Methods of geographical studies and their characteristics. What methods of geographic research do you know? Modern methods of geographic research

Laws and the main provisions of science - the principle of universal interconnection and interconnection - First of all apply to geography. Patterns established by geography are subject to general laws universal interconnection and interdependence of phenomena: Universal connection of phenomena, movement, unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of quantitative changes to high-quality, denial of denial.

Great importance in geography has systems approach. It defines the specifics of the scientific methodology in geography, for each object, or phenomenon, or process, or complex is considered as complicated educationwhich consists of multiple blocks. And these blocks interact with each other. In other words: with a systematic approach you need to see all versatility object In its internal and external relationships, to submit as a structural part of a larger whole and as a set of smaller structural parts.

The main methods of geography, with the help of which you can solve the problem of communication of various phenomena of nature, the problem of metabolism and energy - through. These include methods: relatively descriptive, geophysical, geochemical, paleogeographic, cartographic, aerospace. Widely used in geography and methods or directions as geographic information, mathematical, modeling method, balance sheet method.

Comparative Descriptive Method - The oldest in physical geography. The essence of the geography science itself implies it not only the main, but also the main method, both in the past and in the present and the future. A comparison performs several functions: determines the range of similar phenomena and items, it seems like close objects and phenomena, makes strangers through the image system. The relatively descriptive method has long been limited to two issues: what? Where? In this regard, in geography, it was seen purely khorological science (Choror - place, space).

Currently, the comparative descriptive method should give answers to at least five questions: what, where, when, in what condition, in what interrelations? "When" means time, a historical approach to the object being studied, "in what condition" is a modern dynamics, the trends in the development of the object, "in which relationships" is the impact of an object on the nearest environment and the opposite effect on the object.

Expedition methodresearch is called polevoy. Field material collected in expeditions is geography bread, its foundation. It is on such a foundation that the theory of science is based on.

Expeditions as a method for collecting material take a start with ancient times. Herodotus In the middle of the 5th century BC made many years of travel to other countries. In particular, his visits to Scythia (the Black Sea Steppes) allowed him to give her colorful description - flatness, flavored, harsh climate.

The era of the Tsight of the XI - XVII centuries is selfless expeditions in search of new lands (Columbus, Magellan, etc.). Great Northern Expedition (VSU) in Russia (1733 - 1743). It put in one row with the era of the VGO. Even in modern standards, it seems to be a grandiose event - a large number of participants, a variety and high volume of tasks. During the NE, the Nature of the Kamchatka, the North West of North America, was studied, was studied, the North West of North America was opened, the Northern Ocean Coast from the Kara Sea to East Siberian was described. The extreme northern point of Asia is applied to the map - Cape Chelyuskin. Deep trail in the history of domestic geography left Academic expeditions 1768 - 1774 They were comprehensive, their task was a description of the nature, population and household of a huge territory - Europe, Russia, the Urals, part of Siberia. As part of the expedition took part P.S. Pallas, I.I. Lepjin, S. Gmlin and other outstanding scientists. "Devotion of science, courage, the ability to see in nature the main thing, new and interrelated. Talent Writer-Prosaika - All this is inherent to the best representatives of the Great Army of Geographers - Travelers - N.M. Przhevalsky (1839 - 1888) - Studies of Central Asia, D. Livingston (1813 - 1873) - The lakes and the rivers of South and East Africa. Full tragedy Latest diary records Robert Scott (1868 - 1912), frozen on the way back from the southern pole. Their scientific, diary records, like the works of many other travelers, are read in one breath, no one leaving anyone indifferent "(F.N. Milkov. General landography. M. Higher School, 1990. P. 270).

With the differentiation of the geographical science of the expedition became more specialized, with a limited circle of tasks. At the same time, part of the questions departed to geology, biology, geophysics. At the same time, many expeditions in our time are formed by complex geographical. Geologists, and climatologists, hydrologists, botany, zoologists take part here. For example, the Expedition of the SPA - Council for the study of productive forces. SPS was at the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences. They covered large areas: Kola Peninsula, Karakuma, Bashkiria, Yakutia, Tuva.

Of particular interest are ships of science on oceans under the flags of different countries. In the Central Arctic - the drift of the joint venture. - 1937 In Antarctica - Network of Scientific Stations of the USSR, USA, Great Britain, Austria, France, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Chile, South Africa. Of the six operating (1998) in Antarctica Soviet stations in the most extreme conditions are "East" - it is located in Eastern Antarctica on the high glacier plateau (3,488 m) in the area of \u200b\u200bthe magnetic and terrestrial pool of the cold.

The expedition method includes not only expeditions and field observations, but physico-geographical hospitals. The initiative to create them belongs to A.A. Grigoriev. Hospiters are known: the Tian-Shanskaya highlands station (IGAN), opened in 1945, the Altai glaciological hospital - opened by Professor M.V.Tronov in the post-war time.

Field expeditions are used - to solve, for example, local history issues, for placing ponds, forest stocks. Scientific excursions - mini expeditions in high school. They are associated with students' training practice - geographers.

