Parliament of Great Britain: structure, formation procedure. Where and when did parliament appear in England? The history of the English Parliament The Parliament in Great Britain was officially opened

The British parliamentary system is one of the most thoughtful and harmonious political systems in the world; It is the British parliamentary experience that forms the basis of the parliamentary systems of many other countries. However, the British Parliament also has many oddities that have formed during the more than impressive history of the United Kingdom.

Lack of constitution

Or, more precisely, the absence of a document outlining the principles of government. Great Britain is one of the few states without an officially written constitution (such countries also include Israel, New Zealand and the Republic of San Marino). Instead of a single constitution, the basis for governing the state was a huge number of separate laws and traditions that were formed over the centuries.

A surprising number of key elements of the British political system are in fact mere customs. For example, the constitutional order does not require the appointment of a prime minister - this role was formed only over time. The lack of a unified constitution is likely to become a source of serious political debate in the very near future, as the British Liberal Democrats have already launched a campaign for constitutional reforms.

Royal sanction

Before a bill can become law, the Queen must give her approval, or what is known as royal assent. The Queen still retains the power to pass, reject or delay the entry into force of any new legislation proposed by Parliament.

In reality, no British monarch has vetoed a bill proposed by Parliament since 1708. Today, the Queen's approval of any bill drafted by Parliament is taken for granted.

The number of votes a party gets and the number of seats a party gets in parliament are practically independent of each other. Voters choose a candidate for their area and the politician with the most votes wins a seat in parliament. If a candidate wins with 60% of the vote, the remaining 40% of the vote is worthless.

The voting system in Great Britain is quite simple, but given the action of three major parties, it has repeatedly demonstrated its inefficiency. Those same depreciating votes rise and can lead to rather strange results: for example, in 2005, as a result of the inefficiency of the voting system, the Labor party received only 37% of the votes, but received 55% of the seats in parliament, and the Liberal Democrats won 22% of the votes, receiving , however, only 9% of seats in parliament.

Prime Ministerial Elections

British citizens have no right to interfere in the election of the Prime Minister - all that remains is to vote for their party's Member of Parliament and hope. As might be expected from a system built on ancient customs, the process of selecting the prime minister is far from simple and transparent. After the official results of the general election are published, the leader of the party with the most members of Parliament goes to Buckingham Palace and asks the Queen for permission to form a new government. Fortunately, according to another, no less ancient custom, the queen will never refuse the leader of the largest party.

The system for electing the prime minister is by no means completely democratic: in fact, in most elections, less than 40% of all voters vote for the largest party.

"Hung Parliament"

Usually the voting system guarantees a significant advantage for the winning party, but sometimes a situation arises where the vote does not determine the real winner. This situation in parliament, in which no party has a majority in the House of Commons, is usually called a hung parliament. British politicians get out of an awkward situation by concluding agreements: sometimes two parties agree to cooperate until the next election.

If neither party can cooperate with the other, thereby forming a superior majority, the previous prime minister, according to regular custom, remains in office.

Appointment of elections

In the UK there is no specific period of time between elections. By law, elections must take place at least every five years, but in reality elections can be called at any time during this period of time. The Queen of Great Britain has the right to dissolve Parliament early, but custom allows the current Prime Minister to choose when this should happen.

When the Prime Minister chooses the time to call an election, he asks the Queen to dissolve Parliament. This system is very beneficial for the government, which usually waits for the peak of popularity and only then calls elections.

House of Lords

Members of Parliament sitting in the House of Commons are not the only politicians in Parliament. The British parliamentary system also includes an upper house, or House of Lords, whose members are appointed by the Queen on the recommendations of the government and the 26 most powerful bishops of the Church of England.

All bills that successfully pass through parliament are discussed and ratified in the House of Lords. The Lords have the right - and often exercise this right - to refuse to pass a bill, but the real power lies in the hands of members of the House of Commons, who can invoke the Acts of Parliament 1911 and 1949 and force the passage of a bill despite the refusal of the House of Lords. Since 1911, such an extreme measure has been used only seven times - most recently in 2004 to ban hunting with dogs.

Since the upper house of the British Parliament does not have even a share of the power that is concentrated in the hands of members of the House of Commons, many parliamentarians have repeatedly proposed changing the system by analogy with the US Congress, making the second chamber elective.

"Unparliamentary" language

During meetings, members of parliament are prohibited from using language that could “offend the dignity” of parliament. This rule includes any kind of swearing, personal insults and, most seriously, accusations of dishonesty against a Member of Parliament. The list of prohibited vocabulary in parliament even includes such seemingly common words as “coward”, “hooligan”, “liar”, “traitor”, “traitor”, “scoundrel”.

Many politicians have achieved amazing heights in the “art” of insult without using “unparliamentary” vocabulary: for example, direct accusations of lying are hidden behind an ironic description of a person “sparing on the truth.”

Ceremonial staff

The Baton of the House of Commons is an intricately carved golden baton placed in the center of the chamber during parliamentary sessions. The ceremonial staff symbolizes the queen's authority; Without the baton, the meeting of the chamber is considered invalid.

Over the impressive history of the British parliamentary system, the baton of the House of Commons has more than once acted as a weapon: it was thrown, pulled out and even pinned to the ground by one politician who tried to protest parliamentary decisions. In 2009, MP John McDonnell was arrested for attempting to disrupt a debate on the expansion of London Heathrow Airport by removing the baton.

Parliamentary elections

The House of Commons uses an ancient and rather eccentric method of voting. After the vote has been announced by the Speaker of Parliament, the members of parliament present are given eight minutes to proceed to one of two rooms: the "yes" room or the "no" room. When the allotted time is up, the doors of the rooms are closed and the number of politicians in each room is counted.

Secretaries of state and even the prime minister, taking part in a vote on an important issue, are forced, along with all members of parliament, to choose one of two rooms. Although at first glance this voting system seems ridiculously outdated, it actually provides an excellent opportunity for parliamentarians to meet and talk with the prime minister and the rest of the government.

Great Britain is a strange collection of symbols of a long-vanished empire. This is how it seems to many outside observers. The Queen, peers, judges in wigs, the ravens of the Tower... However, within the country, the symbols suit everyone. And while some still “serve” as lords, others reverently serve them

It was surprisingly easy to get into the British Parliament building. At the service entrance to the Palace of Westminster, they printed out a badge for me with the photo I had just taken and indicating the time of entry. They didn’t ask for my first and last name - they wrote down the details of Daniel Laurent, who invited me, a 32-year-old Frenchman who has been working on the parliamentary maintenance staff for four years now.

FOR PEERS ONLY

We sat on the terrace River restaurant overlooking the Thames. The restaurant belongs to the wing of the House of Lords, and ordinary tourists are not allowed here, and not every parliamentary employee can be here - metal plates glitter on the chairs with the inscription: Peers only (“Peers Only”)

- I never thought that I would work at the Palace of Westminster. I worked in London for five years as a manager in pubs, and was a supervisor in a restaurant. I received a lot, but extra money never hurts: living in London is expensive. One day, while looking through recruitment advertisements, I found a vacancy in the House of Lords. This is very rare - few people quit here. It is believed that work here is the most stable in the country: any company can close, but parliament never can. And I decided to try.

The terrace offers views of the symbols of the British capital: the London Eye, St. Thomas's Hospital, Westminster Bridge, along which red double-decker buses move.

- For those who work here, the history of the metropolis is not an empty phrase. And this despite the fact that mostly foreigners serve in parliament, says Daniel, - Algerians, Italians, Nigerians, Russians and so on. Sometimes on a work visa, but more often they are residents - some got married successfully, others came to study and stayed. But there are very few Englishmen in the parliamentary staff, except that among managers they are the majority; they do not agree to be lower on the career ladder.

To get a job in Parliament, you must work in the UK for five years and have a guarantor among managers. His friend Alfie from the House of Commons vouched for Daniel. After the interview, the security service spent four months studying the candidate’s biography and contacts. Daniel was accepted under contract for the position 0-Hours(“zero hours”), allowing you to serve in any department that requires people on an hourly basis.

- I was incredibly happy: I would work side by side with the peers of England!

