What battle took place in England 1066. Battle of Hastings: victory after retreat

WHO: the Norman army of William the Conqueror (1028-1087) invaded England and entered into battle with the Anglo-Saxon squads under the command of King Harold II Godvinson (c. 1022 - 1066).

HOW: the battle took place mainly in the attempts of the Norman cavalry to break through the dense formation of Anglo-Saxon infantry covered with shields.

WHERE: On Senlac Hill, 11 km north of Hastings.

WHY: William the Conqueror came to bolster his claim to the throne of England by force of arms.

OUTCOME: During a fairly lengthy battle, during repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry against the closed ranks of the Anglo-Saxons on Senlac Hill, two feigned retreats by the attackers resulted in the Anglo-Saxon infantry becoming disorganized and ultimately defeated.

FORCES OF THE WARRANT PARTS

NORMANS (estimated) Cavalry: 1000-2000 Infantry: 5000-6000 Total: 6000-8000

ANGLO-SAXON (estimated) Huscarls: 1000 Infantry: 5000-6000 Total: 6000-7000

POWER LIST

King Harold Godwinson learned of the Norman landings only a few days later, probably around 1 October. He had to set off on the way back, and again hastily. Again acting without delay, he marched through London and proceeded further to where Senlac Hill was located another 80-90 km to the south. There, about 600-700 meters from the summit, on the southern slope, Harold found a place that he considered gave him an advantageous position to repel the Normans. The king correctly assessed that William intended to seek battle and that the Duke of Normandy would not try to outflank the Anglo-Saxons, no matter what position they took.

Harold formed his troops according to old and proven tactics so that the warriors formed a screen of shields. His infantrymen and dismounted cavalry stood in dense ranks, while the shields seemed to overlap one another, making the line resemble a field fortification from the front. If you do not allow the enemy to upset or break such a formation, he will never break through it. The Anglo-Saxons were skilled warriors, many of them fighting alongside Harold in his victorious campaigns against the Welsh in 1063, and all of them took part in the Battle of Stamford Bridge. In the center of the formation were the royal housecarls, Harold's most trusted and skilled soldiers, dressed in long mail shirts and trained in the use of any weapon, but most formidable in battle with two-handed axes. The flanks of the “wall” of shields were made up of fireds, also militias who were quite familiar with weapons and wielded a spear and sword. They also did not suffer from a shortage of weapons and armor. There was also a place in the English army for archers, the number of which, apparently, was small.

Although the forces of William the Conqueror did not consist entirely of cavalry, the latter was, of course, the main branch of the army in the army of the Norman Duke at Hastings. These horsemen were also seasoned warriors, many of whom had served the Duke in his many military enterprises in previous years. Mostly they all came from Normandy, but there were also a number of horsemen attracted from Bulogne, Flanders and Brittany. And those, too, had plenty of experience. I think it would not be an exaggeration to say that the best cavalry army in Europe since the time of Charlemagne was built on the field in front of the Senlac hill.

At the Battle of Hastings, William chose a rather simple, but at the same time risky tactic: he threw his cavalry up the hillside onto the Anglo-Saxon “wall” of shields. If the first attack failed, the riders had to retreat and regroup, and then try again - again and again. The calculation was based on the fact that one of the throws would break the enemy’s formation and put him to flight. William assumed that, under the onslaught of repeated attacks, the English barrier would eventually weaken and victory would go to the Normans. Norman infantry archers also took part in the Battle of Hastings, but their role, as in the enemy army, was apparently limited.

BEGINNING OF THE BATTLE

William the Conqueror began the battle early in the morning, dividing the cavalry into three detachments, and, according to most historians, building them along one front, that is, in a line. The Norman cavalry, with William himself at the head, occupied the center, the mounted Bretons acted on the left, and on the right wing were the combined squads, called simply “Franks” by the majority of Norman chroniclers, but, as one might assume, represented primarily by the Flemish and Boulogne cavalry. In front of the line of mounted warriors were Norman archers and infantry.

It was the infantry in the Norman army that began the battle by attacking the English infantry, which, however, was not any significant episode for the ensuing battle. Probably, Wilhelm decided not to give too much free rein to the foot troops. Perhaps he reduced their participation at the initial stage to the maximum, since the noble knights could not remain passive participants in what was happening for long. Soon the cavalry had the opportunity to “speak out.” “Those who stood behind became the first,” as eyewitness Guillaume from Poitiers said, referring to castling in the Norman formations.

Modern sources claim that the Norman cavalry was numerically inferior to the enemy - the Anglo-Saxon infantry. It seemed to the attackers that they were displaying miracles of heroism that have no - or almost no - equal in military history, behaving "bravely beyond belief", according to William of Malmesbury. However, the rapid onslaught crashed against the “wall” of shields. Like the next one - and then others. None of the authors - contemporaries or non-contemporaries - is able to name the exact number of Norman cavalry attacks at the Battle of Hastings. No matter how many there were, not a single one broke the formation of the incredibly disciplined English infantrymen, whom nothing could force to leave a strong defensive position. Guillaume from Poitiers describes what he saw in this way: “It was a strange battle, some in it moved and had full control of the initiative, while others simply defended themselves as if they were rooted to the ground.”

What's especially strange about that battle is its length. Most medieval battles were resolved in a short time - an hour or even less. But not the battle around Hastings. The Norman cavalry charged, rolled back and advanced again. However, it was not possible to break through the strong barrier of the English infantry. There were, presumably, few losses in killed and wounded on both sides, because the cavalry usually stopped before entering into real combat contact with the enemy infantry. Although fierce clashes, of course, happened. And at some point, amid the general chaos, a rumor spread through the Norman ranks that Wilhelm himself had died. In an era when heraldry was only in its infancy, such mistakes are forgivable, since all the Norman horsemen looked similar to each other, as confirmed by the embroidery from Bayeux made by contemporaries. In the story, her Wilhelm even reacts to the news by taking off his helmet and showing his face. His cavalry then immediately regrouped for the next attack.

FAKE REJECTION

The squad's awareness of the fact that William was present on the battlefield side by side with them seemed to instill new strength in the Norman cavalry and fill it with new determination, which was at least enough to resort to a difficult, but widely used technique by cavalrymen - a feigned retreat . Described in Vegetius's treatise On Warfare, a handbook for the military in the Middle Ages, imitation flight required skill and discipline, since the "retreaters" had to create a feeling of genuine panic and confusion and instill in the enemy the confidence that they were fleeing the battlefield , and then, at the command of the leader, turn around and harmoniously counterattack. Such tactics should not have been used too early in the battle and were not recommended to be repeated, although at Hastings the Normans, according to an eyewitness, made a feigned retreat twice (the first flight of the left flank was, apparently, far from feigned, and it was during this that the confusion and rumors spread about the death of the leader. If the feigned escape trick worked, which usually resulted in the "confused" enemy being too carelessly pursued by his baited opponent, the battle was usually over quickly. On the other hand, if the ruse failed, then - as military history testifies - the feigned fugitives, demoralized by their own failure, could turn into real ones.

