A9. Grammatical basis of a sentence
The famous Russian linguist Ditmar Elyashevich Rosenthal wrote: "Our grammatical system presents many options for expressing the same idea." Examples confirming the validity of this statement can be found in the text of V.O. Bogomolov. A talented writer skillfully uses the capabilities of the grammatical system of the Russian language.
So, in order to convey the idea that the brigade brigade unexpectedly arrived found the commander asleep, the same root words are used: participles: “sleeping” (sentence 4), “sleepy” (sentence 12) and the verb “sleeping” (sentence 14).
The next example is the phrases of the chief of staff in which he pleads guilty. The hero did not follow the commander's order, showed negligence. Now, realizing that punishment for his irresponsibility threatens the commander, he regrets. “I was the only one to blame for everything” (sentence 22), “I was to blame” (sentence 23), the narrator mentally repeats. The different word order in sentences of the same meaning helps the reader understand how the chief of staff suffers from remorse.
Thus, the variety of grammatical means of the language provides a person with the opportunity to choose: what is better to use for more accurate expression of his thoughts.
The quality of exemplary speech: correctness, accuracy, consistency, expressiveness
abstract
Content
Introduction
………………………………………… …..3
Speech. A culture of speech
……………………………………4
The qualities of correct speech
:
1. Correctness ………………………………………… 7
2. Content ………………………………… .7
3. Accuracy and clarity ………………………………… 8
4. Consistency ……………………………………………. nine
5. Relevance ………………………………………… 10
6.Cleanliness …………………………………………… ..11
7.Wealth and expressiveness ………………… .13
Conclusion
…………………………………… …………16
Introduction
We judge about a person, first of all, by his speech: shouts, rude - evil; speaks politely, affectionately - you want to think, then kind; tongue-tied, “hums”, stumbles - God has deprived of talents; speaks the literary language fluently - probably capable, will go far ... Eloquent, sociable people are charming, and those who cannot connect even two words are not interesting to us. “The word is a great thing,” wrote Leo Tolstoy. “Great because a word can unite people, but a word can separate them, a word can serve love, and a word can serve enmity and hatred”. But only if, we add, if we we own the word... Unfortunately, in our time, very few succeed.
Language is a powerful means of regulating the activities of people in various fields, therefore, the study of the speech behavior of a modern person, understanding how a person owns the wealth of the language, how effectively he uses it, is a very important and urgent task.
Every educated person must learn to evaluate speech behavior - his own and those of the interlocutors, to correlate his speech actions with a specific communication situation. As AP Chekhov wrote, "for an intelligent person it is as indecent to speak badly as not to be able to read and write."
In modern linguistics, two levels of human speech culture are distinguished - lower and higher. For the lower level, for the first stage of mastering the literary language, correctness of speech, observance of the norms of the Russian literary language is enough. If a person does not make mistakes in pronunciation, in the use of word forms, in their formation, in the construction of a sentence, we call his speech correct. However, this is not enough. Speech can be correct, but bad, that is, it does not correspond to the goals and conditions of communication. If a person in his speech also observes the last specified conditions, then we can say that he reaches the highest level of speech culture. This means that he not only does not make mistakes, but also knows how to build statements in the best way in accordance with the purpose of communication, to select the most appropriate words and constructions in each case, taking into account who and under what circumstances he is addressing.
In modern linguistics, there is a lot of literature devoted to the study of this issue. But the most interesting and convincing to me was the book by I.B. Golub and D.E. Rosenthal "The Book of Good Speech". Therefore, when considering the problem of good speech, I will rely on this work.
Speech. A culture of speech.
Speech- this is the external, formal side of the text; it always has not only a linguistic structure and its organization, but also expressed by it, in essence, non-linguistic (or extra-linguistic) meaning, for the sake of which and in many respects obeying which it is built. Speech turns out to be a phenomenon not only linguistic, but also psychological and aesthetic. That is why people have long noticed the good and bad sides of speech and have been making attempts to explain them for a long time, in particular, resorting to words such as "accurate", "correct", "beautiful", etc.
Let's list the main signs of speech:
First, speech is concrete, unique, relevant, unfolds in time, and is realized in space.
Secondly, speech is active, linear, tends to combine words in the speech stream. Unlike language, it is less conservative, more dynamic, and mobile.
Thirdly, speech as a sequence of words involved in it reflects the experience of the speaker, is conditioned by the context and situation, is variable, can be spontaneous and disordered.
Speech has a number of characteristics - tempo, duration, timbre, volume level, articulatory clarity, accent.
Speaking of correct good literary speech, we are talking about speech culture.
It presupposes, first of all, adherence to the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers (speakers and writers) as an “ideal” or model. The language norm is the central concept of speech culture, and the normative aspect of the culture of speech is considered one of the most important.
However, the culture of speech cannot be reduced to a list of prohibitions and definitions "right-wrong". The concept of "culture of speech" is associated with the patterns and characteristics of the functioning of the language, as well as with speech activity in all its diversity. It also includes the opportunity provided by the language system to find a new language form for expressing specific content in every real situation of speech communication. The culture of speech develops the skills of selection and use of language means in the process of verbal communication, helps to form a conscious attitude to their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks.
The concept of a norm is important for any literary language. Even in the artistic and fictional style, where the freedom of choice of linguistic means is widely used and the originality of the individual manner of the writer is manifested, a complete departure from the national norm is impossible, because “the language of a truly fictional work cannot deviate far and significantly from the basis of the national language, otherwise it will cease to be generally understood ".
The norms of the literary language are not forms that have been frozen once and for all. They change over time. However, it should be emphasized that with all possible changes and shifts, the Russian language has steadily retained its normative and literary basis for centuries. The system of literary norms put forward and described by MV Lomonosov in his "Russian grammar" determined the entire future fate of the Russian language and, on the whole, has been preserved to this day.