ON THE HEALTH

Each parliamentary employee has his own level - grade (from A before I). Lowest - I, in which perfect knowledge of the language is not even necessary. But the higher the level, the more serious the requirements and broader the privileges. The grade is increased for qualifications or length of service every five years. For an extraordinary transition to a new level, you must pass exams, including a language exam. The House of Lords always meets halfway and, if necessary, will provide a teacher who will teach a language or specialty to successfully pass the exam.

Permanent employees of parliament must work a prescribed number of hours per day and are each assigned to a specific place: reading room, guest room, restaurant, meeting room, warehouse, pass office, security department, cleaning department, and so on. By cleaning the same hall or preparing tea for a specific lord, you can serve until retirement without ever changing your “place of registration.” There are only five percent of workers like Daniel in “zero hours” positions in parliament. Contract workers move between departments, replacing sick colleagues in any of them or performing work that requires additional personnel.

- My first workplace was the kitchen: they gave me shockproof boots (in case I dropped a plate on my foot!) and sent me to wash “the dishes of the aristocrats.” There I witnessed a quarrel between two dishwashers. One worked for five years, and the second for twenty. And the younger one was indignant that all these five years she had only been putting the plates on the shelf, but would like to wash them. There was almost a fight. I was in this responsible job for a short time. Soon I was entrusted with serving tea to the lords,- Daniel thinks about it and continues. - Yes, you can feel important even while serving tea. It seems like you're doing a small job, but poorly brewed tea can ruin a lord's mood, and imagine what kind of law he'll pass.

- Serving peers is very interesting: you attend their important meetings, listen to how the political situation is going, learn the intricacies of legislation or financial transactions. However, at such meetings a check may be carried out. Suppose I served the lord, he drank tea and left the office, and there were papers left on the table. I collected them and took them to his office. If I had stayed a little longer, they would have decided that I was reading or, worse, copying. I would be thanked for my cooperation and settled. They never scold people here: they say thank you and dismiss you.

Daniel's day starts at 4:30 am. He needs to open all the lounges, lay out towels for the bartenders, make sure there are clean uniforms, open the cash register in the gift shop, and do a lot of other minor work before doing the main business for the day. Everything should be ready when you arrive at the Lords' House.

COLOR OF THE NATION

It is not so easy to recognize the Lords in the corridors of Parliament. When there are no meetings, they are dressed in formal suits and look like ordinary businessmen.

- Everyone has badges,- Daniel explains. - Lords have three red diagonal lines across the entire card, ministers have green ones. Workers have one line, and its color indicates the house of service: the House of Lords is a red stripe, the House of Commons is green. There are also technicians, for example electricians or programmers, they have a yellow stripe. Contractors who perform work independent of the parliamentary wing have a gray stripe. There is a clear division of who can go where. For example, contract workers are not supposed to be on the Peers only floor. Or there are several staircases that have only been seen by lords and janitors during the entire existence of this building.

In the British Parliament you can always understand whose territory you are on. The carpets, the upholstery of the chairs, the lines on the floor are different in the two parts of the building: red is the color of the House of Lords, green is the color of the House of Commons. The difference is not only in the color, but also in the atmosphere and attitude of the staff, which really surprised Daniel when he first started working.

- There is a strict hierarchy in the House of Commons, like in many reputable companies. A person does his job for an agreed salary. If you are a waiter, then only a waiter. I received my salary and no thanks. It’s not like that in the House of Lords: a lord can come up, ask how you’re doing, and encourage you. It happened: I finished work, changed clothes and went to the exit. To meet the lord whom I served this morning. “Oh,” he says, “how glad I am to see you. Come to my buffet!” Well, I came as a guest. It's very stimulating.

A person who has served in the House of Lords until retirement receives an additional bonus of £25,000.

- My friend Kim, a bartender originally from Africa, worked in parliament for 25 years. On vacation, he always goes to his native village, and there he is greeted like a king: only an important person can work in the British Parliament. Kim says that as soon as the pension bonus is paid out, he will go home and live there like a millionaire. The good thing about our work is that no matter where in the world you live, no matter what country you are a citizen of, you are guaranteed to receive a parliamentary pension every month.

Each chamber has its own personnel department and accounting department, each with its own system of relations with the employer and remuneration. Staff salaries in the House of Commons are paid from taxpayers' funds, and in the House of Lords - from the personal budget of peers. At the end of the year, each lord writes a check, the amount is distributed among department employees as quarterly bonuses.

- Can you imagine, at first I worked so hard that I became the best employee of the year. Just like at McDonald's. Perhaps the photograph was not hung on the honor board, but it was published in the local newspaper. I was pleasantly surprised when I received awards from different departments from different lords.

As a parliamentary employee, Daniel can bring up to six guests with him, for whom he vouches. As an employee of the House of Lords has the right to treat them to River restaurant“parliamentary wine” and even lunch. House of Commons staff can only enter this restaurant outside of business hours as ordinary guests.

THE LIMITS OF DEMOCRACY

River restaurant overlooking the Thames, the interior is more reminiscent of a Soviet self-service canteen, and the rules there are more than democratic. At one table you can see the lord having lunch and the janitor drinking tea. The menu always has dishes for vegetarians and vegans, but the main feature is that there is no value added tax. Therefore, dining here is half the price of the London average, but only those who work in Parliament can order food.

While we drank wine on the terrace and watched the ferries sail along the Thames, we were joined by Alfie, one of the leading managers of the House of Commons. Alfie is English, has been working in parliament for 10 years, has a B grade. On the badge above the photo, half the stripes are red, half are green. This means that Alfie is now doing some work for the House of Lords and therefore can be on the terrace of the River restaurant.

And then I witnessed a heated argument between employees of different chambers about where the working conditions are better.

- In the House of Commons you are not perceived as a person with dreams and thoughts,- Daniel repeated in response to Alfie’s caustic remarks about the power of the lords. - Only as a machine for serving and cleaning - stuff only.

- But that’s what they hire you for,- Alfie was unperturbed. - But in the House of Lords there is constant waste of the budget. Two million pounds a year is allocated for restaurant services alone. And what? An expensive hotel has a higher quality of work than yours. And you also have people on contract because you have to pay £8.60 per hour. And in the House of Commons, unions have ensured that all workers are on staff, and as a result they are paid a minimum of £15 an hour.

- Who can I be on your staff? The owner of a dry cleaner from six in the morning until six in the evening? And here I decide for myself what to do. We have more freedom- Daniel doesn’t give up. - I can go to your part of parliament, but you can’t go to ours.

- Well, tell me, why should my employees go to the territory of the House of Lords if the territory of the House of Commons occupies 60% of the building?

As Alfie leaves, Daniel remarks good-naturedly but vindictively:

- And only employees of the House of Lords receive a personal invitation to the ball from the Queen...

THE POWER OF PRIVILEGES

- When someone retires, - says Daniel, - for his length of service, he is sent an invitation to the next royal ball as a guest. On this day you are, as it were, equated with lords. They say that when you see all these gilded carriages, the huge halls in which you used to serve champagne, Her Majesty at arm's length, you are visited by an amazing feeling of being part of something great. However... you don’t have to go to the ball, and then you will be given compensation of 200 pounds. But rarely anyone uses this. People are in awe of the privileges here. But love for working in parliament varies. We have one Mexican grandmother who has been a cleaner for 30 years. Once, at the opening of the next session, she was on duty at the entrance for several hours, greeted the carriages and, finally, took a photo with some lady. Then she showed everyone the photo for a long time. I was terribly proud. And some are simply obsessed with work: when they intrigue, knock, or count towels as if they were gold bars. They may report to your superiors that you left for lunch 10 minutes earlier than expected. In a word, like in any office.

Employees are not immediately warned about all the intricacies of serving in parliament. Perhaps, as Daniel thinks, no one knows the complete list of prohibitions and rules. For example, in one of the halls there is the queen’s personal restroom. The door is disguised as a wall panel, and behind it is a regular toilet room, which only Her Royal Majesty can use. Violation of this rule is equivalent to high treason and is punishable by a prison term of five years. This is probably just a legend.

Daniel himself “made a mistake” only once, at the beginning of his career. When he, a book lover, first found himself in the corridor of the Lords' Wing, he did not hesitate to open one of the glass library cases that lined the walls and took out an 18th-century tome. The guards who came running politely explained that the books in these cabinets are the property of the lords, and for workers there is a parliamentary library, which can be accessed upon request. The “crime”, fortunately, did not entail punishment.