At Hastings, the second feigned retreat achieved its goal. Many Anglo-Saxon warriors remained in the ranks, but many others could not resist the temptation and rushed after the “put to flight” Normans, only to realize too late, seeing how the cavalry turned around and came in to attack, that they had made a fatal mistake. Few of the Englishmen who rushed in pursuit of the Normans managed to escape from the horsemen who attacked them with renewed vigor - almost all of them died on the battlefield. Among them were even both of Harold's brothers, Girt and Leofwin, who served as his assistants on that fateful day. The situation in the battle changed so quickly and abruptly that Harold Godwinson had no choice but to try to regroup the remaining warriors who did not succumb to the Normans’ tactical ploy. He tried to line them up again and create a screen of shields. However, the surviving soldiers were, apparently, already very exhausted from the long confrontation with the Normans, disorganized and - which can be assumed - lost a significant part of their fighting spirit after seeing the inglorious death of their comrades. However, they remained near the king until - as evidenced by the embroidery from Bayeux and Guillaume from Poitiers - he was struck down by an arrow that hit him in the eye.

The last Anglo-Saxon (or Anglo-Scandinavian) army was defeated and ceased to exist, and this defeat became fatal for the existing military and government structure of England. William still had to face some opposition from the old kingdom, especially in the north, where Earls Edwin and Morker remained, who were defeated by the Norwegians at Fulford Gate and who therefore did not go with Harold Godwinson to Hastings. However, the Normans dealt with them quite easily. Guillaume le Batard, illegitimate Duke of Normandy and Count of Mena, became William (William) the Conqueror, King of England.

“Rule Britain over the seas,” proclaims the refrain of the famous English patriotic song written back in 1740, which is already perceived as the second, unofficial anthem of this country, and the title “Mistress of the Seas” seems to have forever become synonymous with the second name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Nelson’s contemporary, the English admiral St. Vincent, stated: “I am not saying that the enemy cannot come here. I’m just saying that he can’t come by sea.” The narrow strip of sea water separating the British Isles from the continent became an insurmountable barrier for the Catholic kings of Spain, Napoleon and Hitler. But this was not always the case. In 43 AD. The Romans came to Britain and remained there until 409. They were replaced by Germanic tribes, which, having displaced the indigenous population, settled entire provinces: the Angles settled in the northern and eastern territories of modern England, the Saxons - in the south (the kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex and Essex), The Jutes occupied the lands around Kent. In the north, two mixed kingdoms appeared - Mercia and Northumbria. The Britons retreated west into the mountainous region that the Saxons called Wales (Wales - land of strangers) or went to Scotland. Since the end of the 8th century, these small and constant kingdoms at war with each other became easy prey for new, even more terrible enemies - the Norwegian and Danish Vikings, who divided Britain into spheres of influence. The Norwegians got northern Scotland, Ireland and northwestern England, the Danes got Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. The successes of the Danes were so great that the vast region in the east of England began to be called Denlo or “the area of ​​​​Danish law.” Wessex survived only thanks to the treaty that King Alfred the Great concluded with the Danes, but the price of independence was very high: for a very long time, military taxes in England were called “Danish money.” Alfred's wise policy, however, yielded results, and his successors eventually managed to subjugate Denlo and even the Scots (it is from this precedent that England's claims to Scotland originate). Everything changed under King Ethelred the Unreasonable (978-1016), who was forced to give up the throne to the Danish king Sven Forkbeard. In 1042, the Danish dynasty was interrupted, and the last representative of the Wessex dynasty, who entered under the name Edward the Confessor, was elected to the English throne. The desire for legitimacy played a cruel joke on the British: it seems impossible to imagine a more unsuitable candidate for the post of king. In terms of his personal qualities, Edward was similar to our Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich; his reign was marked by the weakening of royal power in the country and the omnipotence of the magnates, the disintegration of Anglo-Saxon society and the weakening of the state's defense capability. The founding and urgent needs of Westminster Abbey interested Edward much more than the problems of the country he unexpectedly inherited. He was the eldest son of King Aethelred II of England and Emma of Normandy, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. As a child, his mother took him to Normandy, where he lived for 25 years. Edward practically did not know the country of his ancestors and at first relied on immigrants from Normandy, to whom he granted lands and church positions (including the Archbishop of Canterbury), which, naturally, caused sharp discontent among the Anglo-Saxon nobility. In 1050, Edward made the fateful decision to disband the English fleet and abolish the defense tax - “Danish money”. It was this circumstance that became one of the reasons for the collapse of the Anglo-Saxon monarchy in 1066. But let’s not get ahead of ourselves.

Wilgelm the conqueror

In the meantime, the military service nobility of Anglo-Danish origin gradually united around Earl of Wessex Godwin, who at the beginning of Edward's reign was expelled from England, but returned to his homeland in triumph in 1052. The rulers of other provinces refused to give Edward troops, the “council of the wise” (witenagemot) completely acquitted Godwin, the king’s Norman associates were expelled from England, and Robert of Jumièges, Archbishop of Canterbury, was removed from his post. From that time on, King Edward completely withdrew from participation in politics, devoting himself to the church. After the death of Godwin (1053), power in the country actually belonged to his son Harold, who managed to annex East Anglia and Northumberland (transferred to his brother Tostig) to his possessions. Meanwhile, another dynastic crisis was brewing in England: Edward had no children, but there were more than enough contenders for his throne. The official heir, according to the will, was considered the Norman Duke William, whose candidacy, however, was absolutely unacceptable for the overwhelming majority of the English. Harold and his brother Tostig claimed the throne as the queen's siblings, their rivalry ending in Tostig's exile from the country. It was Harold Godwinson, who proved himself to be a wise and fair ruler and was very popular among the people, who was unanimously elected as the new king of the country. On January 7, 1066, he was anointed, receiving from the hands of the Archbishop of Canterbury a golden crown, a scepter and a heavy battle ax. The offended Tostig went to another contender - the Danish king Sven Estridsson, the nephew of the last English king of the Danish dynasty, but he did not show any interest in English affairs. After failure in Denmark, Tostig turned for help to King Harald the Harsh of Norway, son-in-law of Yaroslav the Wise, renowned commander and famous skald. Harald quickly figured out the situation: taking with him his wife, son Olav and two daughters, he set off to the shores of England on 300 ships. It seemed he had no intention of returning home. And ceding the conquered country to Tostig was hardly part of his plans. Meanwhile, in Normandy, Duke William, offended by the “treachery” of Harold Godwinson, was gathering troops. The fact is that Harold was once captured by William, who held him until he forced him to swear allegiance to himself as the rightful heir to the English crown. The chronicles say that William ordered the relics and relics from all the monasteries and churches of Normandy to be collected together and placed them under the breviary, on which his prisoner had to swear. At the end of the procedure, William tore the veil off the box with the holy relics and only then did Harold realize what oath he had just taken: “and many saw how gloomy he became after that.” Now Harold said that he did not recognize his forced promise, and that he could not give up power against the will of the country. Wilhelm began to prepare for war. Wanting to give legitimacy to his claims, he secured the verdict of the Pope that England should belong to him. Thus, the campaign of conquest acquired the character of a crusade, and many knights of France and surrounding countries joined William’s army, hoping to save their souls, glorify themselves with exploits and gain unheard-of riches, generously promised to them by the Duke of Normandy. It is interesting that, despite the verdict of the Pope, in the surrounding countries, it seems, Harold was still considered the legitimate ruler: on the famous tapestry from Bayeux (Southern England, 1066-1082), which reflected the official version of events, Harold's title is rex, that is, king.