Geophysical method -this is the study of landscape complexes by physical methods. Geophysics is "Land Physics." At the level of modern physics, using the use of complex devices, the most common properties of the earth and geographic shell are determined - mass, energy, motion and transformation form. At the level of modern physics, with the use of complex devices, radiation and thermal conditions of the underlying surface are determined, the humidification conditions, theoretical and aqueous soil mode, the productivity of biocenoses - active transformers of solar energy.

Geochemical method -this is the use of general chemistry laws in the study of landscapes. The founder of the method is the Soviet soil and geographer G. G. Polyov. They were proposed method of conjugate analysiswhich allows you to determine the content and movement of chemical elements from sublime locations to decreases.

Paleogeographic method - This is the geographical refraction of the historical method. All objects of geography - from the geographic shell to a particular tract and facies have their own history of development. Traces of the past are traced in each natural-territorial complex (PTK). The Paleographic method is a look back to better understand the modern nature and to make the forecast of the future. Example: By analyzing the composition of rocks and fossil organisms in the history of the Earth, the alternation of two types of climatic zonality is revealed: thermal (thermal) and glacial. Throughout the last billion, warm era, with a maximum in Eocene, the top chalk, Nizhny Carbon, were replaced three times. The latter consisted of glacial eras. A warm climate prevailed on Earth, and the share of the glacial era actually accounted for less than 1/5 last billion years. As scientists suggest, we live, obviously, at the end of the last glacial era, between two glacier maxima. It is difficult to say how realize the forecast of the upcoming new glacial maximum, especially since the anthropogenic impact on the climate, but the scientifically substantiated approach itself is already to be expected in the future, it deserves close attention.

Map method He has two aspects:

1. Preparatory, cameral stage, familiarization with the nature of the area in literature, analysis of features, identifying gaps in the study of PTK;

2. Creating monographs, atlases, cards.

The most concentrated type of geographic information is atlases. For example, the Big Soviet Atlas of the World (T.I, 1937), a three-volume marine atlas, physico-geographical atlas of the world (1964). In our country, over the past decades, a series of regional atlases came out: the Atlas of the Altai Territory, the Atlas of the Irkutsk region, the Atlas of the Tyumen region, etc. At hundreds of special authors cards drawn a complex picture of the geography of the world or regions. Maps and atlases are generalized and sectoral. The latter includes geological, soil-climatic, soil, agricultural, etc.

Aerospace method It is closely related to the cartographic, thus, aerial and space images are ready-made cards, the geographical content of which you need to be able to read, reveal - decrypt. Aerial photography is widely used since the 30s, and each aerial photograph is a ready model (volume) PTK. Aerial photographs are easily viewed by the boundaries and structure of the Local PTK-s.

Mathematical method - One of the methods used by a wide range of sciences. In geography, they are embedded quite slowly. Causes of this: the complexity and lack of material assembled according to a single program. Most often in the study of PTK-ys are limited to methods of mathematical statistics and theory of probability. The usefulness of further mathematization of geography is indisputable. But this is possible only to certain limits. No need to forget that mathematical methods in geography are only auxiliary.

Modeling method. The model is a graphic or cartographic image of a PTK or its separate blocks. The model simultaneously means a program of further research, but the perfect PTC model has not yet been created. Although work is conducted.

Balance method. This is one of the methods bringing geography with accurate sciences. It consists in the quantitative characteristic of dynamic phenomena on the movement of the substance and energy in the landscape complexes. Widespread use in geography found balances - radiation, thermal, water. In addition, there are also narrower balances: the balance of groundwater, the balance of the weight of the glacier, the balance of the snow cover, the balance of salts in the ocean, the balance of the biomass, the Balance of Gumus, etc. The heat and water balance plays an important role in the life of the entire PTK. How to bring them into a generalizing balance? Partial solution gives the balance of moisture - differencebetween atmospheric precipitation and evaporation for some time lapse. Balance of humidification can be translated into humidification factor meaning attitude atmospheric precipitation to evaporation (e 0). North of the forest-steppe coefficient of moistening above the unit, to the south - below the unit. The balance sheet is based on the work of geographic stations and hospitals.

This material gives a complete picture of the methods of geographical research, emphasizes the importance and necessity of each of them, and also indicates the continuous development of geography as science.

Methods of geographic research

Under the methods of geographical studies, techniques or methods of obtaining geographic information are understood.

These include the techniques and methods of studying the laws on which the formation of the nature of the planet occurs. Thanks to this scientific approach, there is no large territory today, which would not be studied by a person. But so far, some phenomena and processes are not sufficiently studied.

Methods of geographic studies are divided into traditional and modern.

Traditional include:

Modern methods of geographic research

Like any science, geography is constantly developing. Development assumes the presence of new research methods.

Fig. 1. Meteorological station.

To modern methods of geographic studies include:

Remote research methods - Aerocosmatic research and compilation of detailed land cards using aircraft are used in their work.
Method of geographic forecast and modeling - makes it possible to make an idea of \u200b\u200bthe possible state of the geosystem. As part of this method, models of the possible state of geosystems in the future are designed;

Fig. 2. Computer simulation.

Geoinformation method - The method of creating a database from the information that space satellites, meteorological stations transmit.