- It's easy to get fined. But I have already learned the rules here and, moreover, I feel in love with this building and its history. But I wouldn't want to work here until I retire,- Daniel admits, - but every year it becomes more and more difficult to leave: parliament is dragging its feet. Stability, bonuses like gym memberships, kindergarten or social card. I recently spoke with the driver of a minister who drives a Jaguar. So this driver said that the job is great, the salary is high, the car is a beast, but his future depends on which party wins the elections. This cannot happen to House of Lords staff. The government changes, we remain.

TRADITIONS
Forever Alive

The rules of behavior in the British Parliament have evolved over centuries. Many traditions no longer make sense, but are not officially abolished.

Within the walls of parliament, it is prohibited to utter words that may offend other members of parliament; you cannot hint or openly state that another member of parliament is drunk or lying. The list of prohibited expressions is periodically updated during parliamentary sessions. It includes words such as “coward”, “liar”, “hooligan”, “libertine”, “rat”, “scoundrel”, “waif”, “pig”, “informer”, “traitor”. If a word is spoken, they will be asked to take it back, otherwise punishment or removal from meetings will follow.

Dueling is prohibited on parliament grounds.

It is forbidden to die on the territory of Parliament: those who suffer a sad fate are taken to St. Thomas' Hospital, located nearby, and only there the death is registered.

The only tobacco allowed on the territory is snuff, and only for members of the House of Commons.

It is forbidden to enter parliament wearing knight's armor.

Members of the House of Commons are not allowed to touch the Churchill sculpture that stands at the entrance to the House of Commons.

People are not allowed into parliament with whistles or padlocks.

The meeting of the lower house begins with prayer: all members pray standing, facing the wall. The tradition dates back to the times when it was customary to carry swords into parliament, and it was difficult to kneel with a sword on your belt.

Medals or other insignia that demonstrate the monarch's favor or gratitude may not be worn in parliament.

At the end of the meeting, a policeman enters the building and shouts: “Who’s going home?” The tradition arose because members of parliament used to have to travel home through poorly lit streets.

When leaving the hall, members of the lower house bow to the speaker. This tradition began when the House of Commons sat in St. Stephen's Chapel and the Speaker sat near the altar (those leaving bowed to the altar).

A male parliamentarian must wear a hat when addressing the Speaker.

Photo: TIPS IMAGES / RUSSIAN LOOK, AGE FOTOSTOCK / RUSSIAN LOOK; ROGER HARRIS, JESSICA TAYLOR / UK PARLIAMENT, GETTY IMAGES / FOTOBANK.COM (X2); AFP/EAST NEWS, AFP/EAST NEWS; GETTY IMAGES / FOTOBANK.COM (X2), UK PARLIAMENT, REUTERS / VOSTOCK PHOTO, AFP / EAST NEWS, REUTERS / VOSSTOCK PHOTO; AGE FOTOSTOCK / RUSSIAN LOOK, UK PARLIAMENT

As mentioned earlier, the British Parliament is one of the oldest representative bodies that continues to operate to this day. One of its characteristic features is that throughout almost the entire period of its existence, Parliament practically did not cease to operate. From the moment of its formation until the beginning of the 20th century, it expanded its influence and gained more and more strength with each century.

In order to understand the peculiarities of the current position of Parliament and understand the reason for its such high authority, it is necessary to study the history of its origin and development. For the study of Great Britain and for the study of its Parliament, history is of particular importance. This is largely determined by the peculiarities of the British legal system, which is based on constitutional agreements and precedents. And parliamentary law is no exception. It represents customary law based on precedents described in the parliamentary chronicles. This gives the norms of parliamentary law flexibility and adaptability to I. A. Dudko. Constitutional and legal status of the British Parliament: modern reforms.: diss. ... kan-ta legal. nauk.-M.: 2005. P. 59. .

To consider the historical development of Parliament, it is necessary to divide it into periods, since periodization will enhance the efficiency of the cognition process.

In her dissertation “Constitutional and legal status of the British Parliament: modern reforms,” I. A. Dudko, as a basis for identifying periods of development of the British Parliament, proposed a combination of periodization based on generally accepted major milestones in the world historical development of peoples (Ancient World, Middle Ages, Modern and Modern times General history of state and law/Edited by K.I. Batyr.-M.: LLC TK Welby, 2002) and periodization depending on the emergence and changes in parliamentary procedures, which for the constitutional law of Great Britain and especially for the Parliament itself have of great importance, since the country does not have a written constitution.

In connection with all of the above, the history of Parliament should be periodized as follows, highlighting the following stages and periods:

• stage of parliamentary prehistory, the period of the birth of the main parliamentary bodies. This stage includes the period from 825 (the unification of the ancient English states) to 1265. (Parliament of Simon de Montfort);
• first period from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 15th centuries It covers such events as the birth of Parliament, the convening of the “model Parliament”, the formation of Parliament as a representative body, and the formation of basic procedural norms. This period ends with the establishment of the leading position of the House of Commons by 1425, when every bill had to be approved by the House of Commons;
• second period, lasting from 1425 to 1603. (accession to the throne of James I). At this time, the role of Parliament is increasing, its position is strengthening?;
• third period from 1603 to 1689 It is characterized by the confrontation between the king and Parliament and the eventual establishment of parliamentary government after the adoption of the Bill of Rights (1689);
• fourth period from 1689 to 1832. characterized by the calm development of Parliament, the formation of the basic principles of debate, rules, organization of the work of the Chambers, and the establishment of control of the House of Commons over the Government;
• fifth period from 1832 to 1911 G. known for numerous reforms and the virtual decline in the role of the House of Lords;
• sixth period 1911 to present characterized by radical constitutional reforms, as well as a decrease in the role of Parliament in the state mechanism while the rise of the Government. This period can be divided into three sub-periods:
  • 1. from 1911 to 1949 when the voting rights of citizens were expanded;
  • 2. from 1949 to 1997. when a number of statutes were passed relating to the position and activities of the House of Lords in particular. The Parliament Act 1949, which further weakened the position of the upper House compared to the lower;
  • 3. from 1997 to the present, when, after the Labor Government led by Prime Minister Tony Blair came to power, the content of the very concept of “Parliament” changed dramatically due to a change in the relationship between the roles of the Chambers within it. See the periodization in the dissertation of I. A. Dudko . Constitutional and legal status of the British Parliament: modern reforms.-M.: 2005. P. 61-62..

Let us consider the history of the British Parliament, taking into account the highlighted periods, in more detail.

English legal monuments indicate that already in the 9th-11th centuries, a tendency arose in the country to transfer part of the powers of royal power to large landowners. For example, they had the right to gather militias on the territories of their lands, had the right to judge the peasants dependent on them, impose taxes on them and collect fines from them.

In the 7th-9th centuries, the highest state body of the Anglo-Saxon era, the Uitenagemot (assembly of the wise), was formed. This assembly included the king himself, the secular nobility, including feudal lords whom the king personally invited to the meeting, and the highest clergy.

With the participation of this council, the king decided on the most important issues, which included issues of waging war, concluding peace treaties, dividing and distributing lands, and adopting new laws. The most important functions of the uitenagemot were the election of kings, since at that time the dynastic principle of inheritance had not yet developed, and the implementation of the highest court over state traitors.

The Uitenagemot was convened by the king once a year, however, it could meet more often or, conversely, not meet for a long period of time, since there were no specific rules establishing the regularity of convocations.

After the Norman Conquest, the uitenagemot changed its name to the Great Council of the King. However, the basic principles of the meeting did not undergo much change. Although Anglo-Norman barons and knights replaced the Anglo-Saxon invited feudal lords in the Great Royal Council of William I (1066-1087) and his successors, and convening became more regular, the special role of the uitenagemot as a nationwide aristocratic representation limiting royal power was retained in the new institution, and later gave rise to the English Parliament. History of state and law of foreign countries. Part one: Textbook/answer. ed. O. A. Zhidkov, N. A. Krasheninnikova-M.: Norma, 2004. P. 337.

Another prerequisite for the formation of an estate-representative monarchy in England was the deepening feudalization of English society as a result of the Norman Conquest. By the end of the 11th century, almost all the Anglo-Saxon nobility with at least some influence in the state was destroyed and replaced by Norman barons and knights. The manor became the main form of economic organization of the economy and private jurisdiction. The power of the barons in the territory of their manors was practically unlimited and only grew stronger every year, despite the efforts of the royal authorities to limit this trend.