The qualities of correct speech
One of the founders of the culture of speech S.I. Ozhegov wrote: “A high culture of speech is the ability to correctly, accurately and expressively convey one's thoughts by means of language.<...>But a high culture of speech is not only about following the norms of the language. It also consists in the ability to find not only the exact means for expressing one's thoughts, but also the most intelligible (ie, the most expressive) and the most appropriate (ie, the most suitable for a given case and, therefore, stylistically justified) ”.
Paradoxically, it is not easy to define good, correct speech. In society, over time, clear shifts in ideas about the standard of good speech are taking place. Nevertheless, we can talk about certain criteria for good speech, which are:
- Right;
Meaningfulness;
Accuracy and clarity;
Consistency;
Relevance;
Purity;
Wealth and expressiveness.
1. Correctness
Good speech is based primarily on its correctness, this is the basis on which all other qualities of exemplary speech are based. The speaker must be sure that the text he creates meets all the norms of the literary language: orthoepic, accentological, morphological, syntactic, lexical, stylistic. Written speech must also comply with spelling and punctuation standards.
2. Content
Speech is considered meaningful if it has an inner meaning.... It is no coincidence that already in the Old Russian language one of the meanings of the word meaning was "mind, reason, mind." The richness of speech depends on the degree of mental development of the speakers, on their intelligence. This is confirmed by the proverb "The field is red with millet, and the conversation is with the mind."
Informative lectures, speeches, novels, articles give a person pleasure, bring joy, enrich with new knowledge, it is not for nothing that people say: “It’s good to listen to a good speech”, “In someone else’s conversation, everyone will have a lot of intelligence. Proverbs do not mean idle talk, but meaningful, intelligent conversation.
Hence the warning that defines the attitude to the word, speech, language: "When you speak, think", "The word does not say in vain", "Do not throw words into the wind", "You should not waste words", "You cannot keep a horse on the reins, but you can't turn back words from your tongue. " And in these proverbs - concern about the content of speech: think about what you want to say; choose words according to the meaning.
How much irony is contained in the proverb "From empty to empty pour". Empty deeds are like empty conversations. Both are of no use. "They said that they had cooked, but look - but there is nothing", "In verbosity, not without idle talk," "He says day to night, but there is nothing to listen to." As you can see, proverbs condemn meaningless speeches, conversations that give nothing to the mind or heart.
It is necessary that the speech be meaningful, informative, enrich the audience, and attract their attention.
3. Accuracy and clarity of speech
Accuracy- correspondence of the semantic content of speech and the information that underlies it. The accuracy of speech is associated with the accuracy of word use, with the correct use of polysemous words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms. The most important condition for the accuracy of speech is adherence to lexical norms. Speech is accurate if the speaker selects those words and constructions that more accurately convey the shades of meaning that are essential for the given utterance.
Accuracy and clarity of speech are interrelated: accuracy of speech gives it clarity, clarity of speech follows from its accuracy. However, the speaker (writer) should take care of the accuracy of the statement, and the listener (reader) evaluates how clearly the thought is expressed. We put our thoughts into words. “Who thinks clearly, he clearly expounds - wrote the French poet of the XVII century Nicolas Boileau.
Accuracy of speech is most often associated with the accuracy of word usage.
The most typical ones are:
- the use of words in an unusual sense;
ambiguity not eliminated by the context, which generates ambiguity;
mixing of paronyms, homonyms.
But the accuracy and clarity of speech is due not only to the purposeful choice of words and expressions, the choice of grammatical structures, the construction of phrases, and exact adherence to the norms of words in a phrase are no less important. The ability to combine words in a phrase in different ways or a violation of the order of words in a sentence generates ambiguity:
The assistant had a lot to explain.(did the assistant explain or did someone explain it to him?);
The sun covered the cloud.(who closed whom?);
The illustrations for the stories that were sent to the competition are masterfully executed(what was sent to the competition: stories or illustrations?).
4. Logic
Consistency- this is the expression in the semantic connections of the components of speech of the connections and relations between the parts of the components of thought.
Consistency is associated, first of all, with the syntactic organization of both individual words in a sentence and statements in the text. The consistency of speech is based on the consistency of thinking. To speak and write logically, you need to be able to reason logically, build conclusions, argue your point of view.
Even Aristotle argued: "Speech must comply with the laws of logic." The inconsistency of a statement is incompatible with eloquence. How can we make our speech logical? How not to violate the laws of logic in this or that statement? To do this, you must follow the logical laws:
- identity law- the subject of thought within the limits of one reasoning, I must remain unchanged;
law of contradiction- two statements cannot be simultaneously true, one of which asserts something about the subject, and the other denies at the same time;
excluded third law- if two opposite statements about the subject are expressed, then there can be nothing in between;
law of sufficient reason- in order to recognize the judgment as true, you need to substantiate your point of view, you need to prove the truth of the proposed provisions, the consistency and argumentation of the statements.
The reason for the inconsistency of the statement can also be Substitution of the concept: It is bad when the same name of the film is shown in all the cinemas of the city.
7 wealth and expressiveness
Wealth
- this is a wide and free use of linguistic units in speech, allowing you to optimally express information.
The very first criterion for the wealth and poverty of speech is the number of words we use. But the richness of a language is judged not only by the number of words. It is also important that many of them have not one, but several meanings, i.e. polysemantic. The ability to use a variety of lexical meanings of words, the use of synonyms, antonyms, word-formation possibilities of words in speech makes our speech more diverse.