The first blow to England was struck by Harald the Severe: the northeast wind, which drove his ships to the British Isles, prevented the Norman fleet from going to sea. Having visited the Orkney Islands along the way, where many local residents stood under the banner of the successful king, in mid-September 1066 the longships dropped anchor on the small river Ouse, north of York, and the ferocious Norwegian berserkers set foot on English soil for the last time. After the Battle of Fulford (September 20, 1066), where the Norwegians defeated the militia of the northern English counties, Northumbria recognized the power of Harald, and some of the local thegns joined his army. Harold and his army, meanwhile, were in the south of the country, where they were awaiting the landing of the Normans. The Norwegian invasion confused all his plans and forced him, leaving his positions on the coast, to move against the Scandinavians. Harald by that time had moved too far from his ships, and his army was divided into two parts. Raising the "danger on land" flag and quickly forming his troops, Harald entered the battle. The battle at Stamford Bridge lasted all day. The set of sagas “The Circle of the Earth” says that in that battle Harald fought like a berserker: “coming forward from the ranks, he cut with a sword, holding it with both hands. Neither helmets nor chain mail were protection from him. Everyone who stood in his way jumped back. The British were close to fleeing." But “the arrow hit King Harald, son of Sigurd, in the throat. The wound was fatal. He fell, and with him all who went ahead with him.” After this, the British invited the Norwegians to sail to their homeland, but they declared that “they would all rather die one by one.” The battle was renewed two more times. Following Harald, Tostig and Eystein Grouse, who came up with help, died. “Eystein and his men hurried from the ships so quickly that they were exhausted to the limit and hardly capable of fighting; but soon they were seized with such rage that they stopped covering themselves with shields while they were able to stand on their feet... Thus, almost all the main people among the Norwegians died,” Snorri Sturlson wrote about these events. The Norwegians were defeated, the Anglo-Saxons pursued them along a path of 20 km. In manuscript "C" of the 12th century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. describes the feat of the last hero of the Viking Age: “The Norwegians fled from the English, but a certain Norwegian stood alone against the entire English army, so the English could not cross the bridge and win. One of the English shot an arrow at him, but missed. Then another climbed under the bridge and hit the Norwegian from below, where the chain mail did not cover him.” Of the nearly 300 Norwegian ships, 24 returned to their homeland, one of which carried Elizabeth and her children.

The British victory was brilliant, but it came with the death of many soldiers and commanders. Moreover, it was at this time that the wind changed and on September 28 (just three days after the bloody battle at Stamford Bridge), William was able to freely land his army in Pevensey Bay, Sussex County, between Pevensey Castle and Hastings. It is said that the Duke slipped while disembarking the ship and fell forward on both hands. Quickly standing up, he exclaimed: “Look! By the grace of God I grabbed England with both hands. Now she is mine, and therefore also yours.”

William ascended the throne at the age of 7 or 8 and by the time of the invasion of England had a reputation as a very skillful and experienced ruler and commander. In preparation for the main campaign of his life, he created a magnificent army of about 12,000 people (which, by the scale of that time, was a very formidable force), which, admittedly, under his leadership acted very harmoniously and highly organized. The landing on the shore took place in an exemplary manner: Norman archers dressed in light armor carried out reconnaissance of the area and subsequently covered the unloading of horses, equipment and cargo. In one day, carpenters in William's army assembled a wooden castle delivered by ship (the first Norman castle in England!), which became the support base for the invasion. Two more castles were soon collected from Hastings. The mounted knights moved deep into enemy territory, destroying everything in their path. Having learned about the Norman landing, Harold hastily moved his troops towards the new enemy. In London, he decided to replenish his troops with soldiers from the southern and central counties, but six days later, having learned about the atrocities committed by the invaders on the coast of his country, in a rage, without waiting for the arrival of all the units loyal to him, he set out to meet William. Many considered this a mistake, but the victory over the Norwegians gave Harold confidence. Hopes to take the Normans by surprise were not justified: his army stumbled upon one of the enemy’s cavalry detachments, which warned William about the English troops approaching him. Therefore, Harold changed tactics, and stopped at a hill about 12 km from the Norman army. He was advised to retreat to London, devastating the lands on his way, and a number of historians consider this tactic to be the only correct one. The Normans' prepared supplies would very soon run out, and near London, the invaders, suffering from hunger and having lost some of their horses, would have been faced with a meeting with the English army, rested and replenished with new troops. However, Harold "decided not to burn the houses and villages and not to withdraw his troops."

Together with Harold, his brothers came to Hastings, one of whom (Girt) on the eve of the battle addressed him with the words: “My brother! You cannot deny that, albeit by force and not by free will, you took the oath to Duke William on the holy relics. Why risk the outcome of the battle by breaking this oath? For us, who did not take any oaths, this is a holy and just war for our country. Let us fight the enemy alone, and may the one on whose side is the truth win the battle.” However, Harold stated that he “does not intend to watch others risk their lives for him. The soldiers will consider him a coward and accuse him of sending his best friends where he did not dare to go himself.”

Modern historians believe that the Norman and English armies were approximately equal in size, but had very serious differences in composition and combat characteristics. William's troops were a typical feudal army, which was recruited on the basis of the military-feudal system and included a fairly large number of well-armed knights, both Norman and warriors from other countries who joined them. Another important difference between the Norman army was the large number of archers, who were almost absent from the ranks of the British. Most of the Anglo-Saxon army consisted of militia units of free peasants (fyrd), who were armed mainly with axes, pitchforks, and even clubs and “stones tied to sticks.” The king's squad (the famous housecarls) and the detachments of the serving nobility (thegns) were armed in the Scandinavian style: heavy two-handed swords, traditional Viking battle axes, spears and chain mail. It was the “Danish axes,” which easily cut through Norman helmets and armor, that turned out to be the most terrible and effective of the British. In his memoirs, one of the chaplains of William's army called them "deadly axes." However, these elite troops had suffered heavy losses in the previous battle and were weary from the long marches from the south coast of England to York and back. Cavalry as a branch of the army did not exist in the English army: while traveling on horseback, housecarls and thegns fought on foot. Given these circumstances, Harold chose defensive tactics: he positioned his troops on the top of a hill; in the rear of his troops there was a dense forest, which, in case of retreat, could serve as an obstacle to the enemy army pursuing him. The housecarls and thegns stood in the first ranks, followed by lightly armed infantry. In front of the formation, the British built barricades from wooden shields and logs and dug a ditch. Participants in the battle later recalled that “in no other area did so many foreign warriors die as at the bottom of this ditch.” The natives of Kent volunteered to be the first to meet the enemy and stood in the most dangerous direction. The people of London asked for the right to defend the king and his standard, and lined up around Harold. Subsequently, on the site where Harold's army stood, Battle Abbey was built, the ruins of which can be seen near the small town of the same name. The main altar was located where the royal standard was located during the battle. Now this place is marked with a memorial stone slab.