The very formation of the English Parliament began at the beginning of the 13th century during the confrontation between the royal power and the barons.

The history of the British Parliament begins in 1265 as a result of the conflict of 1258-1267, and we can consider some articles of the Magna Carta, signed in 1215, as a kind of prologue to it.

By the 13th century, an intense political struggle had developed in England between the strong royal power and the feudal magnates. Under John the Landless (1199-1216), the struggle of the feudal lords acquired a national character and received support from other political forces in the person of the higher clergy, nobility and urban elite. As a result of the conflict between the royal power and the feudal nobility, the barons forced John the Landless to sign the Magna Carta on June 15, 1215.

The central place in the Charter was occupied by articles expressing the interests of the barons leading the movement. Most of them concerned the vassal-fief relations of the king and the barons and sought to limit the king’s arbitrariness in the use of his rights related to land holdings. To a much lesser extent, the Charter reflected the privileges and concessions that the king was forced to make in relation to chivalry and cities.

Articles 12 and 14 deserve special attention, which are the prologue to the history of the English Parliament. Thus, Article 12 talks about the king’s obligation to coordinate financial and tax policy issues with the council of the kingdom: “Neither shield money nor allowances should be collected in our kingdom except by the general advice of our kingdom, unless it is for the ransom of our captivity and not for knighting our firstborn son and not for giving our firstborn daughter in marriage; and for this purpose only a moderate allowance should be given; the same should be done with regard to benefits from the city of London D.M. Petrushevsky. Magna Carta and the constitutional struggle in English society in the second half of the 13th century - M.: Publication by M. and S. Sabashnikov, 1918. P. 114.”, while Article 14 determines the composition of the council of the kingdom: “And for that, in order to have a general council of the kingdom when assessing benefits in other cases than the three above-mentioned, or for imposing shield money, we will command that archbishops, bishops, abbots, counts and senior barons be summoned by our letters under our seal; and in addition, we will order to call indiscriminately, through our sheriffs and bailiffs, all those who are holding directly from us; (we will order to call them all) by a certain day, i.e. at least forty days before the due date, and at a specified place; and in all these letters of invitation we will explain the reason for the invitation; and when the invitations are sent out in this way, on the appointed day the matter will begin with the participation and advice of those who will be present, even if not all those invited appeared to D.M. Petrushevsky. Right there. P. 15." Thus, the council of the kingdom was a council of all the king's vassals, which can be seen as the prototype of the future House of Lords. If representatives from cities and counties were added to the council of the kingdom, then we could talk about an English medieval Parliament. Therefore, Magna Carta can be called a prologue in the history of the English Parliament.

The confrontation between royal power and the nobility reached its apogee in the middle of the 13th century. The new King Henry III (1216-1272) abolished the articles of the Magna Carta, which strengthened the position of the barons, which caused a new round of political struggle - a civil war. Simon de Montfort, who led the barons, wanting to again win over the knights and townspeople, convened a Parliament in 1265, which is considered the first Parliament of England. Two knights from each county and two representatives from the townspeople sat here. However, soon as a result of renewed hostilities, Simon de Montfort was killed. The king was forced to compromise with the barons, knights and townspeople. The result of this struggle was the establishment of Parliament.

The reign of Edward I (1272-1307) dates back to the convening of the Parliament, called the “model” (1295), the composition of which served as a model for subsequent Parliaments of England (in addition to the large secular and spiritual feudal lords personally invited by the king, it included two representatives each from 37 counties (knights) and two representatives from cities).

The main functions of Parliament in the XIII - early XIV centuries. were:

Permission to collect taxes

Submitting and discussing private and “parliamentary” petitions?

Until the mid-14th century, the English estates sat together. Then, during the reign of King Edward III (1327-1377), they were divided into two Houses: the upper (House of Lords), which was formed mainly from the largest magnates-hereditary peers, and the lower (House of Commons), in which knights from the counties sat (two from each) and representatives from cities (two from each city). Edward III established the rule that the House of Commons had the casting vote when setting taxes.

In addition to the financial function, the competence of the Parliament also included participation in resolving foreign policy issues, consent to the publication of laws, and judicial powers. In the exercise of these additional powers? the upper House played a greater role, since the House of Commons was less interested in foreign policy issues or legal proceedings.

In the period from the XIV to the XV centuries. Parliamentary practice is being established, and the status of the speaker has been strengthened. Basic legislation was based on petitions, but communities had already begun to struggle to ensure that responses to their petitions were given in writing, a practice that had been in place since the 15th century. By the end of the first period, the principle of freedom of speech in the House of Commons, as well as freedom from arrest during the session and 40 days after its end, is formed. Is the practice of three readings developing? bills I.A. Dudko. Right there. See pages 66-67..

During this period, the House of Lords also underwent changes, membership in which became permanent and inheritable on the basis of the presence of a special status - the title of peerage.

So, by the beginning of the 15th century. Parliament was formed as a representative body. His competence continued to include financial functions (Parliament's consent to tax collections), royal legislation was placed under his control, and from the middle of the 14th century he received the right of legislative initiative emanating from the House of Commons.

The next stage in the development of the British Parliament is characterized by a strengthening of its role in the political life of society. By the middle of the 15th century, both of its Houses had finally taken shape, and one of the first reforms of parliamentary procedure was carried out - bills replaced petitions, which finally consolidated the legislative function of the House of Commons.

By the middle of the 16th century, the procedures for the opening of Parliament, the presentation, passage and adoption of bills took shape.

However, by the end of the 16th century, a conflict arose again between royal power and Parliament, which led to the fact that during the third stage of the development of Parliament, kings sought to rule without its participation in political life. He, in turn, sought to strengthen his position. As a result of the English Revolution (English Civil War), a new form of government was established in the country - a constitutional monarchy, which indicated the victory of Parliament. An important achievement during this period was also the establishment of the responsibility of ministers to Parliament.

In 1689, the constitutional monarchy was finally formalized in the Bill of Rights, which established the principle of the supremacy of Parliament. The powers of the Crown in the legislative and financial spheres were further limited, and free elections were announced. The Bill of Rights actually laid the foundation for another constitutional principle—the principle of parliamentary sovereignty.

The period that began with the “glorious revolution” is characterized by relative calm in the development of Parliament. The main documents establishing the constitutional monarchy in the state are consolidated.

These documents include the Terennial Act of 1694, which established that Parliament should convene at least once every three years. Thus, the King's right to convene Parliament became a duty.

In 1701, the Act of Constitution was adopted, which established the rule of “countersignature” (signature of the minister of legal acts submitted for signature to the king), as well as ministerial responsibility to parliament, actually enshrined the principle of “irremovability of judges.”

At the beginning of the 18th century, a system of party government was established in the country, the Cabinet of Ministers was formed, initially as a body responsible to the Crown, however, this later became responsible to Parliament. The principle was established according to which the Government was to be formed from representatives of the party majority in Parliament.

The presence of two opposing parties alternately forming the Government has become the norm since the 18th century.

Parliamentary law also continued to develop. Since 1707, the royal power ceased to use the right of veto, which finally assigned power in the field of legislation to Parliament. In 1716, the Seven Years Act was adopted, extending the term of authority? Parliament up to seven years. All this firmly strengthened Parliament in the system of state power.

The Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century had a significant impact on the structure of society. The system of representation did not correspond to the level of development of the country, and the electoral system, which had developed in the Middle Ages, did not reflect the new social structure.

As a solution to these problems, the Reform Act of 1832 was adopted, which abolished the electoral districts, the so-called “towns” “Rotten boroughs” - Depopulated in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. villages and towns of Great Britain, while retaining representation in Parliament. The votes of voters in these settlements were often controlled by the landlord, the owner of the land. Often, a seat in the House of Commons was simply bought, which was not difficult with several dozen voters, with a population of less than 2,000 people; in other constituencies with a population of less than 4,000 thousand people, representation was reduced to one deputy. The vacant seats were transferred to large cities that had no representation in Parliament.

Thus, by the beginning of the 19th century, a fairly strong, balanced and democratic political system with the dominance of Parliament had developed in England.

Period from 1833 to 1911 characterized by changes in the ratio of the Chambers within Parliament itself, the rise of the House of Commons.