The richness of Russian syntax can be judged by the fact that our grammatical system provides many options for expressing the same idea. For example, this emotional statement: The teacher must teach- stylistically and emotionally colored, because the tautological combination and intonation (in oral speech) give this sentence a certain expressiveness. However, it can be enhanced by choosing more emotional syntactic constructions: The duty of a teacher is to teach ... Who and to teach if not a teacher ?!
Expressiveness
speech is called the quality that arises as a result of the implementation of the expressive capabilities inherent in the language. Expressiveness can be created by linguistic units of all levels. The speech experience of each of us suggests that speech is not the same in terms of the degree of influence on our consciousness. Two lectures given on the same topic have completely different effects on a person. The effect depends on the degree of expressiveness of speech.
Expressiveness of speech refers to such features of its structure that attract and maintain the attention, interest of listeners or readers. Expressive figurative live, emotional speech, in which there are no cliches, patterns, blind adherence to "language fashion".
In addition, there are specific pictorial properties of the language that make the statement vivid, figurative, emotional. Such expressive means include:
- tropes - utterance words used in a figurative sense: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, personification, synecdoche.
stylistic figures of speech - forms of syntactic organization of words in a literary text: antithesis, hyperbole, litota, gradation, rhetorical question, irony, inversion.
Greater expressiveness of oral speech is given by intonation, pitch and timbre of pronounced sounds, rate of speech, pause. In the choice of means of expressiveness of speech, the individuality of the speaker is manifested to the greatest extent.
It is necessary to note the main conditions on which the expressiveness of a person's speech depends:
- independence of thinking, activity of consciousness of the author of speech. If you think only according to a cheat sheet, but feel according to a pattern and standard, do not be surprised that cheat sheet thinking and stereotyped feeling do not allow timid sprouts of expressiveness to break through;
- indifference, interest of the author of the speech to what he says or writes, to what he says or writes, and to those for whom he speaks or writes;
- good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities;
You need to know about sounds and their expressive possibilities. About stress and its expressive properties. About words and their impact on speech expressiveness.
- good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles - since each of them leaves its mark on separate groups and layers of language means, which, thus, turn out to be stylistically colored. This coloration provides very great opportunities for the authors of speech and in enhancing speech expressiveness.
- systematic and deliberate training of speech skills;
You need to learn to control your speech, to notice what is expressive in it, and what is stereotyped and gray. The skill of self-control is necessary for any person if he wants to gradually improve his speech.
Our speech experience leaves no room for doubt that the structure of speech, its properties and features can awaken the thoughts and feelings of people, can maintain sharpened attention and arouse interest in what is said or written. It is these features of the speech structure that give reason to call it expressive.
Conclusion
In the modern Russian literary language, as in any living, developing language, there is an intensive convergence of the traditional-book means of expression with the everyday spoken element, with social and territorial dialects in their modern state. However, a certain “emancipation” and renewal of literary norms should not lead to their destruction, to a stylistic decrease in speech itself, to its coarsening and vulgarization.
Under these conditions, normativity and correctness of speech acquire a special and urgent meaning. In the era of the latest technologies, universal and complete computerization, the spread of video technology and other achievements of modern civilization, a deep knowledge of the native language, mastery of its literary norms is mandatory for every educated person and patriot.
Correctness of speech is the foundation of language culture; without it there is and cannot be either literary artistic skill, or the art of living and written word.
Poor, linguistically poor speech is perceived as a negative characteristic of a person, testifying to his superficial knowledge, low speech culture, and insufficient vocabulary. But the main thing: poverty, dullness, monotony of the language is associated with poverty, dullness and unoriginal thought.
A high level of speech culture is an integral feature of a cultured person. Improving our speech is the task of each of us. To do this, you need to monitor your speech in order not to make mistakes in pronunciation, in the use of word forms, in the construction of a sentence. You need to constantly enrich your vocabulary, learn to feel your interlocutor, be able to select the words and constructions most suitable for each case.
Bibliography
- Golub I.B. D.E. Rosenthal A book about good speech. M., 1997.
D.E. Rosenthal Practical stylistics. M., 1987.
Farmina L.G. Learning to speak correctly. M., 1992.
etc.................
Grammar (ancient Greek. γραμματική from γράμμα ‘Letter’) as a science is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language and all the grammatical patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagmas, sentences, texts). The grammar formulates these patterns in the form of general grammatical rules.
Main aspects of the topic
* Grammar as a sign level.
* Grammatical meaning. Its signs.
* Morphological level of the grammatical system.
* The syntactic level of the grammatical system.
Basic theoretical provisions
Grammatical concepts
Grammatical structure (grammatical system, grammar; from the Greek. γράμμα ‘Record’) - a set of laws of any language that regulate the correctness of constructing meaningful speech segments (words, statements, texts).
The most important units of grammar (grammatical units) are morpheme, word, syntagma, sentence and text. All these units are characterized by a certain grammatical meaning and a certain grammatical form.
Grammatical meaning–The meaning expressed by an inflectional morpheme (grammatical indicator).
Grammar category- a closed system of mutually exclusive and opposed to each other grammatical meanings (grammes), which sets the partition of an extensive set of word forms (or a small set of high-frequency word forms with an abstract type of meaning) into non-overlapping classes, the difference between which significantly affects the degree of grammatical correctness of the text.
Grammatical form- a linguistic sign in which the grammatical meaning is expressed in one way or another (regularly, standardly). In different languages, means of expressing grammatical meanings can be zero and nonzero affixes, non-positional alternations of phonemes (internal inflections), the nature of stress, reduplication, function words, word order, intonation. In isolating and similar languages, the main way of expressing the grammatical meanings of words is their syntactic compatibility.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings
Each grammatical opposition must be expressed.
The opposition of grammatical forms of a word is expressed by special affixes (suffixes, endings, etc.) or by other grammatical means.