Fig. 3. Satellite in space.

These geographical research often uses for its own purposes industry, agriculture, geodesic industry, cartography.

Today, actively use astronautics in order to study the land.

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Traditional methods.Almost the most ancient and widespread method of geographical research is comparative geographical. Its founded by the antician scientists (Herodot, Aristotle), but in the Middle Ages due to the general stagnation of science, research methods used by scientists of ancient world were forgotten. The founder of the modern comparative geographical method is considered to be A. Humboldt, who applied it initially to study links between climate and vegetation. Geographer and traveler, Member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences and Honorary Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1815), Humboldt visited Russia in 1829 (Ural, Altai, Caspian). In Russia, his monumental fivetomy work "Cosmos" (1848--1863) and a three-volume center "Central Asia" (1915) were published.

"Based on the general principles and applying a comparative method, Humboldt created a physical geography, designed to find out the patterns on the earth's surface in its solid, liquid and air shells" (BSE, 1972. - P. 446).

The comparative method in geography and K. Rit-ter has widely used. His most famous works are "landland regarding nature and to human history, or universal comparative geography", "ideas about comparative land."

Currently, a comparison as a specific logical technique permeates all methods of geographical research, but at the same time it has long been mediated as an independent method of scientific research - comparative geographical, which has become especially important in geography and biology.

The nature of the Earth is so diverse that only the comparison of various natural complexes allows you to identify their features, their most characteristic, and therefore the most essential features. "The comparison facilitates the release of special information from the flow of geographic information and because the main thing" (K. K. Markov et al., 1978. - P. 48). The identification of similarities and differences in PTK allows you to judge the causal conditionality of similarities and genetic links of objects. The relatively geographical method is based on any classification of PTK and other objects and nature phenomena. It is based on various kinds of evaluation work, in the process of which the properties of the PTC are compared with the requirements for them, which makes it necessary in one or another type of economic use of the territory.

In the first stages of its application, the comparative method was exhausted by visual comparison of objects and phenomena, the verbal and cartographic images began to be analyzed. In both cases, they compared mainly forms of objects, their external signs, i.e. comparison was morphological.In the future, with the development of geochemical, geophysical and aerospace methods, it was possible and the need to use a comparative method for the characteristics of the processes and their intensity to study the relationship between different objects of nature, i.e. for studying essencePTK. The possibilities and reliability of the comparative method, the depth and completeness of the characteristics obtained with it, the accuracy and accuracy of the results are constantly increasing. The mass of geographic information makes tightening the requirements for its homogeneity. This is achieved by strictly fixing observations in special bookcases and tables. In a short stage (in the 60s-70s. XX century), punch cards were used to analyze a large number of materials. Currently, the comparative method is inextricably linked with mathematical and using computer equipment.

The role of the comparative method is especially great at the stage of finding empirical dependencies, but in fact it is present at all levels of scientific research.

There are two main aspects of the application of the comparative geographic method. First aspectassociated with the use of conclusions by analogy (method of analogy). It consists in comparison of a weakly studied or unknown object with well-studied. For example, in the landscape mapping, even in the process of reconnaissance acquaintance with the territory, groups of similarities are allocated to the territory of the PTK. Of these, only a few are examined in detail, the rest of the field work is very reduced, some are not at all visited, and their characteristics in the legend of the card is given on the basis of materials well-studied PTK.

Second aspectit is a study of equally studied objects. Two ways of comparing such objects are possible. You can compare objects on the same stage of developmentwhat makes it possible to establish their similarities and distinction, to look for and find factors and the reasons that determine their similarity. This will allow grouping objects to similarity, and then apply the characteristics of the same type of objects for recommendations for their use, forecasting their further development, etc.

Another way is to compare objects that exist at the same time, the same studied, but those on difficult

stages of development.This path makes it possible to reveal the stages of the development of objects close to the genesis. Such a comparison underlies the ergodic principle of the Boltzmann, which allows the PTK to change the history in space in space. For example, the development of erosion form of relief from the rumble to the beams and the valley of the stream. By this way, the comparative method logically and naturally led geography to the historical research method.

Map methodthe knowledge of reality is just as widespread and the same (or almost the same) ancient, as well as relatively geographical. The progenitors of modern cards were rock paintings of an ancient person, drawings on the skin, wood carving or bone, later - the first primitive "cards" for navigation, etc. (K. N.Dyakonov, N. S. Kasimov, V.S.Tikunov, 1996). The first was aware of the value of the cartographic method and introduced it to another Ptolemy. The cartographic method continued to develop intensively even in the Middle Ages. It suffices to recall the Flemish cartographer of the Mercator (1512-1599), which created a cylindrical equanal projection of the world map, until now, used in marine cartography (K.N.Dyakonov et al., 1996).