But already in 1876, a crisis began in Great Britain in all industries. End of the 19th century characterized by an intensification of the labor movement and an increase in the number of trade unions. A number of laws were passed to alleviate the situation of workers. The Children's Charter of 1833; Mine Acts 1842 and 1850; The Ten-Hour Day Act of 1847, etc. In 1906, the British Labor Party was formed to represent the interests of workers. That same year, Labor won 29 seats in Parliament for the first time.

This period is characterized by the rise of the Government, including over the Parliament, since in connection with changes in the economic situation in the country, which affected all other spheres of society, there was an increased need for making operational decisions, which, due to the imperfect procedure for considering cases, the Parliament was not capable. During the same period, the basic procedural rules of Parliament were introduced (the problem of time allocation was solved, the process of passing a bill was regulated, a new voting procedure was adopted, and the rule for closing debates was introduced in 1887?).

The beginning of the sixth period is characterized by relative calm in the development of Parliament. However, after the Second World War it became clear that the state should take over the functions of social care of citizens, which was carried out by executive authorities. In order to exercise control over their activities, a special system of committees is created in Parliament, as well as a special system of tribunal bodies for resolving conflicts with citizens, and “ombudsmen” Ombudsman (Swedish ombudsman) - an official who is entrusted with the functions of monitoring the observance of the interests of citizens in the activities of executive authorities and officials.

In the 20th century, the Upper House of Parliament underwent the greatest changes. These changes began with the Parliament Act 1911, which limited the power of the House of Lords to reject bills passed by the House of Commons. In 1949, another Act of Parliament was passed, which complemented the 1911 Act and consolidated the dominant position of the House of Commons by reducing the number of sessions? from three to two, during which the bill passed in the House of Commons, and also reducing the period between the second and last reading in the House of Commons from two years to one year.

In 1958, the Life Peerages Act was passed, under which the Crown, on the advice of the Prime Minister, had the power to appoint life peers, both men and women, who had the right to sit and vote in the House of Lords for the rest of their lives.

In 1963, the Peerage Act was passed, which made it possible to renounce a life peerage with the transfer of the title to the heir.

The issue of continuing to reform the House of Lords was raised again in the late 90s of the 20th century, when Labor leader Tony Blair in his speech stated the need to continue reforming the House of Lords. His idea was based on replacing the hereditary principle of forming the chamber and changing its powers, of which only the first was implemented, carried out in 1999: out of 750 hereditary peers, only 92 people retained their seats in the chamber (those who left the chamber received the right to vote in parliamentary elections) and 580 life peers, including Bishops A.A. Gromyko. Tony Blair: ten years at the head of Britain // Modern Europe. 2007. No. 2. -P.12.. The second part of the reform was never implemented due to a large number of disagreements on this issue both in the Government and in the Parliament itself. However, the issue of reforming the Upper House remains relevant to this day. Thus, in 2012, speaking from the throne at the opening of a new session of Parliament, Queen Elizabeth II announced the reform of the House of Lords, the draft of which was to be presented to the public within a year. However, after a few months, the project establishing the election of the Upper House, which was supposed to be implemented by 2015, was frozen, again due to ambiguous attitudes towards it both among parliamentarians and among the population. Thus, the issue of reforming the House of Lords of the British Parliament still remains controversial.

So, the historical path of the British Parliament was quite long. From the 13th to the 20th centuries, its structure and parliamentary procedures were gradually formed, and its position and authority in the system of public authorities in Great Britain were strengthened. The peculiarities of the legal system and mentality of the British contributed to the formation of the principle of continuity of traditions and customs in managing the activities of this body. At the same time, in connection with the evolution of social relations and way of life, the Parliament itself has evolved. Since in the 21st century the need of society for making operational decisions has increased, for increasing the necessary level of knowledge to resolve certain issues, due to the somewhat cumbersome procedure for making parliamentary decisions, the emergence of citizens' need for additional support from the state, the influence of executive authorities has begun to grow , which could solve the tasks, which to some extent deforms the classical principle of the supremacy of Parliament. However, to some extent this principle still remains. Despite the fact that most bills are introduced into the House of Commons at the initiative of the Government, despite its growing influence, Parliament still retains leverage over the executive authorities, and it still plays a significant role in resolving the most important issues for the country . Turning to the centuries-old history of this political institution, we can confidently assert, based on past experience, on the commitment to traditions characteristic of the British, even on the fact that for more than a century discussions about the fate of the Upper House have continued, and to this day the British cannot come to one decision that despite changes in the balance of power of the highest bodies of executive power in the British political system, the British Parliament will retain its significance for the country and authority and will be able to exist for many hundreds of years.

Legislative power in Great Britain belongs to Parliament. This is one of the oldest parliaments in the world, it is rightly called the father of all parliaments. It arose at the end of the 13th century. and has since continued to function without interruption throughout the country's political history. Already at the end of the 18th century. the practical limitation of the power of the monarch gave Parliament real and multifaceted significance and placed it at the center of political power. A long evolutionary path has determined the continuity characteristic of this highest representative body of the country. The combination of new and old forms, their coexistence is reflected in many aspects of the organization and activities of its chambers.

The UK Parliament consists of two chambers - the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The monarch is also considered an integral part of it, since the British legal doctrine proceeds from the fact that only the unity of all three parts forms in the legal sense what is called parliament. In everyday practice, the term “Parliament” usually means its main part – the House of Commons.

The position of Parliament in the constitutional system is determined by two doctrinal principles - parliamentary supremacy and parliamentary (responsible) government. The actual functioning of Parliament is determined by the established practice of the two-party system. Taken together, these two factors provide a reasonable combination of elements of democracy and rationalism of the British parliamentary system and the state mechanism as a whole.

House of Commons.Formation order and composition. The House of Commons is a national representative body. This is the only elected central government body in the country. Members of the Chamber are elected for a term of 5 years in direct general elections. On average, 2300-2500 candidates are nominated by different parties. Elections are held in 659 single-mandate constituencies, and their results are determined according to the majoritarian system of relative majority. The distribution of parliamentary seats between parties under this electoral system never corresponds to the distribution of votes between them, providing huge benefits to the two largest parties - Labor and Conservative. During the parliamentary elections, the question of which of these parties will rule the country is actually decided.

The vast majority of the House's deputies - 539 - are elected from populous England. Scotland is represented by 61 deputies, Wales - 41, Northern Ireland - 18. Until 1987, the term of office of the post-war House had never reached the statutory limit. The average duration of office for one convocation was three to four years. One of the reasons for the early dissolution of the Chamber was that the Government sought to choose the most favorable moment for the elections for its party, to hold them, as a rule, at the peak of its popularity.

The work of the Chamber is led by a person elected by deputies Speaker- the third official in the country after the Queen and the Prime Minister. He presides over the House, monitors compliance with the rules of parliamentary procedure, and represents the House in its relations with the Queen, the House of Lords, and other government bodies. No meeting of the House can take place in the absence of the Speaker. The Speaker is considered non-partisan and does not participate in debates or voting, except in cases where the votes of deputies are equally divided.

An important official in the House is the “leader of the House of Commons” - a member of the Cabinet rank whose task is to ensure the timely passage of government legislative initiatives through the House. He acts as a mediator between the Government and the opposition.

The House of Commons forms from its members committees, which are divided into permanent, temporary and committee of the whole house. Permanent ones, in turn, are divided into specialized and non-specialized.

Specialized committees are created to exercise parliamentary control over the activities of the Government. The system of committees is tied to the structure of ministries and is their mirror image. The presence of these committees makes it possible for deputies to carefully examine government activities in certain areas and areas of public administration, competently judge the activities of ministries and departments, and influence decisions made by the administrative apparatus. The committees have the power to conduct investigations. In addition, there are special committees on European legislation, delegated legislation, etc. Specialized committees function on a permanent basis and consist of 10-15 members of the Chamber.

Non-specialized committees are formed for preliminary clause-by-clause consideration of bills (bills introduced in the House). The number of such committees is not legally defined. Usually there are 7-8 such committees in the Chamber. These committees are created anew each time to consider a specific bill, and are dissolved after completing their task. Committees are designated by the first letters of the Latin alphabet: A, B, C, etc. and do not specialize in any issue. There is also a Committee for the Review of Private (Non-Governmental) Bills. Each committee has from 15 to 50 deputies.