The opposition of grammatical classes of words can be expressed not by some separate morphemes (or other indicators), but by a system of forms. For example, in animate nouns the accusative case coincides with the genitive, and in inanimate - with the nominative. Consequently, the meaning of animation is expressed not by some specific endings, but by a certain ratio of case endings. The grammatical opposition of perfect and imperfect verbs is expressed in the system of tense forms: for example, in the indicative mood of imperfect verbs there are three tense forms ( I write - I wrote - I will write), while perfective verbs have only two ( I will write–wrote).
Grammatics and Syntagmatics
Within grammar (as well as within other subsystems of the language) paradigmatics and syntagmatics are distinguished.
Grammatical paradigmatics covers the similarities and differences of grammatical units, their unification, on the one hand, into grammatical paradigms based on grammatical oppositions with lexical identity (for example, table, table, table, table, etc.), and on the other hand, into grammatical classes based on grammatical similarities with lexical differences (for example, table, house, city, person, etc.).
Grammatical syntagmatics covers the general patterns of compatibility of grammatical units with each other as part of larger units of the highest level - morphemes as part of a word, words as part of a syntagma, syntagmas as part of a sentence, sentences as part of a text, that is, the rules for combining grammatical units into grammatical structures and, accordingly, rules of grammatical division of these structures into parts (components).
Tasks
1. Prepare answers to test tasks:
1 . The generalized abstract meaning inherent in the whole class of words, which has its own regular and standard expressions, is:
b) grammatical form;
c) grammatical way;
d) grammatical meaning.
2. A two-dimensional linguistic phenomenon that has a plan of expression and a plan of content:
b) grammatical form;
c) grammatical way;
d) grammatical meaning.
2. Give examples of analytical, synthetic, mixed and suppletive ways of expressing grammatical meaning.
form of control
Oral questioning in practice.
Test questions.
Individual interview for consultation.
Questions for self-control
1. Does every language have a grammatical system?
2. Does the grammatical system obey the rules?
3. What is the difference between the concepts of "grammatical form" and "grammatical category"?
4. Does the phenomenon of Suppletivism have a relation to grammar?
5. What refers to the means of expressing grammatical meaning?
6. Is the generalized grammatical meaning an exception or a norm?
7. Why are grammatical systems different for different languages?
8. On what basis are the parts of speech distinguished?
Literature
The main
1. Girutsky A. A. General linguistics: Textbook. manual for university students / A. A. Girutsky. -. - Mn, 2001.
Additional
1. Tiraspolskiy GI Language system and systemicity in language / GI Tiraspolskiy // Philol. science. - 1999. - No. 6.
2. Uyomov LI System approach and general theory of systems / LI Uyomov. - M., 1978.
Glossary of the main definitions of the discipline
"Russian language and culture of speech"
Abbreviation- (Italian abbreviatura from Latin brevis - short). An abbreviated word formed from initial letters, sounds or other initial elements of a phrase.
Paragraph- (German absetzen - to move away). 1) Red line. 2) A segment of written or printed text from one red line to another.
Abstract (vocabulary)- (Latin abstractus - remote, abstract). A collection of words with an abstract meaning of quality, property, state.
Active (vocabulary)- (Latin activus - effective). Words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses (opposed to a passive vocabulary).
Accent- (Latin accentus - stress). Stress.
Allegory- (Greek allegoria - allegory). The trail, which consists in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a concrete, life image.
Analogy- (Greek analogia - correspondence). Assimilation caused by the influence of some elements of the language on other elements associated with them.
Antithesis- (Greek antithesis - the opposite). A stylistic figure serving to enhance the expressiveness of speech by sharply opposing concepts, thoughts, images.
Antonym- (Greek anti - against + oniva - name). Words that have opposite meanings.
Argo- (fr.argot - jargon). The language of individual social groups, artificially created for the purpose of linguistic isolation.
Argument- (Latin argumentum). A logical argument that serves as the basis of the proof.
Archaism- obsolete words and expressions.
Barbarism- (Greek barbarismos). Foreign language word or expression.
Verbal (means)- (lat.verbum - verb). Verbal, linguistic means of communication as opposed to non-verbal, non-linguistic, non-verbal.
Vulgarisms- (Latin vulgaris - common, rude). Rough words and expressions that are outside the norms of the literary language.
Hyperbola- (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration). A figurative expression containing an exaggeration of the properties, attributes, qualities of an object or phenomenon.
Hypothesis- (Greek . hipothesis - base, assumption). A scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring experimental verification and theoretical justification in order to become a reliable scientific theory.
Speaking- a kind of common language used in a limited area (see "dialect", "adverb").
Gradation- (lat. gradatio - gradual strengthening). - A stylistic figure, consisting in such an arrangement of parts of an utterance (words, segments of a sentence), in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotionally expressive meaning, due to which an increase (weakening) of the impression they make is created.
Grammar- (Greek gramma - a written sign). 1) A section of linguistics that studies the forms of inflection, the structure of words, phrases and sentences. 2) The grammatical structure of the language. 3) A set of rules for inflection, their combination into phrases and sentences.
Deductive (method)- (lat.deductio - withdrawal). The method of proof, which consists in moving from the general to the particular (opposed to induction).
Defective (verbs)- (lat.defectus - defect, defect, defect). Verbs with incomplete conjugation, i.e. not having separate personal forms for phonetic or semantic reasons.
Hyphen- (Latin divisio - division). A connecting dash between parts of a complex word in semi-literal spelling or between words that are in the relationship of the word being defined and the application to it, etc.
Dialect, dialectisms- (Greek dialektos - dialect, adverb). A variety of the common language used by a relatively limited number of people connected by a common territorial, social, professional. Words from various dialects.