Wilhelm, apparently, was still not entirely confident in the success of the upcoming battle. One way or another, it was he who on October 13 sent the monk Hugo Maigro to the English camp, who first demanded Harold’s abdication of the throne, and then, in exchange for a vassal oath, offered him the entire country above the Humber River, and to his brother Girth all the lands that belonged to Godwin. In case of refusal, Maigro had to threaten Harold and his army with excommunication, which is allegedly stated in the bull of the Pope. The Norman chronicles claim that this threat caused confusion among the English commanders. However, after a moment of silence, one of them said: “We must fight, no matter what it threatens us with... The Norman has already divided our lands between his barons, knights and other people... he will make them the masters of our property, our wives and daughters. Everything has already been divided in advance. They came not just to defeat us, but to deprive us of everything and our descendants and take away from us the lands of our ancestors. And what will we do, where should we go, if we no longer have our country?” After this, the British unanimously decided to fight the foreign invaders. The night before the battle, the Anglo-Saxons sang national songs, the Normans prayed in chorus.

The battle that decided the fate of England began on the morning of October 14, 1066. The chronicles of that time brought to us the words addressed by the leaders of the opposing sides to their armies. Duke William urged his soldiers not to be distracted by collecting trophies, assuring that the booty would be shared and there would be enough for everyone. “We will not find salvation if we stop or run from the battlefield,” he said, “The English will never agree to live in peace and share power with the Normans... Do not have mercy on them, because they will not spare you. They will not differentiate between those who cowardly fled from the battlefield and those who fought bravely. Everyone will be treated the same. You can try to retreat to the sea, but there will be nowhere else to run, there will be no ships there, no crossing to your homeland. The sailors won't wait for you. The British will capture you on the shore and put you to a shameful death. More people die in flight than in battle. And since running will not save your life, fight and you will win.” Dressed in armor, he put on his chain mail backwards and, noticing how the faces of his comrades darkened, said: “I have never believed and do not believe in omens. I believe in God, who determines the course of events by his will. And everything that happens will be His will. I have never believed in soothsayers and fortune tellers. I entrust myself to the will of the Mother of God. And don’t let this oversight of mine bother you. My change of clothes means that we are all on the verge of change. You yourself will witness how I will turn from a duke into a king.” Harold, in turn, urged the soldiers to stand in battle, defending their land, and urged them to stick together, protecting each other in the ranks. “The Normans,” he said, “are loyal vassals and brave warriors, both on foot and on horseback. Their mounted knights have already participated in battles more than once. If they manage to break into our ranks, then everything will be lost for us. They fight with a long spear and sword. But we also have spears and axes. And I don't think their weapons can stand up to ours. Strike where you can strike, do not spare your strength and weapons.”

Tapestry from Bayeux. Attack of the Norman Knights

The battle began with Norman archers, who showered the ranks of the British with their arrows, but they were unable to inflict heavy losses on the enemy soldiers hiding behind wide shields. Having shot the ammunition, the riflemen retreated behind the line of spearmen, who went on the offensive, but were driven back by the British. The cavalry attack also floundered, and the Bretons on the left flank fled. Forgetting about Harold's order to hold formation, the Anglo-Saxons, leaving the hill, rushed in pursuit of the retreating enemy and came under attack from the knight's cavalry. Historians disagree about the deliberateness of the Breton retreat: some consider this maneuver a military stratagem, others, citing the testimony of one of the chroniclers, explain it by the panic that gripped some of the Normans at the news of William’s death. Other participants in the events report that at that moment the squires, who were in the rear of the fighting army, guarding the property of the knights, almost ran away and were stopped by Duke William's brother, Bishop Odo of Bayeux. Wilhelm had to take off his helmet and gallop along the ranks of his army. One way or another, part of the English army that recklessly abandoned the hill was surrounded and destroyed at its foot, but others continued to stand, holding back the enemy. For several more hours, the Normans alternated shelling from bows and crossbows with foot and horse attacks. The archers changed their tactics: now they shot along a suspended trajectory so that the arrows fell on their opponents from above, hitting them in the face. This resulted in significant losses, but at the beginning of the evening Harold's army still held its position on the hill, although the fatigue of the British from constant shelling and continuous attacks was such that many of them were already struggling to stand. It was at this moment that a stray arrow hit Harold in the eye. He pulled it out and broke it, but now, due to the severe pain and blood pouring into his face, the king could not control the course of the battle. The Anglo-Saxons, deprived of their command, broke formation, and the Norman cavalry crashed into their ranks. William personally took part in the battle, and all contemporaries note the courage and extraordinary military skill of the duke, under whom two horses were killed. The Norman chronicles report that the warriors of Kent and Essex fought especially staunchly and bravely in the ranks of the English. The decisive attack on them was led by Duke William: about a thousand horsemen in close formation attacked the British and scattered them. In that attack, many noble warriors on both sides died, but the Normans broke through to the royal banner, where King Harold stood, fighting to the end. During the last battle, he received so many wounds that his body could only be identified by his wife Edith Lebyazhya Neck by some signs known only to her. Along with Harold, his brothers also died. After this, the militia units (fird) fled, but the housecarls still continued to stand around the body of the deceased king. By nightfall the Normans had captured the hill, but it was not the war that was lost, but only the battle. The tragedy of the British was that there was no one to gather the retreating troops and lead further resistance. But it was quite possible: the Normans lost at least a quarter of the army in battle, while the British, despite the losses they suffered, could hope to replenish their ranks with soldiers who did not have time to approach the start of the battle. On the evening of the same day, Duke William himself almost died in the forest while pursuing the retreating housecarls. The surviving English earl Valtjov that same night, having lured about a hundred Normans into an oak grove, ordered it to be set on fire; not one of the invaders managed to get out of the burning forest. However, after Harold's heroic death, the British were unable to choose a worthy leader and, when William's troops approached London, Harold's nephew, elected king, was the first to talk about surrendering the capital. He himself came to the Norman camp and swore allegiance to William. Meanwhile, Harold's three sons and two daughters fled to the western family domains. Only in 1068, the city of Exeter, where they took refuge, was taken by William’s army after a three-month siege, but on the eve of the decisive assault, Harold’s mother (who was 70 years old!), Edith and her children climbed down the fortress wall by rope and left England. Harold's sons went to Ireland and harassed the Normans with raids for another 10 years. And one of Harold’s daughters, Gita, ended up in Denmark, and later she married Vladimir Monomakh (1074).

As the British feared, in addition to his inheritance, William divided England into 700 large and 60 small plots, which he gave to the Norman barons and ordinary soldiers, obliging them to perform military service and pay taxes for this. The inhabitants of the conquered country were treated by the Normans as slaves. No one, neither a noble earl nor a simple farmer, could feel safe on his land and in his home. Resistance was suppressed extremely brutally: entire villages were burned, families were destroyed. To keep the country's population in obedience, 78 castles were built during William's reign, including the famous Tower. Only a few generations later, the differences between the Normans and the Anglo-Saxons were erased, and modern English was formed on the basis of the French language of the conquerors and the “northern” language of the indigenous population. Gradually, the conquerors and the conquered population mixed closely with each other, subsequently creating one of the greatest empires in the history of world civilizations. “The English combine Anglo-Saxon practicality, Celtic dreaminess, the pirate courage of the Vikings and the discipline of the Normans,” said the Austrian writer Paul Cohen-Portheim about the modern English national character.