The Committee of the Whole House is its plenary meeting, at which, as a rule, bills of exceptional importance are discussed: constitutional and financial bills, nationalization proposals, etc. It is convened to speed up the passage of the bill through Parliament. At the same time, the Speaker leaves the meeting, which is chaired by the Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee - the second most important official of the House.

Among the temporary committees, the following can be distinguished: on issues of procedure, on selection (of deputies to the bodies of the Chamber), privileges, petitions sent to the Chamber, servicing deputies, etc. Committees are formed for the duration of the session. The party composition of the permanent and temporary committees is completed according to the principle of proportional representation of factions, which ensures the party with the majority of seats in the Chamber of predominance in all committees.

An important role in the work of the Chamber is played by party factions, called parliamentary parties. The party structure is the basis of the entire organization and activities of the Chamber. The two main parties form the officially recognized parties - the government majority (its leader becomes Prime Minister) and "Her Majesty's Official Opposition". The latter creates a “shadow cabinet” consisting of deputies who are considered shadow analogues of the current members of the Cabinet. The “Shadow Cabinet” is aware of government affairs and is ready to replace the current Cabinet at any time. The position of the leader of the opposition is legislated and he is paid a state salary.

Party factions are headed by "whips". The Whip is the right hand of the Prime Minister or Leader of the Opposition. For the Conservatives, they are appointed by the leader of the party, for the Labor Party they are elected by members of the faction. The main task of the “whips”, their deputies and assistants is to organize and coordinate the activities of the relevant factions. In addition, the “whips” of the government majority and the official opposition hold regular consultations with each other in order to establish cooperation, resolve controversial issues, reach compromises, etc. The “whips” of the leading parties receive salaries from the treasury.

Traditionally, whips ensure party discipline. It is believed that no faction can count on success unless it acts monolithically in the House. Therefore, factional discipline is sacredly observed. “Whips” ensure the turnout of faction members to vote. Deputies, formally possessing sovereignty, vote in accordance with the instructions of their party's whip. Apostates and violators are slowly being wiped out. They usually lose the opportunity to stand as a candidate in the next parliamentary elections.

The deputy has immunity (for the period of the session plus 40 days before the start and 40 days after its completion). He is paid for postal and transportation expenses, and the services of three assistants (24 thousand pounds sterling per year is allocated for these purposes). Since 1911, deputies have received a salary, which currently amounts to 22 thousand pounds. Art. per year, and compensation of 9 thousand f. Art. to pay for housing. Each deputy is closely connected with his constituency, is obliged to regularly receive voters in his local bureau, confirm his competence and degree of influence by solving various issues.

Parliamentary procedure is determined mainly by standing rules (the rules of the House). The annual session of the Chamber begins in late September - early October and ends in August. The Chamber meets every day, except Saturday and Sunday, for 160-190 days a year. Meetings are usually open. The activities of the Chamber are widely covered by the press.

House of Lords. Formation order and composition. The House of Lords is formed on a non-elected basis, and currently consists primarily of life peers of nobility with the title of at least baron/baroness. Every year their number increases, since on April 21 (the Queen's birthday) and December 25 (Christmas Day), the Queen, on the advice of the Prime Minister, bestows new titles of nobility on those who have distinguished themselves before the Fatherland. Most of them are political and party leaders, senior military personnel and retired officials, outstanding scientists, artists, etc. The title (and the actual place in the Chamber) is claimed without the right of inheritance. The Chamber also includes 26 Lords Spiritual (the highest hierarchy of the Church of England) and 20 Lords of Appeal. These are Lord Lawyers who are appointed by royal act for life from among those who hold or have held high judicial positions. They assist the Chamber in solving court cases and receive a special fee.

The House of Lords is currently undergoing significant reform. Thus, in accordance with the constitutional reform carried out by the Labor Government of E. Blair, from January 1, 2002, the membership of hereditary peers was abolished, i.e. those who filled seats in the House by inheritance, of which there were more than 700 (their names were inscribed in the so-called “golden book” of the English nobility). So far, the new method of forming the Chamber has not yet been determined, nor has its numerical composition been legally determined.

Internal organization of the Chamber. Head of the House of Lords Lord Chancellor- an official appointed by the Queen for a 5-year term on the nomination of the Prime Minister. The Lord Chancellor is both a member of the Cabinet and the head of the country's judicial system. True, his powers are significantly reduced in comparison with his colleague - the Speaker of the Lower House. The Lord Chancellor has two elected deputies to preside over the House in his absence.

The House of Lords does not have standing committees, but can, at its discretion, become a committee of the whole House. It also has the right to create temporary specialized committees to discuss a specific bill.

Party factions are formed in the House of Lords. Each of them has its own leader, main “whips” and their assistants. The leader of the ruling party is considered the leader of the House. However, the Lords are more independent of parties and voters and less bound by party discipline.

The Lords are endowed with parliamentary immunity and can only be tried by their own House. Their activities are not paid. The Lords are characterized by “indiscipline”; at best, 100 of its members attend the meetings of the House. The quorum of the House is three members, and 30 members are sufficient to approve bills from the lower house.

Competence of Parliament. To the most important functions The House of Commons includes: discussion and decision-making on issues of foreign and domestic policy of the country (parliamentary debates), adoption of laws; adoption of the budget; control over the activities of the Government.

The functions of the House of Lords are more modest: putting forward uncontested bills; elaboration of bills received by it; approval of bills passed by the House of Commons with the right of suspensive veto; debates on the most important long-term political issues. The loss of power functions by the Chamber is a consequence of parliamentary reforms carried out in the 19th-20th centuries. It is believed that the Chamber, accumulating the wealth of experience and special knowledge of its members, should serve as an important and useful addition to the elected chamber.

Legislative procedure. The UK Parliament has the power to make and amend any law in the ordinary course of legislative procedure. It is not bound by any constitutional act and there is no legal limitation on its supremacy in the legislative sphere.

According to the range of issues regulated, all bills (bills) are divided into public (affecting general interests and regulating the most important issues) and private (affecting individual interests and having local significance). Public bills introduced by deputies-members of the Government in the House of Commons are called government bills; those introduced by ordinary deputies are considered as private members' bills. Almost all the time of the Lower House (up to 90%) is occupied by the consideration of bills introduced by the Government.

Priorities in legislation are determined by the Cabinet and the monarch in his speech at the opening of the annual session of Parliament. Bills can be introduced in any house (financial bills - only in the House of Commons), but in practice all politically important bills are considered first by the lower House and only then by the upper House. Government bills can be introduced on any day of the parliamentary session, private bills are introduced and discussed only on Fridays (12 Fridays per session).

All bills are considered in three readings. The first reading is a purely formal procedure, during which the name and meaning of the bill are brought to the attention of deputies and the deadline for its subsequent consideration is set. The text of the bill is printed and distributed to deputies. During the second reading, the general provisions of the bill are discussed, followed by its transfer to a House committee, where deputies and experts study it in detail and make proposals for amendments. If the bill has passed discussion and voting in the committee, it is submitted for third reading. After the third reading and vote on the bill as a whole, it goes to the House of Lords. The procedure for passing a bill in the House of Lords is much simpler. Financial bills must be reviewed within one month. (The House is deprived of the ability to reject financial bills). Proposals from the Upper House to amend the bill are considered in the House of Commons with a view to reaching a compromise. If compromise is not possible, the House of Commons has the power to overcome the objections of the House of Lords by re-assorting the bill at the next session (financial bills do not even need to do this). After this, the law is considered adopted and is sent to the monarch for sanction and publication in the official publication.

Another important function of Parliament is the approval of the annual state budget. The principle requiring the consent of Parliament for the Government to spend public funds was established back in the 17th century. Since 1911, the right to approve the state budget was finally reserved for one of the chambers - the House of Commons. Let us note that the determination of financial policy and the management of finances within the limits of funds approved by the Chamber belongs to the Government. Deputies can make amendments to the budget only after agreement with the relevant minister.

Finally, one of the most important functions of Parliament is control over activities Governments. The core of the entire control system is the parliamentary responsibility of the Government. This means that the Government is formed from among the members of Parliament and, if the House of Commons passes a vote of no confidence, must resign. In turn, the Government has the right to dissolve the Chamber and call new elections. In British political practice, however, a vote of no confidence is extremely rare. In the 20th century only twice (in 1924 and 1979) did a proposal for a vote of no confidence gather the required majority, and both times this was due to the lack of a stable parliamentary majority in the Government at that time. The opposition quite often makes a proposal to express no confidence in the Government (resolution of “censure”), but it is rejected by the government party majority.