Especially great importance and development, the cartographic method acquired in the era of great geographical discoveries. Initially, the cards were used solely for the image of the mutual placement and combination of various geographic objects, comparing their size, for the purpose of orientation, estimate distances. Thematic cards for scientific research appeared only in the XIX century. A. Humboldt was one of the first creators of the cards on which abstract concepts were depicted. In particular, he introduced a new term "isotherm" into science - lines, allowing you to portray the distribution on the territory of heat (invisible on the ground). V. V. Dokuchaev in soil mapping also not only portrayed the spatial placement of soil, but also built the legends of the cards, taking into account the genetic principle and soil formation factors. A.G.Ischenko (1951) wrote that with the help of cards, not only the composition and structure of geographical complexes, but also the elements of their dynamics, development can be studied.

Gradually, the cartographic method has become an integral part of a wide variety of geographical research. L. S. Berg (1947) noted that the map is the beginning and end of the geographical study, descriptions and allocation of the landscape. N. N. Baransky also argued that "the map is" Alpha and Omega "(i.e., the beginning and end) of geography. From the card, any geographical research comes and comes to the map, the card begins and the card ends. " "Map ... contributes to the identification of geographical patterns." "The card is as if the second geography language ..." (1960).

According to K. A. Salischev (1955, 1976, etc.), the Cartographic Research Method is to use a variety of maps to describe, analyze and know the phenomena, to obtain new knowledge and characteristics, studying the development processes, establishing relationships and forecast of phenomena.

At the initial stages of knowledge, the cartographic method - the method of mapping - is used as a method of displaying objective reality. The card serves as a specific form of fixing the results of observations, accumulation and storage of geographic information.

A kind of field observation protocol is a map of the actual material, a further analysis of which allows you to create a primary thematic (special) card. Legend to the map is the result of the classification of objects depicted on it. Thus, in creating a thematic map, not only the cartographic, but also a comparative method, the use of which allows the classification of actual data, to identify certain patterns and based on them to generalize, i.e. Go from the specific to abstract, to the formation of new scientific concepts.

Based on the actual material card, a number of special cards can be compiled (A. A. Vidina, 1962), the main of which serves as a landscape-typological map - the result of wildlife landscape mapping.

Landscape card, which is a reduced generalized image of the PTK on the plane, is, above all, a spatial sign model of natural territorial complexes, obtained according to certain mathematical laws. And as every model she itself serves as a source of new information about PTK. The cartographic method of research is just aimed at obtaining and analyzing this information in order to deeper the knowledge of objects and phenomena.

The source of information in this case does not serve the objective reality itself, but its cartographic model. The results of such mediated observations in the form of a variety of high-quality or quantitative data are recorded in the form of a verbal description, tables, matrices, graphs, etc. and serve material to identify empirical patterns with the help of comparative, historical, mathematical and logical methods.

Even wider prospects for studying the relationships and dependencies between objects, the establishment of the main factors of their formation and the causes of the observed placement are opened with a conjugate study of several maps of different content. Mapping maps of the same content, but compiled and published at different times, or cards compiled simultaneously, but fixing different points in time (for example, a series of middle-average temperature cards, a series of paleogeographic maps, etc.). The main goal of comparing the high-end cards is the study of the dynamics and development of objects and phenomena depicted on them. At the same time, the accuracy and accuracy of the compared maps are of great importance.

Not only cartographic methods and mapped cards are improved, but also methods for their analysis. In the nearby past, the main and hardly the only reception of the analysis of the card was visual analysis.Its result is a high-quality description of objects with some quantitative characteristics that could be read from the card or are estimated by eye and are presented in the form of individual indicators, tables, graphs. It is important not to be limited to a simple statement of facts, but to try to open connections and causes, to evaluate the objects under study. Then appeared and began to be wide graphic analysiswhich lies in the compilation of data obtained from cards, various profiles, cuts, graphs, charts, block diagrams, etc. and further study. Grafoanalytic techniques of analysismaps (A. M. Bernt, 1978) are measured by the charts of the quantitative spatial characteristics of objects: length of lines, areas, corners and directions. Based on the measurement results, a variety of morphoanalytic indicators are calculated. Grafoanalytic techniques are often called cartometria,or cartometric analysis.

The cartographic research method is particularly widely used at the initial stages of knowledge (when collecting and fixing the results of observations in nature and their systematization), as well as to reflect the empirical patterns identified in the process and obtaining new information from ready-made cards, the processing of which with the help of other methods does not allow Only receive new empirical patterns, but also to form the theory of science. Mapping research results is an integral part of complex physico-geographical studies.

Historical methodthe knowledge of nature is also one of the traditional methods of geographic research, although it has formed a much later comparative and cartographic methods and is largely based on them.

The emergence of the historical method became possible only in the XVIII century, when the idea of \u200b\u200bthe variability of the nature of the earth's surface was spread. The founders of him were German scientist I.Kant, which created the nebular cosmogonic

skoy hypothesis (1755), and our great compatriot M. Vomonosov. Everyone knows the remarkable statement of Lomonosov in his work "On the earth layers" (1763): "And, firstly, it should be firmly remembered that the visible bodies on earth things and the whole world not in such a state were from began to create, as now we find ; But the great things happened in it, which is shown by history and ancient geography, with the current demolished ... ".

The recognition of the variability of the nature of the Earth demanded its study. Attempts to use to solve this problem already existing methods led to their transformation in connection with the emergence of new aspects of their application, the solution of new tasks and the use of new techniques, as a result of which the historical method was formed.