On October 14, 1066, near the town of Hastings (East Sussex, Great Britain), a battle took place between the Anglo-Saxon army of King Harold and the troops of the Norman Duke William. After winning this battle, William (the Conqueror) became the English king.

The autumn of 1066 became a real test for the Anglo-Saxon dynasty. Earl of Wessex Harold Godwinson, who became the English king (after the death of Edward the Confessor), was not recognized by his main competitors - the Norwegian king Harald the Severe and Duke William of Normandy.

Both rivals gathered armies, boarded ships and moved to the shores of England. The Norwegians were the first to land on the English coast. Harold gathered an army and at the end of September, with an unexpected throw, intercepted the enemy forces. At the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the Norwegian army was defeated and their king was killed. This defeat marked the end of the era of Viking raids on England.

Before they could catch their breath after a difficult victory, the British learned that William of Normandy and his army had already landed on the coast near the town of Pevensey. On October 3, Harold from York and his army hastily moved towards the new enemy and by October 13 reached Hastings, where the enemy army was already located.

Harold managed to lead the army under the cover of the forest or at night and take a very advantageous position - on a hill that is now called Battle Hill, the top of which is located at an altitude of about 85 meters above sea level. There was a swamp to the north and south of the hill.

William's camp was located in the vicinity of Hastings - north of it. Having learned from scouts about the approach of the enemy, Wilhelm at about 6 o'clock on October 14 gave the order to march. Soon the battle began.

At first, nothing foreshadowed victory for the Normans. Their archers and crossbowmen shot their entire supply of arrows without causing noticeable damage to Harold's infantrymen. The attacks of the infantry and knightly cavalry were repulsed with losses. The Normans advanced up the hillside and were unable to make a hole in the dense defense of the British, who stood on top in an advantageous position. In one of the attacks, the Duke himself almost died - a horse was killed under him.

Having already believed in victory, the Saxons broke ranks and rushed in pursuit of the retreating enemy. However, William unexpectedly deployed his troops - the British, who had lost formation, found themselves defenseless against the heavy cavalry and were killed.

After this, the Normans surrounded the hill and attacked the remnants of Harold's army from all sides. In a brutal battle, almost all the Saxon warriors were killed, including the king himself and his two brothers.

This victory opened up England for William. Since King Harold and his two brothers were killed, there was no leader left in the country capable of organizing resistance to the conquerors. After a short resistance, London submitted, and the surviving Anglo-Saxon aristocracy recognized William's rights to the English throne.

Since the conquest of England by the Normans. It took place about 7 miles (11 km) northwest of Hastings, near the modern battle town, East Sussex, and was a decisive Norman victory.

The background to the battle was the death of the childless king Edward the Confessor in January 1066, which created a succession struggle between several claimants to his throne. Harold was crowned shortly after Edward's death, but before the invasions by William, his own brother Tostig and the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada (Harold III of Norway). Hardrada and Tostig defeated a hastily assembled English army at the Battle of Fulford on 20 September 1066, and were in turn defeated by Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge five days later. The death of Tostig and Hardrada at Stamford Bridge left William only as a serious opponent of Harold. While Harold and his forces were recovering, William landed his invading forces in the south of England at Pevensey on 28 September 1066 and created a beachhead for the conquest of his kingdom. Harold was forced to march south quickly, gathering forces as he went.

The exact numbers present in the battle are unknown; Modern estimates are around 10,000 for William and around 7,000 for Harold. The composition of the forces is clearer; the English army was almost entirely infantry and had some archers, while only about half of the invasion force was infantry, the rest divided equally between cavalry and archers. Harold seemed to be trying to surprise William, but the scouts found his army and reported their arrival to William, who marched from Hastings to the battlefield to confront Harold. The battle lasted from approximately 9 am to evening. Early attempts by the occupiers to break the English front lines had little effect; Thus, the Normans adopted the tactic of pretending to flee in panic and then turn on their pursuers. Harold's death, probably towards the end of the battle, led to the retreat and defeat of much of his army. After further campaigns and some skirmishes, William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066.

There were still riots and resistance to William's rule, but Hastings effectively marked the culmination of William's conquest of England. Casualty figures are difficult to come by, but some historians estimate that 2,000 invaders died along with about twice as many British. William founded a monastery on the site of the battle; the high altar of the abbey church is supposedly placed on the spot where Harold died.

Background

English Army and Harold preparations

Sunrise was at 6:48 a.m., and reports of the day record that it was unusually bright. Weather conditions are not recorded. The route that the British army took to the battlefield is not exactly known. Several roads are possible: one, the old Roman road that ran from Rochester to Hastings has long been prominent due to a large coin hoard being found nearby in 1876. Another possibility is a Roman road between London and Lewes, and then over local battlefield tracks. Some accounts of the battle show that the Normans advanced from Hastings onto the battlefield, but William of Jumièges' contemporary account places the Normans at the site of the battle the night before. Most historians favor the first view, but MK Lawson argues that William's account of Jumièges is correct.

Dispositions of forces and tactics

Combat dispositions

Harold's forces are deployed in a small, tight formation at the top of a steep slope, with their flanks protected by forests and marshy ground in front of them. The line can be extended far enough to be anchored to an adjacent stream. The English formed a wall of shields, with front ranks, keeping the shields close together or even overlapping to provide protection from attacks. Sources differ on the exact location that the English fought at: some sources claim the site of an abbey, but some new sources suggest it was Caldbec Hill.

More is known about Norman's deployment. Duke William appears to have organized his forces in three groups, or "battles", roughly corresponding to their origins. The left units were on the Bretons, along with those from Anjou, Poitou and Maine. This division was led by Alan the Red, a relative of the Bretons. The center was held by the Normans, under the direct command of the Duke and many of his relatives and relatives, grouped around the Duke's party. The final division, on the right, consisted of the French, along with some people from Picardy, Boulogne and Flanders. The right was commanded by William Fitz-Osbern and Count Eustace II of Boulogne. The front lines consist of archers, with a line of spear-wielding infantry behind. There were probably several crossbowmen and slingers with archers. The cavalry was in reserve, and the small group of priests and servants stationed at the base of Telham Hill were not expected to take part in the fighting.

William's disposition of his forces suggests that he planned to open the battle with archers in the front rank, weakening the enemy with arrows, and then infantry, who would engage in close combat. The infantry would create holes in the English lines, which the cavalry could use to break through the English forces and pursue the fleeing soldiers.

Start of the battle

View of the battlefield looking towards Senlac Hill

The battle opened with Norman archers firing uphill at the English shield wall to little effect. A hill angle means that the shooters either bounced off their shields or undershot their targets and flew over the top of the hill. The lack of English archers hampered the Norman archers, as there were several English arrows that had to be collected and reused. Following the archers' attack, William sent spearmen forward to attack the English. They were met with a hail of missiles, not arrows, but spears, axes and stones. The infantry was unable to force holes in the shield wall, and the cavalry advanced in support. The cavalry also failed to achieve success, and a general retreat began, attributed to Breton's division on William's left. A rumor began that the Duke had been killed, which added to the confusion. English troops began to pursue the fleeing invaders, but William passed his forces, showing his face and shouting that he was still alive. The Duke then led a counter-attack against the pursuing English troops; some of the English rallied on the hill before being routed.