The most frequently used form of control is questions to the Government. The House of Commons begins each working cycle with Question Hour, hearing ministers answer questions. Twice a week, on Tuesdays and Thursdays, the Prime Minister himself answers questions from deputies within 15 minutes. Question Hour is broadcast on radio and television, and the Chamber itself determines the order of broadcast and strictly regulates it. The debate is reproduced verbatim in the daily parliamentary bulletin. It is during these meetings that a sharp clash between the Government and the parliamentary opposition occurs. Answering the questions is a serious test for all members of the Government and they are seriously preparing for them, resorting to the help of their consultants in various areas. Reading the answer from a piece of paper is prohibited.

An effective means of control is the activities of specialized committees of the House of Commons. The committee includes the sectoral minister and the corresponding representative of the shadow cabinet. Specialized committees can put serious pressure on the Government. They themselves plan their activities in various areas of government and inform the Chamber about its results. Since 1972 It became a practice to invite ministers to their meetings to give evidence. The House of Lords can also hear ministers who are members of that House.

The House of Commons' control over the activities of the Government is facilitated by the Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration (Ombudsman). The Commissioner is appointed by the Government after consultation with the chairman of the relevant specialized committee and can only be removed from office by a decision of both houses of Parliament. Its competence includes investigating, on behalf of deputies, citizens’ complaints against the actions of ministries and departments and their officials. Based on the results of the investigation, the Commissioner sends a report to the deputy of the relevant district or to the relevant committee.

The House of Commons exercises control over the expenditure of public finances through the Auditor General and the Public Accounts Committee.

The House of Lords has an important non-parliamentary function: the Lord Justices form, under the chairmanship of the Lord Chancellor, the Supreme Court of Appeal of Great Britain.

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Scottish Parliament

Welsh Parliament

The Welsh Assembly has 60 members, directly elected every four years. It carries out functions previously performed by the Welsh Office and has the power to amend bills passed by the British Parliament that directly affect the region.

Irish Parliament

The Irish Parliament was created to represent the English in the Irish dominion, while the native or Gaelic Irish did not have the right to vote or be elected. It was first convened in 1264. The English then lived only in the area around Dublin known as the Dirty.

The principle of ministerial responsibility to the lower house was developed only in the 19th century. The House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons in both theory and practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected under an outdated electoral system in which the size of polling stations varied greatly. So in Gatton, seven voters chose two members of parliament, as well as in Dunwich (English), which completely went under water due to land erosion. In many cases, members of the House of Lords controlled small voting areas, known as "pocket boroughs" and "rotten boroughs", and were able to ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. Many seats in the House of Commons were the property of the Lords. Also at that time, voter bribery and intimidation were widespread in elections.

In 1832, it was finally possible not only to gather a majority in the House of Commons in favor of the electoral reform project, but also to suppress the resistance of the House of Lords. The Electoral Reform of 1832 eliminated the most glaring flaws in the electoral system. In England, 515 “rotten towns” completely lost the right to send deputies; in 32 settlements the number of deputies was reduced. But 42 urban constituencies, including some areas of London, received the right to send two or one deputy. The number of county deputies was increased from 94 to 159. The very basis of suffrage was revised. Instead of the many different qualifications that existed in the cities, mainly one was introduced - occupation (owner or tenant) of a house or shop, the rental price of which was determined at 10 pounds sterling per year. In the counties, the ancient electors (freeholders), who had at least 40 shillings of income from their own land, were joined by copyholders, hereditary tenants, who received at least 10 pounds of income, and tenants for a term, who received at least 50 pounds of income. The consequence of the reform of English constituencies was that the number of voters increased from 400 thousand to 800 thousand. Similar changes were made in Scotland and Ireland, and in connection with them the number of Scottish deputies of the House of Commons was increased to 53, Irish - to 105. Total number of members House of Commons remained as before - 658.

In 1867, suffrage in the cities was extended to all owners and tenants of houses, obliged to pay a tax in favor of the poor, and to tenants occupying unfurnished premises for 10 pounds. per year and above. In the counties, the qualification for copyholders and hereditary tenants was lowered from 10 pounds to 5, and the qualification for short-term tenants from 50 pounds to 12. Similar changes were made in Scotland and Ireland in 1868. The suffrage of lodgers was introduced, thanks to which in the cities gave access to elections to the wealthiest of the workers. In 1884, this form of qualification was extended to the counties, and the high qualification of 10 pounds was retained in their application. In connection with this measure, many minor changes were made and electoral districts were redistributed according to population. The redistribution was based on the consideration that there should be approximately one deputy per 54,000 voters. The exception was made by universities, which also sent deputies to parliament: their voters were persons who had received academic degrees. The total number of members of the House of Commons was increased from 658 to 670. In 1872, closed voting was introduced for parliamentary elections.

Modern era

The supremacy of the House of Commons was clearly established at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1909, the House of Commons adopted a budget that received the name “people’s budget” in the liberal press. (English) Russian, which included tax changes that were disadvantageous to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, composed of the powerful landed aristocracy, rejected this budget. Taking advantage of the popularity of this budget and the unpopularity of the Lords, the Liberal Party won the elections in 1910. Using the election results, the Liberal Prime Minister Herbert Henry Asquith proposed a parliamentary bill that would limit the powers of the House of Lords. When the Lords refused to accept this legislation, Asquith asked the king to create several hundred Liberal peers to dilute the Conservative Party's majority in the House of Lords. In the face of such a threat, the House of Lords passed a bill that significantly limited the rights of the upper house (English) Russian. It only allowed the Lords to delay legislation for three sessions (reduced to two sessions in 1949), after which it would go into effect despite their objections.

In mid-1918, parliament adopted the Law on the Representation of the People (English) Russian, which significantly democratized the British electoral system. Now all men over 21 have the right to vote. In addition, for the first time in British history, women (over 30 years of age) were given the right to vote. But for women there were not only age restrictions: to participate in elections they had to own real estate with an income of at least 5 pounds. Art. per year or be married to a man who had the specified income. As a result of the electoral reform of 1918, the number of voters increased almost threefold.

Convocation and dissolution of parliament

The convocation of Parliament is the prerogative of the monarch, implemented at the proposal of the Prime Minister within 40 days after the end of parliamentary elections through the issuance of a royal proclamation. Parliamentary sessions are convened annually, usually in late November - early December, and last most of the year, with breaks for holidays. Each session begins with the monarch's speech from the throne (eng. Speech from the Throne), which, according to custom, is drawn up by the prime minister and contains the program of government activities for the coming year. During the speech from the throne, parliament sits in full.

After the end of parliament, regular elections are held to elect new members of the House of Commons. The composition of the House of Lords does not change with the dissolution of Parliament. Each parliament meeting after new elections has its own serial number, and the countdown begins from the moment of the unification of Great Britain and Northern Ireland into the United Kingdom, that is, from 1801. The current parliament is already the fifty-fifth in a row.

Early elections are held by decision of Parliament or in the event of the British government losing the confidence of the lower house of parliament.

Ceremony

Parliamentary meetings

The procedure for holding parliamentary meetings is strictly regulated. They begin with the so-called “Question Time” for the Prime Minister and members of the government. Next, parliamentarians move on to the most urgent matters, as well as government and private statements, and then to the main agenda, that is, lawmaking, which includes debates and voting.

Government statement (English: ministerial statement) - an oral statement by a member of the Cabinet of Ministers on issues of domestic and foreign policy of the government - both current (oral statement) and planned (written statement). At the end of the speech, parliamentarians can respond to the statement or add their own comments to it, as well as ask the minister relevant questions.

Meetings of the chambers in most cases are held openly, but the speaker has the right to order that the meeting be held behind closed doors. To hold a meeting, the House of Lords must maintain a quorum of 3 people, while in the House of Commons there is formally no quorum.

Meetings of parliamentary committees are held with a quorum of 5 to 15 members, depending on their number. Upon completion of work on any issue, the committee draws up a report, which is presented to the relevant chamber.