The modern historical method is based on the position of dialectical materialism about the continuous movement and the development of matter. The historical method plays a decisive role in all cases where the objects under study and processes require their consideration in development and formation, therefore it is one of the main methods of complex physical geography. Back in 1902, D. N. Anuchin wrote that "an idea of \u200b\u200bevolution, about the progress of development, processes and forces, which this development was caused and was determined," it is necessary to have "for a more meaningful understanding of this." The historical method allows you to "know the present in its development" (K.K. Markov, 1948. - P. 85) is the key to understanding the modern patterns of nature and helps to make its development forecast in the future.

The task of historical analysis in integrated physico-geographical studies is to trace the formation of modern traits of the nature of the Earth, establish the initial state of a PTC and a number of its specific transition states (development stages), study the current state as a result of the changes that occurred, identify the driving forces and process conditions development. However, with historical analysis, not the states of natural complexes are most often used, but a variety of "traces" once existed states. Retrospective analysis,founded on the study of "traces of states" PTK, makes it possible to know the relationship between different components and complexes in a historical aspect, i.e. create a spatial-temporal characteristic of the PTK.

V. A. Nikolaev (1979) draws attention to the fact that with complex physico-geographical studies and retrospective analysis should be quite integrated, i.e. It should include not only lithogenic, but also biogenic components that fix the latest stages of the formation of PTK and therefore provide valuable material to establish trends in the further development of complexes. How deeply such an analysis can penetrate the PTK and how reliable and the detailed it will depend on the age, abundance and diversity of such "traces of states".

Along with a retrospective analysis of the structure of modern PTC for paleogeographic reconstructions, a number of other methods are used: spore-pollen, carpological, patinyological, faunistic analyzes, the study of buried soils and the weathered bark, archaeological, radiocarbon, stratigraphic, mineralogical, granulometric, etc.

The depth of paleogeographic analysis is very large depends on the rank of the studied natural complex. The larger the complex than it is more stable, the longer period of time is required to analyze when studying the processes of its formation. The smaller the complex than he is younger, the more mobility and the shorter the time segment of its formation. Most often, paleogeographic analysis is used to study the Quaternary (anthropogen) history, but can also be applied for more distant periods.

Currently, more and more "comparing states in time", i.e. The historical method is used in combination with geophysical and geochemical methods for studying the most simple and dynamic complexes, to study the complexes themselves and factors forming or forming them in the nearby past. Such a study is based on direct observations, mainly in hospitals, for modern processes flowing into PTK or on the analysis of cartographic and aerial photoding materials. V.S.Preparensky (1969) allocates this aspect of the application of the historical method as an independent part of it - dynamic method.

It is also worth mentioning the possibility of conducting an analysis based on the study of historical documents. Such an analysis can be called actually historical.

In geography, along with methods, shared for all sciences, and special (geographical).

Methods of geographic studies can be divided into three groups. First, these are methods of field research when the study of geographic objects occurs directly in the field. Geographical expeditions and permanent stations and laboratories are one of the most important sources of information on the processes occurring in the geographic shell. With the help of another group of methods - cameral (from lat. Camera - room, treasury) - geographical information is processed, systematized, summarized. An example of such a work is to process materials of aero- and space surveys of the Earth. With the help of cameral methods, the essence of geographical phenomena is learned, the patterns of their development are established. The third group is experimental methods by which scientists can check the truth of their assumptions, penetrate deeper into the secrets of nature. As can be seen, all methods of geographic studies are closely related to each other. At each stage of research, certain methods are used. In order to get acquainted with them in more detail, we use the historical approach traditional for geography.

Descriptive, expedition and cartographic methods are the first in geography history. The descriptive method was the very first way to know the surrounding world. Many centuries geography remained mainly science of descriptive.

All the person learned about the new lands, he received during expeditions (travel). During the expeditions, various geographic objects, phenomena, are observed and described. The cartographic method appeared simultaneously with the occurrence of geography. Together with the description of objects on the earth's surface, a special is a geographical method of displaying and systematizing knowledge of the territory under study. It is not by chance that the map is called the "second language" geography. It begins with it and it ends with a geographical study. But the main thing is to "arouse" the entire surface of our planet with the help of the card.

Comparison methods, historical and generalizations in geography. The accumulation of a huge number of information about our planet has advanced the problem of their generalizations and systematization. A comparison of different elements of the geographic shell led to the fact that similar elements were combined with each other. Such a generalization and at the same time comparison of geographic data allowed grouping phenomena in different classes, which caused the formation of a typological approach in geography.

Geography was one of the first sciences, who mastered the historical approach in the knowledge of the phenomena of the world. Geographers began to compare objects not only by their location, but also in education. In geography, the historical method is also widely used because the relationship between geography and history has always been cramped.

Mathematical methods and modeling in geography. As long as unopened lands existed, before geography did not stood an acute task of explaining the world. The surface description of various territories was enough to ensure that the study is considered geographical. But the rapid growth of man's economic activity demanded penetration into the mystery of nature. For this, geographers were forced to borrow research methods from other sciences. The use of mathematical methods made it possible not only to measure geographic objects, but also to find the average indicators in a number of observations, to identify statistical (mathematical) patterns. This led to the discovery of the causes of rain floods on the rivers, the appearance of ideas about cyclones and anticyclones, the principles of selection of places for the construction of enterprises, etc.