It is not known whether the English persecution was ordered by Harold or if it was spontaneous. Weiss relates that Harold ordered his men to remain in their formations, but no other account provides this detail. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the deaths of Harold's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine, occurring just before the battle around the knoll. This may mean that the two brothers led the persecution. Carmen de Hastingae Proelio Another story relates to the death of Gyrth, that the brother of the Duke of Harold's rise in battle, perhaps believing that Gyrth was Harold. William of Poitiers states that the bodies of Gyrth and Leofwine were found near Harold, implying that they died at the end of the battle. It is possible that if the two brothers died at the beginning of the fighting their bodies were taken to Harold, which would put them near their body after the battle. Military historian Peter Marren believes that if Gyrth and Leofwine died early in the battle, it may have influenced Harold to stand and fight to the end.

pretend flights

Scene from the display of the Baogo Tapestry set to Norman cavalry fighting Anglo-Saxon infantry

The lull probably occurred early in the day, and a break for rest and food was probably needed. William may also have needed time to implement a new strategy, which may have been inspired by the English pursuit and subsequent defeat of the Normans. If the Normans could send their cavalry against the shield wall, and then make the English more occupied, breaks in the English line could form. William Poitier says the tactic is used twice. Although arguments have been made that chroniclers' accounts of this tactic were intended to justify the flight of Norman troops from the battle, this is unlikely, since the flight had previously been kept silent. This was a tactic used by other Norman armies during the period. Some historians argue that the history of using feigned flight as a deliberate tactic was invented after the battle; Most historians believe that it was used by the Normans at Hastings.

Although the feigned flights did not break the line, they probably thinned out the Huskerl in the English shield wall. The Huskerl have been replaced by members Fird, and the shield wall took place. Archers were apparently used again before and during the assault by cavalry and infantry led by the Duke. Although 12th century sources state that archers were ordered to shoot at a high angle to shoot at the front of the shield wall, there is no trace of such an action in more modern accounts. It is not known how many assaults were launched against the English lines, but some sources record various actions by both Normans and English that took place during the afternoon's fighting. Carmen states that Duke William had two horses killed under him during the fighting, but William of the States of Poitiers accounts that it was three.

Death of Harold

Stone marking the site of the high altar at Battle Abbey where Harold died

Harold appears to have died at the end of the battle, although accounts from various sources are conflicting. William of Poitiers only mentions his death, without giving any information about how it happened. The tapestry is not helpful, as it shows a figure holding an arrow protruding from his eye next to a falling fighter striking a sword. Behind both drawings is the statement "Here King Harold was killed." It is not clear which figure is meant to be Harold, or if both are meant to be. The earliest written mention of the traditional account of Harold dying from an arrow in the eye dates back to 1080 from the History of the Normans, written by an Italian monk, Amatus of Montecassino. William of Malmesbury stated that Harold died from an arrow in the eye, which entered the brain, and that the knight wounded Harold at the same time. Weis repeats the arrow-to-eye count. Carmen claims that Duke William killed Harold, but this is unlikely, since such a feat would have been recorded elsewhere. William of Jumièges' account is even more unlikely, since it has Harold dying in the morning, during the first battle. Chronicle of the Battle of the Abbey claims that no one knew who killed Harold, as happened in the press of the battle. Harold's modern biographer, Ian Walker, states that Harold probably died from an arrow in the eye, although he also says that it is possible that Harold was struck by a Norman knight while mortally wounded in the eye. Another biographer of Harold, Peter Rex, after discussing various accounts, concludes that it is not possible to declare how Harold died.

Harold's death left the English forces as a leader, and they began to collapse. Many of them fled, but the royal family's soldiers gathered around Harold's body and fought to the end. The Normans began to pursue the fleeing troops, and also for a rearguard action at a site known as "Malfosse" except that the battle was over. Exactly what happened at Malfosse, or "Evil Moat", and where it happened is unclear. This took place in a small fortification or set of trenches, where some of the English rallied and severely wounded Eustace of Boulogne before being defeated by the Normans.

Reasons for the outcome

Harold's defeat was probably due to several factors. One of them needed to be protected from two almost simultaneous invasions. The fact that Harold abandoned his forces in the south of England on September 8 also contributed to the defeat. Many historians blame Harold for hastening south rather than gather more forces before confronting William at Hastings, although it is not clear that the English forces were insufficient to deal with William's forces. Against these arguments for the exhausted English army, the length of the battle, which lasted all day, shows that the English troops were not tired from the long march. Related to the speed of Harold's advance into Hastings is the possibility that Harold distrusted Earls Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria when their enemy Tostig was defeated, and refused to bring them and his forces south. Modern historians note that one of the reasons for Harold's haste to battle was to contain William's excesses and keep him from destruction free from his beachhead.

Much of the blame for the defeat may lie in the events of the battle. William was a more experienced military leader, and in addition, the lack of cavalry on the English side allowed Harold fewer tactical options. Some authors criticize Harold for not taking advantage of the opportunities offered by rumors of William's death early in the battle. The English apparently made the mistake of not remaining strictly on the defensive when they pursued the retreating Normans, they exposed their flanks to attack. Whether this was due to the inexperience of the British commanders or the indiscipline of the British soldiers is unclear. In the end, Harold's death seems to have been decisive, as it signaled the breaking of the English forces into disarray. Historian David Nicolle said of the battle that William's army "demonstrated - not without difficulty - the superiority of Norman-French mixed cavalry and infantry tactics over the German-Scandinavian archery traditions of the Anglo-Saxons."

aftermath

Ruins of the monks' hostel at Battle Abbey

The day after the battle, Harold's body was identified, either by his armor or marks on his body. His personal standard was presented to William and then sent to the papacy. The bodies of the English dead, including some of Harold's brethren and huskerls, were left on the battlefield, although some were removed by relatives later. Norman was buried in a large mass grave, which has not been found. The exact numbers of losses are unknown. Of the English known to have fought in the battle, the death toll means that the mortality rate was around 50 percent of those involved, although this may be too high. Of the named Normans who fought at Hastings, one in seven is said to have died, but these were all nobles and there is a possibility that the death rate among common soldiers was higher. Although Orderic Vitali's figures are greatly exaggerated, his ratio of one in four victims may not be accurate. Marren suggests that perhaps 2,000 Normans and 4,000 English were killed at Hastings. Reports said that some of the English dead were still in decline years later. Although scientists thought for a long time that the remains would not be recovered, due to the acidic soil, recent finds have changed this view. One skeleton, which was found in a medieval cemetery, and was originally thought to be associated with the 13th century Battle of Lewes is now believed to be associated with Hastings instead.

One story tells that Gytha, Harold's mother, offered the Victorious Duke the weight of her son's body in gold for his custody, but was refused. William ordered that Harold's body be thrown into the sea, but whether this took place is unclear. Another story tells that Harold was buried on top of a cliff. Waltham Abbey, which was founded by Harold, later claimed that his body was secretly buried there. Other legends claim that Harold did not die at Hastings, but fled and became a hermit in Chester.