Term of office

Initially, there were no restrictions on the duration of Parliament, but the Terennial Act of 1694 (eng. Triennial Acts) set the maximum term of his office at three years. The Seven Years' Act of 1716 Septennial Act 1715) extended this period to seven years, but the Act of Parliament 1911 (eng. Parliament Act 1911) reduced it to five years. During the Second World War, the duration of Parliament was temporarily increased to ten years, and after its end in 1945 it was again determined to be five years.

Previously, the death of the monarch automatically meant the dissolution of parliament, since it was considered the caput, principium, et finis (beginning, basis and end) of the latter. However, it was inconvenient not to have Parliament at a time when the succession to the throne could be contested. During the reigns of William III and Mary II, a statute was passed that Parliament should continue to function for six months after the death of the sovereign, unless it was dissolved sooner. Representation of the People Act 1867 Reform Act 1867) canceled this ruling. Currently, the death of the sovereign does not affect the duration of Parliament.

Privilege

Each House of Parliament retains its ancient privileges. The House of Lords relies on inherited rights. In the case of the House of Commons, the Speaker, at the beginning of each Parliament, goes to the House of Lords and asks the sovereign's representatives to confirm the "undoubted" privileges and rights of the lower house. This ceremony dates back to the time of Henry VIII. Each house guards its own privileges and can punish those who violate them. The content of parliamentary privileges is determined by law and custom. These privileges cannot be determined by anyone except the Houses of Parliament themselves.

The most important privilege of both Houses is freedom of speech in disputes: nothing said in Parliament can be the cause of investigation or legal action in any body other than Parliament itself. Another privilege is protection from arrest, except in cases of treason, serious criminal offenses or breach of peace (“breach of the peace”). It is valid during the session of Parliament, as well as for forty days before and after it. Members of Parliament also have the privilege of not serving on juries in court.

Both houses can punish violations of their privileges. Contempt of Parliament, such as disobeying a subpoena issued by a parliamentary committee, may also be punishable. The House of Lords can imprison a person for any finite period, the House of Commons can also imprison a person, but only until the end of the parliamentary session. The punishment imposed by either House cannot be challenged in any court.

1999) laws passed by the Scottish Parliament.

The new law, in its draft form called bill, may be proposed by any member of the upper or lower house. Bills are usually introduced by the king's ministers. A bill introduced by a minister is called a "Government Bill", and one introduced by a member of the House is called a "Private Member's Bill". Bills are also differentiated by their content. Most bills that affect the entire community are called "Public Bills". Bills that give special rights to an individual or a small group of people are called "Private Bills". A private bill that affects the wider community is called a "Hybrid Bill".

Private Members' Bills account for only one-eighth of all House Bills, and are much less likely to pass than Government Bills because the time available for debate is so limited. There are three ways for an MP to introduce his or her Private Member's Bill.

• The first way is to put it to a vote on the list of bills proposed for discussion. Typically, about four hundred bills are added to this list, then a vote is taken on these bills, and the twenty bills with the most votes are given time for debate.
• Another way is the “ten minute rule”. According to this rule, members of parliament have ten minutes to propose their bill. If the chamber agrees to accept it for discussion, it goes to the first reading, otherwise the bill is eliminated.
• The third way is, according to Order 57, by notifying the Speaker one day in advance, to formally put the bill on the list for discussion. Such bills are adopted extremely rarely.

A great danger for bills is “parliamentary filibustering,” when opponents of a bill deliberately delay time in order to ensure that the time allotted for its discussion expires. Private Members' Bills have no chance of being passed if they are opposed by the government of the day, but they are introduced to raise moral issues. Bills to legalize homosexual acts or abortion were private bills of members of the House. The government may sometimes use private members' bills to pass unpopular laws with which it does not want to be associated. Such bills are called “sowout bills.”

Each bill goes through several stages of discussion. The first reading is a pure formality. In the second reading, the general principles of the bill are discussed. On second reading, the House may vote to reject the bill (by refusing to vote on the motion "That the Bill be now read a second time"), but rejection of government bills is very rare.

After the second reading, the bill is sent to committee. In the House of Lords it is a committee of the whole house or a grand committee. Both are made up of all members of the House, but the grand committee operates under a special procedure and is used only for non-controversial bills. In the House of Commons, legislation is usually referred to a sitting committee of 16-50 members of the House, but for important legislation a committee of the whole House is used. Several other types of committees, such as a select committee, are rarely used in practice. The committee reviews the bill clause-by-clause and reports proposed amendments to the full House, where further discussion of the details takes place. A device called kangaroo(Existing Order 31) allows the Speaker to select amendments for debate. Typically this device is used by the committee chair to limit committee discussion.

After the House has considered the bill, a third reading follows. Amendments are no longer introduced in the House of Commons, and the passage of the motion “That the Bill be now read a third time” means the passage of the entire bill. However, amendments may still be introduced in the House of Lords. After the third reading, the House of Lords must vote on the motion "That the Bill do now pass". After passing in one chamber, the bill is sent to the other chamber. If it is adopted by both houses in the same version, it can be submitted to the sovereign for approval. If one chamber disagrees with the other chamber's amendments and they cannot resolve their differences, the bill fails.

Following the 2005 reform, the Supreme Court of Great Britain was created. The members of the Judicial Committee were appointed judges of the Supreme Court, after which the House of Lords ceased to exercise judicial functions.

Relations with the government

The UK government is accountable to Parliament. However, neither the Prime Minister nor members of the government are elected by the House of Commons. Instead, the Queen asks the person with the most support in the House (which is usually the leader of the party holding the most seats in the House of Commons) to form a government. To ensure that they are accountable to the lower house, the Prime Minister and most of the cabinet ministers are selected from members of the House of Commons rather than the House of Lords. The last Prime Minister from the House of Lords was Alex Douglas-Home in 1963. However, to comply with custom, Lord Hume renounced his peerage and was elected to the House of Commons after becoming Prime Minister.

Using their initial majority in the House of Commons, the government usually dominates the legislative work of Parliament, and sometimes uses its patronage power to appoint supportive peers to the House of Lords. In practice, the government can get any legislation it wants unless there is a major split in the ruling party. But even in this situation, it is unlikely that the government's proposed legislation will not be passed, although dissenting members of parliament may be able to extract concessions from the government. In 1976, Lord Halsham coined the now widely used name for such a system, calling it “elective dictatorship” in an academic paper.

Parliament controls the executive by passing or rejecting its bills and holding ministers of the crown accountable for their actions either during Question Time or during parliamentary committee meetings. In both cases, ministers are asked questions by members of both houses, and they are obliged to answer.

Although the House of Lords can examine the actions of the executive through Question Time and the work of its committees, it cannot bring an end to the work of government. However, the government must always retain the support of the House of Commons. The Lower House can vote no confidence in the government by either rejecting a Resolution of Confidence or passing a Resolution of No Confidence. Motions of confidence are usually brought to a vote by the government to gain support from the House, while resolutions of no confidence are brought by the opposition. Rulings are usually expressed in the words "That this House has confidence in Her Majesty's Government", but other expressions may be used, especially those indicating some particular policy, whether supported or not supported by Parliament. For example, the 1992 Government Confidence Ordinance used the expression “That this House expresses the support for the economic policy of Her Majesty’s Government.” Such a resolution could theoretically be passed by the House of Lords, but since the government does not need the support of this house, it does not have the same consequences. The only modern case occurred in 1993, when a motion of no confidence in the government was introduced in the House of Lords and then rejected.

Many votes are considered votes of confidence, although they are not formally such. Important bills that form part of the government's legislative agenda show the level of confidence in the government. In addition, the same thing happens if the House of Commons refuses to approve the budget.

In case of expression of no confidence in the government, the Prime Minister has 14 days to restore confidence. Also, the Cabinet of Ministers can resign, after which the Sovereign can appoint a new Prime Minister who is ready to provide his Cabinet with the support of the majority of the lower house. If after 14 days the government has not received a vote of confidence, the parliament is dissolved and early elections are called, following which a new government is formed.

In practice, the House of Commons has very little control over the government. Because a first-past-the-post election system is used, the ruling party usually has a large majority in the House of Commons and does not need to compromise with other parties. Modern political parties in Britain are tightly organized, leaving little freedom for their members to act. It is not uncommon for Members of Parliament to be expelled from their parties for voting contrary to the instructions of their party leaders. During the twentieth century, the House of Commons voted no confidence in the government only twice - twice in