Dialogue- (Greek dialogos - conversation). A form of speech in which there is a direct exchange of statements between two or more persons.
Jargon- the language of certain social groups.
Idiomatic (expression)- (Greek idioma - a kind of expression). The same as a phraseological unit, a phraseological unit.
Inversion- (lat. inversio - permutation, overturning). Change the usual word order.
Inductive (method)- (lat.inductio - withdrawal). Method of proof, which consists in moving from the particular to the general.
Interactive (function)- (Latin inter - between, inside + actio - action). Communication function that provides the organization of human interaction.
Intonation- (lat.intonare - to pronounce loudly). Rhythmic and melodic side of speech.
Irony- (Greek eironeia - mockery). A path consisting in the use of a word in the opposite sense.
Historicism- words characteristic of a certain time.
Kinetic (speech)- (Greek kinetikos - referring to movement). Non-verbal means of communication in the form of expressive movements of various parts of the human body (facial expressions, gaze, posture, gait, gestures).
Book (vocabulary)- words and expressions associated with book styles of speech and used in scientific literature, journalism, official business documents.
Communicative (function)- (Latin communicatio - message, communication). The function of communication, consisting in the transmission of information.
Contact (communication)- (Latin contactus - contact). Communication of communicants who are in close proximity to each other.
Context- (Latin contextus - close connection, connection). A semanticly completed segment of the text, which makes it possible to accurately establish the meaning of an individual word or sentence included in it.
A culture of speech- 1) A branch of philology that studies the speech life of society in a particular era. 2) The qualities of literate speech, making it exemplary in a given historical period in a given language community.
Vocabulary- (Greek lexikos - verbal, vocabulary). 1) Vocabulary of the language. 2) A set of words related to the scope of their use (book, scientific, professional, exotic, outdated, etc.). 3) A set of words associated with their origin (native Russian, international, borrowed, etc.). 4) One of the stylistic layers in the vocabulary of the language (neutral, sublime, poetic, etc.).
Linguistics- (lat. lingva - language) the science of language.
Literary language- a normalized language serving the diverse cultural needs of the people.
Litotes- (Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness). Trail, an understatement.
Logical stress- highlighting in the pronunciation of one of the words of the sentence to enhance its semantic load.
Metaphor- (Greek metaphora - transfer). Trail, hidden comparison, figurative designation based on similarity.
Metonymy- (Greek metonymia - renaming). Trail, a figurative designation based on the material connection between objects.
Multi-Union- a syntactic figure, consisting in a deliberate increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members, due to which the role of each of them is emphasized, a unity of enumeration is created, and the expressiveness of speech is enhanced.
Monologue- (Greek monos - one + logos - word). Speech that belongs to one person.
Morpheme- (Greek morphe - form). Significant part of the word, then indivisible.
Morphology- the grammatical teaching about the word, which includes the teaching about the structure of the word, the forms of inflection, the ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the teaching about the parts of speech and their inherent ways of word formation.
Neutral vocabulary- words that are not attached to a specific style of speech, having stylistic synonyms (book, colloquial, vernacular), against which they are devoid of stylistic coloring.
Neologism- new words and expressions.
Norm- (Latin norma). A single exemplary common use of language elements in a given era by these native speakers.
Oxymoron- (Greek oxymoron - cleverly stupid). A path consisting in the combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically exclude each other.
Impersonation- the simplest kind of metaphor, animating inanimate objects.
Homonyms- (Greek homos - the same + onyma - name). Words that sound the same, but differ in meaning.
Onomastics- (Greek onomastikos - referring to a name) A branch of lexicology that studies proper names.
Speaker- (Latin orare - to speak). One who makes speeches and has the gift of eloquence.
Spelling- (Greek orthos - correct, direct + gramma - record). Spelling that complies with the spelling rules that require these rules to be applied.
Spelling- a system of spelling rules for words and their significant parts, continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings, the use of uppercase and lowercase letters, the transfer of words from one line to another.
Orthoepy- (Greek epos - speech). A branch of linguistics that studies the norms of literary pronunciation.
Parallelism- (Greek parallelos - walking next to him). Syntactic figure, juxtaposition of various pictures (most often of nature and the human soul) in similar syntactic constructions.
Paraphrase (paraphrase)- (Greek paraphrasis - descriptive turnover, description). An expression that is a descriptive transmission of the meaning of another expression or word.
Pause- (Greek pausis - termination). Temporary stopping of sounding, breaking the flow of speech, caused by various reasons and performing different functions.
Personification- (lat. persona - face + facio - doing). Reception of transferring the signs and properties of a person to inanimate objects and abstract concepts.
Periphrase (periphrase)- the same as a paraphrase, a paraphrase.
Pleonasm- (Greek pleonasmos - excess). Verbosity, an expression containing unambiguous and thus redundant words.
Predicate- (Latin praedicatum - expressed). 1) A logical predicate is what is expressed in a judgment about its subject. 2) The same as the grammatical predicate.
Vernacular- words, expressions, forms of word formation and inflection, pronunciation features that are not included in the norm of literary speech.
Direct word order- the most common arrangement for this type of sentences, the arrangement of correlative members of the sentence.
Punctuation- (Latin punctum - point). Collection of rules for setting punctuation marks.
Colloquial vocabulary- words used in casual conversation.
Rhetoric- (Greek rhetorike - the art of eloquence). Theory of expressive speech, eloquence, oratory.
A rhetorical question- interrogative sentence.
Synecdoche- (Greek synekdoche - co-understanding). A type of metonymy, the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them.
Synonym- (Greek synonymos - of the same name). Words that are close or identical in meaning, but differ in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring.
Syntax- (Greek syntaxis - composition). A section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech and includes two main parts: the doctrine of phrases and the doctrine of a sentence.