William expected to receive representation from the surviving English leaders after his victory, but instead of Edgar Ætheling being proclaimed king at the Witenagemot, with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ealdred, Archbishop of York, William therefore marched on London, marching along coast of Kent. He defeated the English by force, attacking him at Southwark, but was unable to storm London Bridge, forcing him to reach the capital by a more circuitous route.

Despite the representation of the English aristocrats, resistance continued for several years. There were riots in Exeter in late 1067, an invasion by Harold's sons in mid-1068, and a rebellion in Northumbria in 1068. In 1069, William faced more trouble from Northumbrian rebels, an invading Danish fleet, and riots in the south and west of England. He ruthlessly suppressed various rebellions, culminating in the defeat of the North in late 1069 and early 1070, which destroyed parts of northern England. A further revolt in 1070 also defeated the king at Ely.

Battle Abbey was founded by William on the site of the battle. According to 12th-century sources, William vowed to found an abbey, and the church's altar was placed on the site where Harold died. More likely, the foundation was laid on William by the papal legates in 1070. The terrain of the battlefield was altered by subsequent building work at the abbey, and the slope protected the English was now much less steep than it had been at the time of the battle; the ridge top was also built and leveled. After the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the abbey's lands passed to secular landowners, who used it as a residence or country house. In 1976, the estate was put up for sale and purchased by the government with the help of some American donors who wanted to honor the 200th anniversary of American independence. The battlefield and abbey grounds are now owned and managed by English Heritage and are open to the public. The Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidered narrative of the events leading up to Hastings, probably commissioned by Odo Bayeux shortly after the battle, possibly to hang in the bishop's palace at Bayeux. In modern times, the annual re-enactment of the Battle of Hastings has attracted thousands of participants and spectators to the site of the original battle.

Notes

• Barber, Luke, ed. (2010). "Medieval St Nicholas's Hospital, East Sussex: Excavations 1994". Sussex Archaeological Collections . 148 : 79-110.
• Barlow, Frank (1970). Edward the Confessor ISBN.
• Barlow, Frank (1988). Feudal Kingdom of England 1042-1216(fourth edition). New York: Longman. ISBN.
• Bates, David (1982). Normandy Before 1066. London: Longman. ISBN.
• Bates, David (2001). Wilgelm the conqueror. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN.
• Battlefields Trust. . UK Battlefields Resource Center. Retrieved October 5 +2016 .
• Bennett, Matthew (2001). Norman Conquest Campaign. Essential stories. Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN.
• Bennett, Matthew; Bradbury, Jim; DeVries, Kelly; Dickie, Ian; Jestice, Phyllis (2006). Fighting Methods of the Medieval World AD 500-AD 1500: equipment, fighting skills and tactics. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN.
• Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: Penguin History of Great Britain 1066-1284. New York: Penguin. ISBN.
• Coad, Jonathan (2007). Battle Abbey and Battlefield. English Heritage Guidebooks. London: English Heritage. ISBN.
• Coredon, Christopher (2007). Dictionary of Medieval Rules and Phrases(reprint ed.). Woodbridge, UK: D. S. Brewer. ISBN.
• Crouch, David (2007). Normans: History of the Dynasty. London: Hambledon and London. ISBN.
• Douglas, David S. (1964). William the Conqueror: Norman influence on England. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. OCLC.
• English Heritage. "Exploring Battle Abbey and Battlefield" . Retrieved October 5 +2016 .
• Freeman, Edward A. (1869). The history of the Norman conquest of England: its causes and results . III. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. OCLC.
• Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, DE; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1996). British Chronology Guide(Third revised ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN.
• Gravett, Christopher (1992). Hastings 1066: The Fall of Saxon England. Campaign. 13 . Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN.
• Halley, Elizabeth M.; Everard, Judith (2001). Capetian France 987-1328(Second Edition). New York: Longman. ISBN.
• Zayats, Yu.N. (1984). Battle Abbey: Eastern Ridge and Excavations 1978-80. London: English Heritage. clause 11. ISBN . Retrieved October 1, 2016- via Archeology Data Service.
• Higham, Nick (2000). Death of Anglo-Saxon England. Stroud, UK: Sutton.

The Battle of Hastings took place on October 14, 1066 g. It lasted more than 10 hours. Such a duration was not typical for battles that took place in the Middle Ages. The clash had historical significance for both countries involved. Let's look further at how it went Battle of Hastings 1066.

General information

Acted as a defending participant in the battle Anglo-Saxon kingdom. England at that time offered desperate resistance to the Normans. Unfortunately, the country did not have a leader who would be able to effectively repel attacks. At that time the king of the state was Harold Godwinson. The battle ended in complete defeat. Several thousand soldiers died on the field, including the king himself and his brothers. Thus, the decisive moment in the process of the Norman conquest was precisely Battle of Hastings. Winner battle became the new ruler. He turned the country into a feudal monarchy.

Background

Edward the Confessor, before ascending to the English throne in 1042, lived for 28 years with Duke Richard the Second in Normandy. Having no children, he, apparently, in 1051, thanks for the refuge, promised the throne to his relative, William II. But history decreed somewhat differently. In 1066, Edward died, and the Witenagemot chose Harold Godwinson as its ruler. He was the brother of the monarch's wife. Feeling death approaching, Edward sends Harold to Normandy. There he had to swear allegiance to the presumed heir to the throne. But on the way he is captured, from where Wilhelm rescues him. The freed earl voluntarily takes an oath of allegiance in the presence of witnesses. These events are illustrated in the Bayeux Tapestry. But subsequently British researchers expressed doubts about their reliability. Historians considered it an unfortunate accident that Harold ended up with a Norman. Moreover, historians point to the dubiousness of both the terms of the agreement and the oath taken. One way or another, these events were used to justify Wilhelm's actions.

Causes

William, having learned about the election of a new monarch after Edward's death, refused to recognize his rights. Moreover, he declared his claims to the throne. The oath given by Harold was widely publicized. In addition, it was stated that Edward recognized the Norman Duke as heir to the throne. The new Anglo-Saxon king found himself between two fires. It was not only the Norman Duke who put forward claims to the throne. At the same time, the invasion of the Norwegian monarch, who also laid claim to the throne, began. However, Harold was able to cope with the latter. His troops completely defeated the Norwegians at Stamforth Bridge. After the battle he returned to York. There, the monarch received news of the invasion of William of Normandy's troops.

Norman troops

There were a huge number of small knights in the state. The dukes could not effectively control them until he took power into his own hands. Wilgelm the conqueror. He was able to gather all these knights and recruit them to serve. His reputation contributed to this. William the Conqueror knew all aspects of military art perfectly and had a reputation as an excellent knight and military leader. This made it possible to attract people from all areas of Northern France. Having planned the invasion, William received the support of the barons in his duchy. The Normans had considerable experience in fighting battles, using small detachments of cavalry from fortress castles. The latter were built in the occupied territories and played the role of strongholds. The Normans were able to improve their tactics in the wars with the counts of Anjou and the kings of France. In these battles, they gained valuable experience in fighting large enemy formations and establishing clear interaction between their regiments.