All geographic systems (natural, economic, natural-economic) have a structure, that is, a certain way to organize relationships between the elements. With the appearance in the geography of the modeling method, the knowledge of the structures of different geosystems went far ahead. Models are widely used to simulate processes that cannot be reproduced in experiments and experiments. The models reflect the basic properties of the object, and the secondary - discarded.

Remote research methods. Achievements of science and technology in the XX century. The traditional ways of studying the Earth have greatly changed. Remote data is called the methods when the observer (or the measuring device) is located at some distance from the object of study. At the same time, the territory covered by observation is significantly increased. The appearance of materials of aerospace filming of the earth's surface led to an increase in the flow of new information about long-known objects and the phenomena of the Earth.

The shooting of the earth's surface in the optical range (in red, blue, green and other colors) gives information about the state of soil and vegetation area of \u200b\u200bthe territory, about the transparency of water in water bodies, etc. Shot in the invisible to the infrared bandwill allows you to get information about temperature Sushi and oceans, concentration of agricultural pests. Shooting using radio films shows the amount of moisture in the soil, the level of groundwater, etc.

Using remote methods, information is obtained in a form that allows it to lay it into the computer and automatically process. This led to the creation of geo-information systems, geographic data banks, which are widely used in cartography and mathematical modeling of geosystems.

Stationary, laboratory and experimental methods. In modern geography, instead of short-term expeditions, complex geographic hospitals are organized. The stationary method of studying the geographic shell involves the use of permanent stations, laboratories, expeditions. Methods close to geography of sciences allow you to observe a whole range of geographical phenomena under constant conditions. Thus, in geography, geophysical, geochemical and biological methods appeared using the laboratory method characteristic (for example, the study of the chemical composition of the soil or physical properties of polluted air).

The main task of comprehensive stationary research is the disclosure of links between phenomena. The disclosure of the basic these relationships allows, firstly, to create a model of the object being studied, secondly, in nature experience, or an experiment.

For example, to find out how far the agriculture affects the erosion of soils, two sections are taken with the same conditions. The experimental platform swallows and falls on agricultural crops, and the other (control) remains unchanged. The scale is then measured, the rate of soil erosion in two sites and is concluded about the effect of agricultural activities on soil cover.

Today it is not enough to explain why and how the geosystems and their elements are developing, it is necessary to foresee how they may change under human influence. There is a new stage of geographical research - the prediction stage. At this stage, the tasks are solved, which will be the object in the future. This uses environmental monitoring and geographic forecast.

Environmental monitoring. Monitoring (from lat. Monitor - warning) is an information system whose task is to observe and assess the environment under the influence of human impact. The purpose of this method is the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection. There are three main types of monitoring: local, regional, global. In contrast to the first two global monitoring system has not yet been created. It should be monitored by planetary changes in the geographic shell - in the composition of the atmosphere, in cycles of substances, etc. While there are fragments of such monitoring in the form of biosphere reserves, scientific stations and laboratories. They are monitored and monitoring physical, chemical, biological changes in the environment. The information received is transmitted to national and international centers.

Geographical forecast. One of the tasks of geographic forecasts is the development of scientifically based predictions on the status and development of the natural environment in the future. In order to make the forecast reliable, it is necessary, first of all, to rely on the historical approach to the object and consider it accordingly during the development process. There are several hundred prediction methods. Some of them are familiar to you. The method of geographical analogies allows you to transfer the patterns of the development of some geosystems to others. At the same time, it is possible to foresee that younger systems will pass the path of geosystems at a high level of development. One of the most important methods of forecasting is extrapolation - it is like the continuation of existing laws in the future. To do this, it is necessary to explore the object well enough. Successfully apply in forecasting and methods of mathematical modeling.

Geographers also participate in the preparation of economic and social forecasts that should take into account the dynamics of the environment. As a rule, predictions are associated with a specific territory and are drawn up for a specific purpose. For example, the forecast for the integrated development of new territories.

Communication of geography with other sciences The interpenetration of ideas and methods of various sciences is a distinctive feature of our time. Integration, an integrated approach is necessary to solve the environmental, economic and social problems of society. Nowadays, the relationship between nature and man is particularly relevant. In the analysis of what is happening, subject areas of geography, physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology, history, ecology, literature are intersect. Appeal to the knowledge in these areas helps to reveal not only the issues of individual sciences, but also to see the inseparable link between training items. But whatever program requirements and methodological instructions, they will be implemented in practice only, if the teacher is rather aware of the essence of interdisciplinary connections, is convinced of their necessity and will have practical skills to implement them. Intergovernmental bonds are sometimes considered in terms of rationalizing the learning process, saving the strengths and time of students, more durable assimilation of schoolchildren knowledge of the subjects studied. Meanwhile, the main task of establishing interdisciplinary relations is to qualitatively raise the level of knowledge, skills and development of students through deeper penetration into objectively existing patterns in the phenomena of nature and society. The urgency of the problem of interdisciplinary ties in training is due to objective processes in modern culture. "Integration" translated from the Latin language means "union into a whole parts". Integrated lesson is also a combination of knowledge from the field of various items on a particular topic. Geography is so universal that, if desired, the teacher can integrate with any subject. Ideally, there would be an integrated lesson with other teachers. But integration elements can also be used. In each lesson, geography can be found in touch with any discipline. The rich content of the geography rate provides the teacher with ample opportunities for organizing various activities of students, in choosing methods and means of training. Great the potential course of the course in the mental development of students, in the ability to integrate information from a variety of sources. In their lessons, each of us is in one degree or another faces elements of integration. In my report, I will try to bring part of the possible elements.

