Conclusion of the Paris Peace year. The Paris Peace: Humiliation of Russia or an Incentive for Great Reforms? Brief description of the Crimean War

[…] ARTICLE III

E. v. the emperor of all Russia undertakes to return e.v. to the Sultan the city of Kars with its citadel, as well as other parts of the Ottoman possessions occupied by Russian troops. […]

The Black Sea is declared neutral: entry into the ports and waters of which, open for merchant shipping of all peoples, is formally and forever prohibited by warships, both coastal and all other powers, with the only exceptions that are stipulated in Articles XIV and XIX of this treaty. […]

ARTICLE XIII

As a result of the declaration of the Black Sea as neutral on the basis of Article XI, it cannot be necessary to maintain or establish naval arsenals on the shores of this arsenals, as they no longer have a goal, and therefore e.v. Emperor of All Russia and E.I.V. the sultan undertake not to start or leave any naval arsenal on these shores.

ARTICLE XIV

Their Majesties the All-Russian Emperor and the Sultan concluded a special convention that determines the number and strength of light ships, which they provide themselves to maintain in the Black Sea for the orders needed by the coast. This convention is annexed to this treaty and will have the same force and effect as if it were an integral part of it. It can neither be destroyed nor changed without the consent of the powers that have concluded

a real treatise. […]

ARTICLE XXI

The space of land ceded by Russia will be annexed to the Principality of Moldavia under the supreme rule of the Sublime Port. […]

ARTICLE XXII

The Walachian and Moldavian principalities will, under the supreme authority of the Port and with the guarantee of the contracting powers, enjoy the advantages and privileges that they now enjoy. None of the vouching powers is granted exclusive patronage over them. No special right to interfere in their internal affairs is allowed. […]

ARTICLE XXVIII

The Principality of Serbia remains, as before, under the supreme authority of the Sublime Port, in accordance with the imperial Hati-Sheriffs, who assert and determine the rights and advantages thereof, with the general aggregate guarantee of the contracting powers. As a consequence, the aforementioned Principality will retain its independent and national government and complete freedom of religion, law, trade and navigation. […]

ADDITIONAL AND TEMPORARY ARTICLE

The provisions of the Treaty on the Straits signed this date will not apply to warships, which the warring powers will use to withdraw their troops from the lands occupied by them by sea. These decrees will come into full force as soon as this withdrawal of troops is brought to an end. In Paris, on the 30th day of March 1856.

Treaty of Paris Paris, 18/30 March 1856 // Collection of treaties between Russia and other states. 1856-1917. M., 1952.http: //www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/FOREIGN/paris.htm

THE FIGHT OF PRINCE GORCHAKOV FOR THE REVISION OF THE ARTICLES OF THE PARIS WORLD

Immediately after the end of the Crimean War, Prince Gorchakov promised the tsar to abolish the articles of the Paris Treaty of 1856, humiliating for Russia, by means of diplomacy. Needless to say, Alexander II was impressed by this development of events, and Gorchakov became first the head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, then the vice-chancellor. On June 15, 1867, on the day of the fiftieth anniversary of his diplomatic service, Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov was appointed State Chancellor of the Russian Empire.

Gorchakov's phrase - "Russia is not angry, Russia is concentrating" - has become a textbook. Every author who writes about Russia in the 1960s brings it to a place and not to a place. XIX century. But, alas, no one explains why this phrase was said, taken out of context by our historians.

In fact, on August 21, 1856, Gorchakov's circular was sent to all Russian embassies abroad, which said: “Russia is reproached for being alone and keeping silent due to phenomena that disagree with either law or justice. They say Russia is sulking. No, Russia is not sulking, but concentrates itself (La Russie boude, dit-on. La Russie se recueille). As for the silence in which we are accused, we could recall that not long ago an artificial coalition was organized against us, because our voice rose every time we considered it necessary to maintain the law. This activity, saving for many governments, but from which Russia did not derive any benefit for itself, served only as a pretext for accusing us of what plans of world domination are unknown. ”[...]

The fact is that after the conclusion of the Paris Peace Treaty, a number of states began to prepare for the redrawing of borders in Europe, determined by the Vienna Congress of 1815, and states that were afraid of redrawing borders began to turn to Russia for help.

Gorchakov formulated his policy more clearly in a conversation with the Russian ambassador in Paris, P. D. Kiselev. He stated that "he is looking for a person who would help him to destroy the paragraphs of the Paris Treaty concerning the Black Sea Fleet and the border of Bessarabia, that he is looking for him and will find him."