Formation of squads

The Norman Duke was able to create a large army. There were more than 7 thousand people in it. Mostly knightly feudal troops were present in it. The core of the formations was the Norman cavalry, which, in turn, included archers and lightly armed infantry. It was decided to transport personnel through the English Channel. For this purpose, the construction of ships was organized. It is worth saying that the Normans themselves made up no more than 1/3 of the army. The rest was formed by people who arrived from various regions of France: Aquitaine, Maine, Flanders, Artois, Picardy, Brittany. Mercenaries from European countries were also present in the formations.

Enemy troops

It should be noted that forces of the parties at the Battle of Hastings were approximately equal in number. However, their qualitative composition differed significantly. The resources of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom were large, but very poorly organized. The monarch did not have a permanent fleet at his disposal, with the exception of a small number of ships that were provided by ports from the south-eastern regions. Theoretically, it was possible to collect the required number through requisition in the count's traditions. However, it was impossible to form a large fleet in a short time and ensure its combat readiness. The huskerls and earls acted as the center of the ground forces. By the middle of the 11th century, there were about 3 thousand of the former. The squad of a large earl, in turn, included 400-500 people. In addition, Harold had in his service detachments of thegns (military nobility) and a national peasant militia - the fyrd. In their full strength, all the troops could be called the largest in all of Western Europe. The army's key problems were the difficulty of concentrating people in the right place, the inability to maintain combat readiness for a long time, and the underdevelopment of castles as the main unit of the defensive system. In addition, the troops did not use modern methods of combat, and no attention was paid to archers and cavalry. The latter did not exist as a combat unit. The Anglo-Saxons rode horses, but dismounted before engaging in direct battle. Only thegns and housecarls were well armed. The militia had at its disposal clubs, axes, sticks with attached stones, and pitchforks. In addition, there were almost no archers in the troops, while such units constituted one of the key links in the Norman army.

Start of the battle

The famous Battle of Hastings described in various sources. According to information from the epic poem written by Guy of Amiens, the battle was started by the Norman warrior Taillefer. He challenged a knight from Harold's army to a battle, killed him, and cut off his head as a trophy. Later sources present a slightly different version. In particular, they say, that the battle of Hastings began with Taiefer's attack on the knights. He managed to kill several of them before he himself fell on the field. As follows from many sources, the Norman attack came as a surprise to the enemy. However, according to the testimony of later authors, Harold managed to erect a defensive palisade. The general battle began with Norman crossbowmen and archers. They shot arrows almost vertically, which made it possible to wound people in the faces, heads, and eyes. In general, the actions of crossbowmen and archers did not bring significant results.

First retreat

When the arrows ran out, the heavy infantry rushed to the attack. However, throwing weapons also turned out to be ineffective. Hastings area abounded in difficult terrain. The infantrymen were forced to climb a slope that descended to the southwest. As a result, the Bretons were the first to approach the enemy. Due to the Normans falling behind, their flank was exposed. The British hastened to take advantage of this and tried to surround the Bretons. The latter, fearing capture, began to retreat. It passed under a hail of projectiles. Soon the retreat turned into an apparent rout. Due to the opening of the flank, the Normans were forced to retreat back, followed by the Flemings and French.

Tactical move

To restore order in the ranks of the Normans, William and several of his comrades entered the battle. As chronicler Guy of Almen testifies, a horse was killed under him. The soldiers who saw this began to shout that William was dead. However, the Duke got up and took another horse. The Bayeux Tapestry illustrates this point. Wilhelm took off his helmet, denying the news of his death. At the same time, Eustachius of Boulogne points to the duke’s face. Wilhelm's actions prevented the stampede of the infantry.

New attack

Battle of Hastings continued with the advance of the Norman knightly cavalry. However, under a hail of arrows and darts from the enemy, she failed to reach the Huskerl formation. Contemporaries also pointed out that the British used “Danish axes” to cut through both the knight and his horse with one blow. The Normans made several unsuccessful attacks and were forced to retreat.

Turning point of the battle

The Anglo-Saxons rushed after the retreating knights, leaving their fortifications. Until this moment, their positions were unassailable. Researchers are debating whether these actions were a manifestation of indiscipline among the troops or whether the pursuit began on the orders of Harold, who hoped for victory. Nevertheless, the counterattack proved fatal. Having left their positions, the soldiers found themselves under direct attack from the enemy. Some historians believe that the retreat was false. They express the opinion that William's army, thus, lured the enemy out of his fortifications. But modern researchers do not agree with this version. One way or another, Wilhelm managed to take advantage of the enemy’s mistake. He turned his knights around and killed most of his pursuers. Subsequently, such tactics were already consciously used by Wilhelm. Norman detachments pulled out small units from the enemy's ranks, then turned around and destroyed them. Soon Harold's army lost his two brothers Leofwin and Girt. Successive attacks weakened the formation, but despite this, the warriors continued to defend.

End of the battle

The final outcome of the struggle was decided by the death of Harold. The sources describe two versions of death. The most plausible, according to modern sources, is contained in the epic of Guy of Amiens. According to this version, the Normans were able to reach Harold's headquarters by the end of the day. Her protection was carried out at that time by the Huskerls. Seeing a fierce fight at the headquarters, Wilhelm galloped to the rescue. He was accompanied by Eustachius of Boulogne, one of the sons of Gautier Giffard and Guy de Potier. One of the knights pierced Harold's shield with a spear and plunged it into his chest, the second cut off his head, the third hit his stomach with a spear, the fourth cut his thigh. According to the second version, set out in the poem by Baudry de Bourgueil, the leader was killed with an arrow in the eye. It is worth saying that this source appeared 30 years after the battle. Historians speculate that the plot stems from a scene illustrated in a tapestry in which a foot warrior tries to pull an arrow from his eye. There is a Norman knight nearby, killing an Anglo-Saxon with a great axe. The chronicle of Roman de Rou combines both versions. It says that Harold was wounded by an arrow in the eye, but was able to pull it out and continue to fight until he was killed by the Normans. The news of his death spread quite quickly. The Anglo-Saxons, left without their leader, began to flee. Only the monarch's squad continued to fight until they were all killed. Subsequently, as William of Malmesbury reports, he gave the hacked body of the monarch to his mother.

The meaning of the battle

Battle of Hastings- one of the few that changed the course of history. Despite the fact that the battle was won by a small margin, it opened the way for the Duke to a new state. Harold and both of his brothers died, leaving several thousand warriors left on the field. Chroniclers do not report the exact losses of the Normans. As a result of the battle, there was no longer a leader left in England capable of organizing resistance to the enemy. This battle became a turning point in the history of this country. After a short resistance, London submitted to Harold. The aristocracy was forced to recognize the Duke's rights to the throne.

Conclusion

On December 25, 1066, the coronation of the new monarch took place in Westminster Abbey. The Norman invasion destroyed the former state. It was replaced by a feudal centralized monarchy. The royal power now had power and was based on the vassal-fief system and knightly traditions. The country received a new impetus in its development. In a short time, England became one of the strongest states in Europe. The conquered lands were confiscated and given to the knights.