Physics Geography: 6. class When studying the topic "Atmosphere", the connection of the geography program with physics is very close. This topic includes such concepts as temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, wind. With the concepts of temperature, pressure students get acquainted in the course of class 7 physics, but in the course of grade 6, these quantities are already considered. Therefore, it is advisable to consider these concepts from the point of view of physics with children as propiance, show experiences, explain these phenomena, expand and deepen knowledge already in grade 6 in geography lessons. Geography: 7. class When studying the topic "Tropical Deserts of Africa", physical phenomena of Mirage, moaning stones, singing sands. The explanation of these physical phenomena gives physics, since children in the lessons of physicists get acquainted with such concepts as the density of the substance, changing the properties of the bodies when heated and cooling. Therefore, the essence of many phenomena and processes explains physics. Geography: 8. class When studying the topic "Relief Russia", communication with physics is traced. Internal processes, the movement of the substance of the mantle form the relief of the Earth. Tectonic movements, volcanism, earthquakes are very well explained by physical laws.

Mathematics Geography: 6. class When studying the topic "Atmosphere", the connection of the geography program with mathematics is very close. A course of math grade 6 considers the columnar and circular charts, calculate the arithmetic average, read graphs. And all this is how it is impossible to obtain the average monthly, average annual air temperature. The guys learn to respond to questions using graphs of temperature dependence on the season, from height. Determine the prevailing direction of the wind according to the chart of the wind roses. To see a visual idea of \u200b\u200bthe amount of rainfall during the year and for months, build columnar and circular charts. Geography: 8. class Determination of the slope and the fall of the river, the coefficient of moisture. Geography: 10. class Analysis of the sexual pyramid. Calculation of the resource-specificity of individual mineral types. Thus, students are convinced that, using mathematical methods, which processes the results of observation, detect patterns, scientists make conclusions, make up forecasts.

Biology Geography: 7. class The lesson of the generalizing repetition in the form of the game - Competitions on the topic "Australia" is integrated with biology. Australia's animal and vegetation world is unique in terms of biology, therefore it is advisable to integrate geography with biology. Geography: 8. class Studying the topic in the 8th grade of "rivers and man" helps to learn the important role of rivers in human economic activities. The value of fish in a person's life is a connection with biology. The study of the vegetation and animal world of Russia, the edges. Using additional material, selection of interesting facts about the animal and the plant world.

Chemistry Geography: 6. class Study of the gas composition of the atmosphere. Negative consequences of economic activity and pollution of the water of the rivers with household and industrial waste (the theme of the "river and man") data on the composition and percentage of harmful substances in the atmosphere, hydrosphere.

History Geographical discoveries. History of settlement and development of territories. The history of the origin of geographic accessories: compass, maps, globa, etc.

Ecology Geography: 8. class When studying modes of transport. Human economic activity. Geography: 10. class "Land resources, problems of use" show that the true wealth of humanity is soils that are a product of millennia. Select regions and continents that occupy the leading positions of processed lands, meadows and pastures. The conclusion in the lesson may be like this: the preservation of the planet's land fund is one of the most important tasks of mankind. Especially important in the modern world acquires land reclamation. Homework: What environmental consequences arise with the irrational use of land resources.

Painting Using reproductions, photos drawing illustrations (for example, to a fairy tale about the water cycle). Drawings to "warm-up" in grade 6.

Computer science In the lessons of geography are mastered and successfully introduced information technology. Educational programs are used with game elements, which are designed for the primary systematization of facts, terms, single concepts, as well as simulators, modeling, controlling, demonstration programs. Demonstration programs are used in the explanation of the material. Simulator programs help students learn a large number of terms, develop skills associated with solving various tasks. The high efficiency of controlling programs is determined by the fact that they strengthen feedback in the teacher's system - student. But these programs can only introduce into the system of my work

life safety fundamentals Adverse natural phenomena and natural disasters are considered in a general overview when studying the relevant components of nature. It is advisable to allocate an additional lesson at the end of the school year to systematize and summarize the knowledge. The usual scheme discusses natural natural phenomena. In the lesson, it is advisable to recall the rules for the behavior of people, measures to prevent and reduce the destructive effects of a natural phenomenon.