Shirokorad A. B. Russia - England: the unknown war, 1857-1907. M., 2003 http://militera.lib.ru/h/shirokorad_ab2/06.html

END OF THE PARIS TRACT

In 1870 the first blow was dealt to the hateful Paris treatise. Taking advantage of the Franco-German war, Gorchakov annulled his humiliating article that forbade Russia to maintain a fleet in the Black Sea. However, we did not even think to benefit from this profitable turn of affairs. Seven years were wasted, and by 1877 we were still without a fleet, which most unfavorably affected the course of the war with Turkey. The fleet is an unmistakable criterion for the great power of a given country, an expression of its share among the world powers. A quick overview of the shipbuilding program always gives more than a painstaking analysis of diplomatic archives. In 1878, the territorial definitions of the Treaty of Paris were canceled by the Berlin Congress. Russia acquired Kars and Batum and returned Southern Bessarabia, however, at the cost of cruel diplomatic humiliation, humiliation especially since it was the winner.

After the end of hostilities in the Crimean War in the fall of 1855, the parties began to prepare negotiations for peace. At the end of the year, the Austrian government handed over a 5-point ultimatum to the Russian Emperor Alexander II. Russia, not ready to continue the war, accepted them, and on February 13, a diplomatic congress opened in Paris. As a result, on March 18, peace was concluded between Russia on the one hand and France, Great Britain, Turkey, Sardinia, Austria and Prussia on the other. Russia returned the fortress of Kars to Turkey, ceded the mouth of the Danube and part of southern Bessarabia to the Moldavian principality. The Black Sea was declared neutral, Russia and Turkey could not keep a navy there. The autonomy of Serbia and the Danube principalities was confirmed.