Situation- (FR. situation - position, situation). The circumstances in which the act of speech is carried out.
Comparison- a trope, consisting in assimilating one object to another on the basis of a common feature between them.
Stylistics- (Greek stylos - core for writing). A branch of linguistics that studies various styles.
Suffix- (Latin suffixus - nailed, nailed). A service morpheme located after the root and used to form new words or their non-syntactic forms.
Tautology- (Greek tauto - the same + logos-word) repetition of what was said in other words.
Thesis- (Greek thesis). Position, the truth of which must be proven.
Text- (Latin textum - connection, connection). A work of speech (utterance) reproduced in writing or in print.
Subject- with the actual division of the proposal, that part of it that contains something known, familiar and serves as a starting point (basis) for conveying a new one.
Term- (lat. terminus - limit, border, border sign). A word or phrase that accurately denotes any concept used in science, technology, art.
Toponymy, toponymy- (Greek topos - place + onoma, onyma - name). A section of onomastics that studies geographical names, place names.
Trope- (Greek tropos - turn). A turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative meaning for the purpose of greater artistic expression.
Default- the turn of speech, which consists in the fact that the author does not fully express his thought, giving the reader (listener) the opportunity to guess for himself what exactly remained unspoken.
Sustainable combination- the same as a phraseological unit, a phraseological unit.
Philology- (Greek phileo - I love + logos - teaching). A set of sciences that study the culture of a people, expressed in language and literary creativity.
Forms of speech- varieties of speech that differ in the external means of expressing the utterance (oral and written forms of speech).
Phrase- (Greek phrasis - turnover, expression). The smallest independent unit of speech, acting as a unit of communication (in this sense it coincides with the term "sentence").
Phraseological unit, phraseological unit, phraseological turnover- lexically indivisible, stable in its composition and structure, integral in meaning, a phrase reproduced in the form of a ready-made speech unit.
Functional Styles- styles allocated in accordance with the main functions of the language associated with a particular area of human activity.
Ellipsis- (Greek ellipsis - loss, omission). Skipping an element of a statement that can be easily reconstructed in a given context or situation.
Elativ (elativ)- (lat. elatus - raised, exalted) Homonymous form of an adjective with a superlative degree, denoting an irrelevant degree of quality.
Epithet- (Greek epitheton - application). Artistic, figurative definition, kind of trail.
Epiphora- (Greek epi - after + phoros - carrying). A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora, which consists in repeating the same elements at the end of each parallel row (verse, stanza, sentence, etc.).
Etymology -(Greek etymon - truth). 1) A branch of linguistics that studies the origin and history of individual words and morphemes. 2) The origin and history of individual words and morphemes.
Language- a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means, which is a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serving as the most important means of communication between people.
In this lesson, we will recall the concept of "grammatical basis of a sentence", talk about the subject and the types (types) of the predicate, practice in determining the grammatical basis of the sentence. Let's analyze the tasks of the A9 exam type in the Russian language.
Topic: Preparing for the Unified State Exam
Lesson: A9.Grammatical basis of a sentence
Task A9 tests the ability to identify grammatical basis of the sentence.
Task A9Unified State Exam presented in the following form:
I... Grammatical basis of a sentence
Grammatical basis- This is a combination formed by the main members, or the only main member of the proposal.
Fig. 1. The grammatical basis of the sentence ()
Subject- the main member of the sentence, which denotes the subject of speech and answers questions of the nominative case Who? what?Spring came.
For the subject, you can ask a general question: what (who) does the sentence say?
Predicate- the main member of the sentence, which denotes what is said about the subject of speech: Spring came... A general question can be asked about the predicate: what is said about the subject of speech?
Predicate represented by three types (types) - simple verb predicate( expressed by a verb in any mood. ), compound verb( auxiliary verb + infinitive ) and compound nominal ( consists of a linking verb and a nominal part ).
Fig. 3. The grammatical basis of the sentence ()
II. Analysis of task A9
Let's consider an example task A9 from demo Unified State Exam In Russian year 2013... Given a text and several combinations of words. It is proposed to determine which of them is the grammatical basis in one of the sentences of this text.
(1) ... (2) Wooden sailing ships, approaching, fired point-blank at each other with cast-iron cannonballs from small cannons loaded from the muzzle. (3) Since the energy of the nuclei was rarely sufficient to disable the ship, the battle could end with a boarding. (4) At the same time, sailors landed on the enemy deck from the attacking ship, which locked its side with the enemy's side, who, in hand-to-hand combat, tried to take possession of the enemy ship. (5) The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century very quickly made adjustments to this area of military affairs, and the steam engines were the first important innovation. (6) Their installation on warships eliminated the previous dependence on the strength and direction of the wind, made it possible to maneuver freely, choosing the position most favorable for firing and at the same time providing the least vulnerability to enemy fire.
What combination of words is the grammatical basis in one of the sentences or in one of the parts of a complex sentence of the text?