Music Explain the words from L. Derbanev's song: "This is in the city of warmth and damp, and outside the city of Winter, Winter, Winter." At one of the lessons, while the children apply geographic objects to Antarctica's contour card, I use the song "In Antarctica ice floes hid the land ..." Comment on the song: "Wind from the sea blew, the wind from the sea blew ... Caught Bed, Natonated Bed ... "What phenomenon goes on a song? What time of day it happened? (Wind from the sea blows during the day, this day breeze, it means that the conversation took place during the day.)

Literature In its work, great attention is paid to the use of an artistic word. In literary works, excellent descriptions of nature phenomena, a particular territory studying objects, i.e., the artistic word acts as a means of forming geographic knowledge. Literary material brings up, causes an emotional reaction, infects interest in finding truth.

Sayings and proverbs: Explain the saying: "A lot of snow is a lot of bread." Why, this or that proverb appeared from a certain people: "Tomorrow June can collapse on me." (June - the beginning of the rainy season) - South America.

Weather refers - People's Calendar Poems about the year reading excerpts from artistic works, which refers to geographical phenomena or objects. Analysis read from the point of view of geography.

Offoregoing it follows that the unity of training andeducation, an integrated approach inmore exclusive bonds contribute to, allowing to high-qualityly raise the level of knowledge, skills by deeper penetration into objectively existing connections inthe phenomena of nature I.societies.

Remember:

1. How did the ancient people studied the Earth?

Answer: For example, we are talking about the relief of any country. An ancient geographer would consider his task performed if he managed to describe where and what form of relief exist.

2. How does a modern man study the land?

Answer: A modern geographer cannot satisfy this: it not only describes the existing form of relief, but also finds out the causes of such placement of mountains, plains, hills, communication and interdependence of them with other geographical factors, etc. Therefore, geography is considered explanatory science.

What do you think:

Can methods of geographic research be applicable in other sciences?

Answer: Many of these methods are also applied in other sciences. The main philosophical research methods, the same as other sciences.

Check knowledge:

1. What is the feature of the descriptive research method?

Answer: The descriptive method in geography answers the question: a) what does this happen? b) where is it located? c) What will happen if this happens?

2. What is the basis of the cartographic research method?

Answer: Cartographic research method is a research method based on the necessary information with the help of cards for the scientific and practical knowledge of the phenomena depicted on them.

3. What is the newest research method called?

Answer: Space

And now more complex questions:

1. What is the difference between ancient cards from modern cartographic images?

Answer: The first geographic images of the terrain were rock paintings, drawings on the crust, skin, tree, bones. In the Roman Empire, the cards used to organize and conduct military campaigns. Modern geographical maps are distinguished by greater accuracy and have much more geographical objects, as over time, the researchers opened more and more new places on Earth.

2. How would you name the research method related to the organization and conduct of scientific expeditions?

Answer: Expeditionary, from the word "Expedition".

From theory to practice:

1. Classify the sources of geographic information you used in geography lessons.

Answer: Maps and Atlases, Newspapers and magazines, Radio, Television, In-Ternet, Museum exhibits, expeditions, etc.

2. Make a description of the learning office of geography.

Answer: In my opinion, the most remarkable thing in our class is a huge globe, fortified on a round stand. His usual place is on a special bedside table at the end of the cabinet, but during the lessons it always stands in front of us - on the teacher's table. In the office of geography, everyone can find anything interesting for themselves. A whole collection of binoculars, compasses, various measuring devices is stored in a special cabinet, there are even tourist equipment. Special love of schoolchildren enjoys a small shelf with many years of magazine's switches "around the world", many issues of which are read up to holes. Interesting stories and the wonderful design of the office of geography helped many students of our school not only to understand the subject, but also love this science forever. Directly in front of me the board, and on the left and right of it there are many geographic maps that can be moved using a special mechanism. There is no need to constantly shoot and attach them to the board on the rope, if necessary - the card immediately before your eyes. The political card will tell, as a lot in the world of countries, as unusually referred to as the city, the location of the rivers and lakes, mountains and forests is shown. And on this map - temperature regime, here - underwater flows, here - rocks. And here is a very amazing map - a star of the starry sky. Of course, because humanity is developing not only new lands, but also space expanses. Along the walls are racks with books. On the most reliable shelf there is a big colorful globe, and behind him a dozen less; Probably we will hand them out in the lesson. But the shelf with magazines "around the world". But the book is about the first expeditions and round-the-world travels. On another shelf, I see atlases, neat stacks of contour cards. So for us prepared the place. I will be happy to come to the lessons in our office of geography.

Total Tasks on the topic of the section:

1. Which of the scientists of antiquity for the first time used the word "geography"?

2. In Russian, the word "geography" is translated as:

3. The main reason for increasing the accuracy of the cards in the XV century was:

4. The exact outlines of the continents and islands can be obtained by using:

5. Which of the listed research methods was unavailable an ancient scientist?

6. Scientific ideas about the nature of the Earth can be obtained using:

7. Install the correspondence between the name of the research method and its characteristic:

Answer: 1-b, 2-A, 3-in

8. What kind of research is we talking about?

Answer: Descriptive method

9. Complete the approval.

Answer: 1 - Cartography, 2 - Cartography, 3- XV

10. Complete the approval.

Answer: Cartographic