By the end of 1855, hostilities on the fronts of the Crimean War had practically ceased. The capture of Sevastopol satisfied the ambitions of the French emperor Napoleon III. He believed that he had restored the honor of French arms and took revenge for the defeat by Russian troops in 1812-1815. The power of Russia in the South was greatly undermined: it lost the main Black Sea fortress, lost its fleet. The continuation of the struggle and the further weakening of Russia did not meet the interests of Napoleon, it would only play into the hands of England.
The long, stubborn struggle cost the European allies many thousands of human lives and demanded a lot of economic and financial strain. True, the ruling circles of Great Britain, annoyed that the successes of their army were too insignificant, insisted on the continuation of hostilities. He hoped to intensify hostilities in the Caucasus and the Baltic. But England did not want to fight without France and her land army, and she could not.
The position of Russia was difficult. Two years of war have laid a heavy burden on the shoulders of the people. More than a million people from the able-bodied male population were drafted into the army and the militia, more than 700 thousand horses were transferred. This was a heavy blow to agriculture. The plight of the masses was aggravated by epidemics of typhus and cholera, drought and poor harvests in a number of provinces. Unrest intensified in the village, threatening to take on more decisive forms. In addition, weapons stocks began to deplete, and there was a chronic shortage of ammunition.
Unofficial peace negotiations between Russia and France went on since the end of 1855 through the Saxon envoy in St. Petersburg von Seebach and the Russian envoy in Vienna A.M. Gorchakov. The situation was complicated by the intervention of Austrian diplomacy. On the eve of the new year, 1856, the Austrian envoy in St. Petersburg V.L. The ultimatum consisted of five points: the abolition of Russian patronage of the Danube principalities and the establishment of a new border in Bessarabia, as a result of which Russia was deprived of access to the Danube; freedom of navigation on the Danube; neutral and demilitarized status of the Black Sea; the replacement of Russian patronage of the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire with collective guarantees from the great powers of the rights and benefits of Christians and, finally, the possibility of the great powers in the future to present new demands to Russia.
On December 20, 1855 and January 3, 1856, two meetings were held in the Winter Palace, to which the new emperor Alexander II invited prominent dignitaries of past years. On the agenda was the question of the Austrian ultimatum. Only one participant, D. N. Bludov, during the first meeting, spoke out against accepting the terms of the ultimatum, which, in his opinion, was incompatible with the dignity of Russia as a great power. Emotional, but weak, not supported by real arguments, the speech of a well-known figure of Nikolayev's time did not find a response at the meeting. Bludov's speech was sharply criticized. All other participants in the meetings unequivocally spoke in favor of accepting the conditions presented. A. F. Orlov, M. S. Vorontsov, P. D. Kiselev, P. K. Meyendorf spoke in this spirit. They pointed to a very difficult economic situation in the country, disorganized finances, and a deterioration in the situation of the population, especially in the countryside. An important place at the meetings was played by the speech of the Minister of Foreign Affairs K.V. Nesselrode. The Chancellor launched a lengthy argument in favor of accepting the ultimatum. There were no chances to win, Nesselrode noted. The continuation of the struggle will only multiply the number of Russia's enemies and will inevitably lead to new defeats, as a result of which the future conditions of peace will become much more difficult. On the contrary, accepting the conditions now would, in the Chancellor's opinion, frustrate the calculations of opponents awaiting rejection.
As a result, it was decided to answer the Austrian proposal with consent. On January 4, 1856, K.V. Nesselrode informed the Austrian envoy V.L. Esterhazy that the Russian emperor was accepting five points. On January 20, a protocol was signed in Vienna stating that the "Austrian communiqué" sets out the preliminary conditions for peace and obliges the governments of all parties concerned to send plenipotentiaries to Paris within three weeks to negotiate and conclude a final peace treaty. On February 13, in the capital of France, the sessions of the congress opened, in which the authorized delegates from France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia took part. After all the important issues had already been resolved, representatives of Prussia were also admitted.
The meetings were chaired by the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, a cousin of Napoleon III, Count F.A.Walewski. The main opponents of the Russian diplomats in Paris were the British and Austrian foreign ministers, Lord Clarendon and C.F.Bool. As for the French minister Walewski, he often supported the Russian delegation. This behavior was explained by the fact that, in parallel with the official negotiations, confidential conversations took place between the Emperor Napoleon and Count Orlov, during which the positions of France and Russia were clarified and a line was developed that each of the parties would adhere to at the negotiating table.
At this time, Napoleon III was playing a complex political game. His strategic plans included a revision of the "Vienna system of treaties of 1815". He intended to occupy a dominant position in the international arena, to establish French hegemony in Europe. On the one hand, he went on to strengthen relations with Great Britain and Austria. On April 15, 1856, an agreement was signed on the Triple Alliance between England, Austria and France. This treaty guaranteed the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire. The so-called "Crimean system" was formed, which had an anti-Russian orientation. On the other hand, the Anglo-French contradictions made themselves felt more and more. Napoleon's Italian policy was bound to lead to an exacerbation of relations with Austria. Therefore, he included in his plans a gradual rapprochement with Russia. Orlov reported that the emperor met him with invariable friendliness, and that the conversations were taking place in a very benevolent atmosphere. The position of the Russian side was strengthened by the fact that at the end of 1855 the powerful Turkish fortress of Kars surrendered. The opponents of Russia were forced to moderate their appetites and the echo of the glorious Sevastopol defense. According to one observer, Nakhimov's shadow stood behind the Russian delegates at the congress.
The peace treaty was signed on March 18, 1856. It recorded the defeat of Russia in the war. As a result of the abolition of Russian patronage over the Danube principalities and the Orthodox subjects of the Sultan, Russia's influence in the Middle East and the Balkans was undermined. The most difficult for Russia were those articles of the treaty that dealt with the neutralization of the Black Sea, that is, forbidding it to maintain a navy there and have naval arsenals. Territorial losses turned out to be relatively insignificant: the Danube delta and the adjacent southern part of Bessarabia went from Russia to the principality of Moldavia. The peace treaty, which consisted of 34 articles and one “additional and temporary” one, was also accompanied by the conventions on the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits, Russian and Turkish ships in the Black Sea, and on the demilitarization of the Aland Islands. The most important first convention obliged the Turkish sultan not to admit to the Black Sea straits, "as long as the Port is in peace ... no foreign warship." In the conditions of neutralizing the Black Sea, this rule should have become very useful for Russia, protecting the defenseless Black Sea coast from a possible enemy attack.
In the final part of the work of the congress, F.A.Walewski proposed to mark the European diplomatic forum with any action of a humanitarian nature, following the example of the Westphalian and Vienna congresses. This is how the Paris Declaration on the Law of the Sea was born - an important international act designed to regulate the order of maritime trade and blockades during the war, as well as proclaiming the prohibition of privateering. The first Russian plenipotentiary A. F. Orlov also took an active part in drafting the articles of the declaration.
The Crimean War and the Paris Congress became the borderline of an entire era in the history of international relations. The "Viennese system" finally ceased to exist. It was replaced by other systems of alliances and associations of European states, primarily the "Crimean system" (England, Austria, France), which, however, was destined to have a short life. Major changes were also made in the foreign policy of the Russian Empire. In the course of the work of the Paris Congress, a Russian-French rapprochement began to take shape. In April 1856, K.V. Nesselrode, who had been at the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry for four decades, was dismissed. He was replaced by A.M. Gorchakov, who was in charge of Russia's foreign policy until 1879. Thanks to his skillful diplomacy, Russia was able to restore prestige in the European arena and in October 1870, taking advantage of the collapse of the empire of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian war, unilaterally refused to comply with the regime of demilitarization of the Black Sea ... Russia's right to the Black Sea Fleet was finally confirmed at the London Conference of 1871.