1.steel machine (proposal 5)
2.ships fired point-blank (proposal 2)
3.to disable (sentence 3)
4.the sailors tried to take possession (proposal 4)
To complete this task, you must remember that the subject means what the sentence is talking about, and it is not at all necessary a word that names an object and answers a question. what? Consider sentence 5: it has two parts, it is a complex sentence. In the first part it is about the industrial revolution or just about the revolution, and this word is the subject, and in the second part it is about machines. The predicate, on the other hand, denotes that which is communicated about the subject. The machines are said to be new. This construction is the grammatical basis in which there is a compound nominal predicate. Answer 1 is incorrect. In Proposition 2, we are talking about ships, this is a subject, and what is reported about them is that they fired - this is a predicate. Point blank answers the question how? and is a circumstance of the course of action, i.e. and the second answer is incorrect. There are also several parts in Proposition 3. The first is a one-part impersonal sentence, it says that enough, this is a predicate, but there is no subject in it and cannot be, since the action in question occurs by itself, no one produces it, this is the essence of impersonal sentences. The second part of to disable the ship is also a one-piece impersonal construction. Destroy, i.e. knock, break, etc., and there is a grammatical basis. The third answer is correct. For insurance, let's analyze the 4th sentence. It is also complex, subordinate. In the first part of it At the same time, sailors landed on the enemy deck from the attacking ship, which grappled with the enemy's side. this is about sailors- this is the subject, and what is communicated about them is that they landed is a predicate. In the second part who, in hand-to-hand combat, tried to take possession of the enemy ship there is a union word which... This is the subject (it is used instead of the word sailors, is equivalent in meaning), and it is reported about which, what are they triedtake over... It is a compound verb predicate.
Let's complete the task. Remember that the subject answers the question. What is the proposal about? Predictable - What is the subject being reported?
(1) Highlighting key fragments in texts is the basis for writing an abstract. (2) However, not all of these fragments should be included in the abstract. (3) They should be selected according to the topic of the abstract and grouped around several large subtopics developing it. (4) At the same time, it is important to accurately and concisely state the content of the selected fragments, to carry out their semantic folding. (5) Semantic folding, or compression, is understood as an operation that leads to a reduction in the text without losing important, relevant information. (6) Thus, compression, which provides for the exclusion of redundant, secondary information from the text, is one of the leading techniques when writing an abstract.
What word or combination of words is the grammatical basis in one of the sentences of the text?
1.understood (sentence 5)
2.fragments must enter (suggestion 2)
3.they should be selected (and) grouped (proposal 3)
4.the exception is (sentence 6)
Correct answer: №2 .
Bibliography
1. Bogdanova G.A., Vinogradova E.M. Russian language and literature. Russian language (basic and advanced levels) 10-11. - M .: Russian word.
2. The rules of Russian spelling and punctuation. Complete Academic Reference / Ed. V.V. Lopatin. - M .: Eksmo, 2006 .-- 480 p.
3. Rosenthal D.E. A collection of exercises in the Russian language for applicants to universities (any edition).
4. Federal Institute for Pedagogical Measurements ().
Homework
1. Complete the task.
What words are the grammatical basis in a sentence: Each nation over the centuries of its existence has developed its own speech culture.
but. people worked out
b. developed a culture
in. over the centuries of existence has developed
every nation has developed
2. Highlight the grammatical basis for each sentence.
Spring suddenly began in all its glory. Life began to play everywhere. The woods were already blue. On the fresh emerald of the first green dandelion turned yellow. Suddenly the land was inhabited. Forests and meadows woke up.
What brightness is in the green! What freshness is in the air! What a bird cry in the gardens!
(According to N. Gogol).
3. * Using the knowledge gained in the lesson, make up 20 sentences of various types, highlight the grammatical foundations of the sentences.
Grammar- teaching about the grammatical system. Grammatical the system is made up of units that have a grammatical form (see. Form grammatical; Ways grammatical).
Grammar is divided into morphology - the study of the grammatical forms of individual words - and syntax - the study of the grammatical forms of phrases and sentences.
The following articles tell about morphology: Morpheme; Lexeme and word form; Analytical and synthetic languages; Agglutinative and fusional languages; Isolating languages; at least two opposed to each other Internal word form; Zero ones are forts. But there may be more of them; for example, in language; Linked roots; Word formation in Russian, six main cases and inflection; Neologisms; Occasionalism forms (see Cases).
The articles tell about the syntax: Syntax - only the form of the only one and denotes sic connections; Submission and composition; Mo- more than one subject. And in Slovenian (one range; Predictivity and semi-predicative - from the South Slavic languages), where there is still tivity; Sentence; Members of the proposal; and the dual form, especially Word order in a sentence; Actual for the designation of two objects, the form of the division of the proposal; A complex syntactic plural denotes a more complex whole; Linguistics of the text. two items, not more than one.
Opposed to each other are both grammatical forms of one word (for example, case forms of a noun, verb tense forms), and grammatical classes of grammar as a system of words: animate nouns are opposed to inanimate, verbs are perfect. Grammar is a system. Sishennaya form - the imperfect verbs of the stem is called such a unity, each type, etc.
the element of which is connected with others and on them Each grammatical opposition depends. This is exactly how grammar works, it must be expressed.
Each grammatical form exists. Opposition of grammatical forms in a language is not in itself, but necessarily together a word is expressed by special affixes with other forms, which it is opposed to (suffixes, endings, etc.) or is different in meaning. For example, it cannot by Gimi grammatical means (see. To be singular without the soby grammatical form).
How to prove it? Presentation of grammatical opposition we classify ourselves a language in which there is no form of plurals of words can be expressed not by some of the same number. In this language, any set of separate morphemes (or other indications of objects should be denoted in the same way, by means), and by a system of forms. For example, as well as one object (after all, animate nouns have no accusative form). And if this is so, then there is no in this language the ny case coincides with the genitive, and in the neo- and the singular form, because there are no wiggled ones - with the nominative. Consequently, the differences in the designation of one and many, the meaning of animateness is not expressed in any way. Without opposing the forms with only specific endings, and there is no definite and plural number, there is no grammatical ratio of case endings, no number in general. Grammatical opposition of verbs.
So, in order to express in a language some kind of perfect and imperfect form of grammatical meaning, it is necessary how it is pressed in the system of forms of time: so,
imperfect form are three forms of tense.
