from complete. Metaphor in literature is a broader concept and not only decorates speech, but often gives it a new meaning.

Conclusion

What is metaphor in literature? It has a more effective effect on consciousness due to its emotional coloring and imagery. This is especially evident in poetry. The impact of the metaphor is so strong that psychologists use it to solve problems related to the psyche of patients.

Metaphorical images are used when creating advertisements. They spark the imagination and help consumers make the right choice. The same is also carried out by society in the political sphere.

Metaphor is increasingly entering everyday life, manifesting itself in language, thinking and action. Its study is expanding, covering new areas of knowledge. By the images created by metaphors, one can judge the effectiveness of a particular media.