In the name of God Almighty. Their Majesties the Emperor of All Russia, the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Ottoman Emperor, prompted by the desire to put an end to the scourge of the war and at the same time to prevent the resumption of the misunderstandings and difficulties that gave rise to this, decided to enter into an agreement with E.V. Emperor of Austria regarding the grounds for the restoration and establishment of peace with the assurance of the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire with mutual valid guarantee. At this end, Their Majesties have been appointed as their commissioners (see signatures):

These plenipotentiaries, on the exchange of their powers, found in the proper order, decided the following articles:

ARTICLE I
From the day of the exchange of ratifications of this treatise, there will be peace and friendship between E.V. Emperor of All Russia with one, and E.V. Emperor of the French, her c. Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, E.V. King of Sardin and H.I.V. sultan - on the other hand, between their heirs and successors, states and subjects.

ARTICLE II
As a result of the happy restoration of peace between their Majesties, the lands conquered and occupied by their troops during the war will be cleared by them. Special conditions will be established on the order of the troops' advance, which must be carried out as soon as possible.

ARTICLE III
E. v. the emperor of all Russia undertakes to return E.V. to the Sultan the city of Kars with its citadel, as well as other parts of the Ottoman possessions occupied by Russian troops.

ARTICLE IV
Their Majesties the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Sultan undertake to return to E.V. to the All-Russian Emperor cities and ports: Sevastopol, Balaklava, Kamysh, Evpatoria, Kerch-Yenikale, Kinburn, as well as all other places occupied by the allied forces.

ARTICLE V
Their Majesties the Emperor of All Russia, the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Sultan grant full forgiveness to those of their subjects who were found guilty of any complicity with the enemy during the continuation of hostilities. At the same time, it is decided that this general forgiveness will be extended to those subjects of each of the warring powers who during the war remained in the service of another of the warring powers.

ARTICLE VI
The prisoners of war will be immediately returned from both sides.

ARTICLE VII
E.V. Emperor of All Russia, E.V. Emperor of Austria, E.V. Emperor of the French, her V. Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, E.V. King of Prussia and E.V. the king of Sardinia declare that the Sublime Porta is recognized as participating in the benefits of the common law and the alliance of the European powers. Their Majesties undertake, each for their part, to respect the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire, ensure by their joint guarantees the exact observance of this obligation and, as a result, will respect any violation of this action as a matter of common rights and benefits.

ARTICLE VIII
If any disagreement arises between the Sublime Port and one or several of the other powers that have concluded this treaty, which could threaten the preservation of friendly relations between them, then the Sublime Port and each of these powers, without resorting to the use of force, have to deliver to the other contracting parties the ability to prevent any further collision through your mediation.

ARTICLE IX
E.I.V. the sultan, in constant concern for the welfare of his subjects, bestowing a firman, which improves their lot without distinction by religion or tribe, and confirms his generous intentions regarding the Christian population of his empire, and wishing to give new proof of his feelings in this regard, he decided to inform the contracting parties to the powers the designated firman, published on his own motivation. The Contracting Powers recognize the high importance of this message, bearing in mind that it will in no case give these Powers the right to interfere, collectively or separately, in the relations of E.V. the sultan to his subjects and to the internal government of his empire.

ARTICLE X
The Convention of July 13, 1841, which established the observance of the ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire regarding the closure of the entrance to the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, was subjected to a new review by general agreement. An act concluded by the high contracting parties in accordance with the above rule is annexed to this treaty and will have the same force and effect as if it were an integral part thereof.

ARTICLE XI
The Black Sea is declared neutral: entry into the ports and waters of which, open for merchant shipping of all peoples, is formally and forever prohibited by warships, both coastal and all other powers, with the only exceptions that are stipulated in Articles XIV and XIX of this treaty.

ARTICLE XII
Free from any obstacles, trade in ports and on the waters of the Black Sea will be subject only to quarantine, customs, and police regulations, drawn up in a spirit favorable to the development of commercial relations. In order to grant all the desired security to the benefits of trade and navigation of all peoples, Russia and the Sublime Port will admit consuls to their ports on the shores of the Black Sea, in accordance with the rules of international law.