(I write - I wrote - I will write), but the grammatical systems of the verbs do not differ in their perfect form - only two (I will write - only by the grammatical meanings themselves, I wrote). but also by the way these meanings are expressed. If a
Thus, and the relationship grammatical take into account all these differences, then the grammatical classes are reduced in the final analysis, the system of each language will turn out to be deeply opposed to forms. This is kind of peculiar.
and to the main grammatical classes (parts of But, no matter how different the speeches may differ), which are opposed to each other grammatical systems, this does not prevent the expression in the most general, abstract grammatical in different languages, the same thoughts, meanings ( see Parts of Speech). If the language has no case forms (for example,
There are grammatical forms not only in French), relations between subjects in morphology, but also in syntax. And there they are expressed with the help of prepositions or are also interdependent and opposed to the order of words. If the verb has no tense forms to each other. Only these are no longer forms (for example, in the African language Vai), the time of the words themselves, but the forms of their connection (see. The submission of an action can be indicated with the help of and composition) and the form of a sentence (for example, other words. And so in everything: some linguistic personal and impersonal sentences). funds compensate for the absence of others.
Grammar each language is a system, but these systems are structured differently. Different grammatical categories of different languages, that is, those common meanings by which grammatical forms are opposed to each other. So, the category of animateness is inanimate and the category What does the letter I mean in the word "Impossible"? the species that are in Russian are unknown Stretch out, pronounce a long-term soft in many languages, for example English, German-consonant: zh-zh-zh-zh ... and add French without anyone. And in these languages there are pauses a. The result will be a syllable zya, exactly the same as the category of definiteness - uncertainty in words is impossible, the finch, sliding, freezes (it is expressed by two types of articles), son-in-law, they threaten. This means that the letter z denotes which is not in the Russian language. The consonant z is not the same, but it does not indicate that it is soft, and the composition of forms within the same category Yes, that's right. If I read z at the beginning of the word & a. So, in languages where there is a case category, I don’t know what to pronounce: [z] or [z "] (so the number of case forms varies from 2 (the language will be denoted by soft consonants). Marathi in India) to more than 40 (some may be a chill - the soft, and maybe the hall - the languages of Dagestan.) But even with the same hard. It can be seen that the letter I here denotes the number of forms in different languages, their meanings can the preceding consonant is soft, and za.related in different ways.In addition, the vowel follows the homogeneous a.new grammatical categories can be distributed by comparing such syllables: divided in different ways between the parts of speech.
So, in French, the verb has the forms for [for] yes [yes] for [on] numbers, and the adjective does not. And in Russian zya [z "a] dya [d * a] nya [n" a]
What does the letter y stand for in the word kolyu? Say long, drawn out: l-l-l-l ... and add u. You get the syllable liu, exactly the same as in the word kolyu. Hence, the letter y denotes the vowel y and the softness of the preceding consonant. Let's compare the syllables:
LU 1LU1 du [du] well [well] lyu [l ”y] du (d * yJ nu [n” y]
Syllables differ from each other by consonants - hard and soft. The letter y conveys the hardness of the consonant, and y - softness:
Let's compare the syllables:
te [te] se [se] me [m "e] se [with" e]
The letter e shows: the preceding consonant is solid; example: mayor, sir. The letter e indicates the softness of the preceding consonant. However, e is rarely used, and usually the difference between hard and soft consonants in writing remains unexpressed. For example, they write: bed [pass "t" el "] and pastel [pastel"] - a special kind of paints; the difference between [t] and [t "] the letter does not convey.
carried the nose flowed flow [n "os] [nose] [pat" ok] [molasses]
You see: the letter ё says that the previous consonant is soft, and after it comes about. The letter o says: the previous consonant is solid, followed by o.
Letters and -s also distribute their responsibilities. Let's compare: thread - whine, beat - everyday life. We write - games, but play. What for? We indicate the hardness of the consonant with the prefix.
So, the letters I, u, e, e, and show the softness of the consonants in front of the vowels and, in addition, denote these vowels themselves. But soft consonants can be not only in front of vowels: stand up, stand up, move, move, ices, lions. How, then, to denote the softness of consonants? Examples show: using a soft sign. So:
Soft consonant is: before vowels
not before vowels = or at the end of a word, or before a consonant
But the letters I, u, e, e, and are found not only after the consonants:
pit, south, spruce, my hedgehog, forge, ate, hugs, overhead, ate, volume
article, loach, article, pouring
In these cases, the same letters denote a combination of sounds: i = / -I- a, u = / + y, e = j + e, e = j + o. You can stretch the first part of the combination e at the beginning of a word: / - / - / - / - / -... or th-th-th-th ..., and then the second: o-o-o ...- w. Get a hedgehog. Note: the sounds /, nd are similar, if we pronounce it more tensely, it will work out /, if we say it less tensely, it will come out y. So:
i (not after consonants!) = / + a. yu (not after consonants!) = / + y. e (not after consonants!) = j + e. ё (not after consonants!) = / + o.
This is how the / is passed before the vowels. And in other positions? When is there no vowel after [j]? It is conveyed by the letter y. Compare: play / Add y: play + y = play. Edge, add a: edge + a = edges.
So, we told how the letters indicate the softness of consonants in the Russian letter, as indicated by /. Moreover, these designations characterize not individual groups of words, but all words: everywhere the letter I at the beginning of a word denotes a combination of a consonant / and a vowel a.
That part of the theory of writing, which determines how the units of the language are transmitted in all cases, in all words and morphemes, is called graphics. She studies the elementary signs of writing - letters in their most typical, ubiquitous use for a given language. Another part of the theory of writing, related to graphics, is called spelling.
The softness of a consonant is indicated by letters:
i, u, e, e, and b
The set of elementary writing units - letters - makes up the alphabet. Alphabet characters have a certain, traditionally fixed order of following when they are listed.
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