ARTICLE XIII
Due to the declaration of the Black Sea as neutral on the basis of Article XI, it cannot be necessary to maintain or establish naval arsenals on the shores of this arsenals, as they already have no purpose, and therefore E.V. the emperor of all Russia and E.I.V. the sultan undertake not to start or leave any naval arsenal on these shores.

ARTICLE XIV
Their Majesties the All-Russian Emperor and the Sultan concluded a special convention that determines the number and strength of light ships, which they provide themselves to maintain in the Black Sea for the orders needed by the coast. This convention is annexed to this treaty and will have the same force and effect as if it were an integral part of it. It can neither be destroyed nor altered without the consent of the powers that have concluded this treatise.

ARTICLE XV
The Contracting Parties, by mutual consent, decide that the rules determined by the Act of the Congress of Vienna for the navigation on rivers dividing or flowing through different possessions shall henceforth apply in full to the Danube and its estuaries. They declare that this resolution is now recognized as belonging to the common European popular law and is confirmed by their mutual guarantee. Navigation on the Danube will not be subject to any difficulties and duties, other than those specifically determined by the following articles. As a result, no fee will be charged for the actual navigation on the river itself and no duty on the goods that make up the cargo of ships. The police and quarantine rules necessary for the safety of the coastal states of this river should be drawn up in such a way that they would be as favorable as possible for the movement of ships. Apart from these rules, there will be no obstacles to free shipping.

ARTICLE XVI
To put into effect the decisions of the previous article, a commission will be established, in which Russia, Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey will each have its own deputy. This commission will be instructed to designate and carry out the work necessary for cleaning the Danube arms, starting from Isakchi and the adjacent parts of the sea, from sand and other obstacles that block these obstacles, so that this part of the river and the mentioned parts of the sea become quite convenient for navigation. To cover the costs necessary both for these works, and for establishments with the aim of facilitating and ensuring navigation on the Danube channels, constant duties from ships, commensurate with the need, will be established, which must be determined by a commission by a majority of votes and with an indispensable condition, that in this respect and in all others perfect equality will be observed with respect to the flags of all nations.

ARTICLE XVII
A commission will also be established with members from Austria, Bavaria, the Sublime Port and Wiertemberg (one from each of these powers); they will be joined by the commissioners of the three Danube principalities, appointed with the approval of the Porte. This commission, which should be permanent, has: 1) draw up rules for river navigation and river police; 2) to remove all obstacles of any kind that are still encountered in the application of the provisions of the Vienna Treaty to the Danube; 3) suggest and carry out the work necessary along the entire course of the Danube; 4) on the abolition of the general intended by Article XVI of the European Commission, to supervise the maintenance, in good condition for navigation, of the Danube arms and parts of the sea adjacent to them.

ARTICLE XVIII
The General European Commission must carry out everything entrusted to it, and the Coastal Commission must bring to the end all the work indicated in the previous article, under Nos. 1 and 2, within two years. Upon receipt of the news, the powers that have concluded this treatise will decide on the abolition of the common European Commission, and from this time on, the permanent coastal commission will be transferred to the power that the common European one has until now.

ARTICLE XIX
In order to ensure the implementation of the rules, which, by common consent, will be decided on the basis of the above principles, each of the contracting powers will have the right to maintain at any time two light sea vessels at the Danube estuaries.

ARTICLE XX
Instead of the cities, ports and lands indicated in Article 4 of this treatise, and to more effectively ensure the freedom of navigation on the Danube, E.V. the emperor of all Russia agrees to draw a new border line in Bessarabia. The beginning of this boundary line is determined by a point on the Black Sea coast at a distance of one kilometer to the east of the salt lake Burnas; it will adjoin perpendicularly to the Akerman road, along which it will follow to Trayanov Val, go south of Bolgrad and then up the Yalpukhu River to the height of Saratsik and to Katamori on the Prut. From this point up the river, the former border between the two empires remains unchanged. The new boundary line must be marked in detail by the special commissioners of the contracting powers.

ARTICLE XXI
The space of land ceded by Russia will be annexed to the Principality of Moldavia under the supreme rule of the Sublime Port. Lands living in this space will enjoy the rights and advantages assigned to the Principalities, and within three years they will be allowed to move to other places and freely dispose of their property.

ARTICLE XXII
The Walachian and Moldavian principalities will, under the supreme authority of the Port and with the guarantee of the contracting powers, enjoy the advantages and privileges that they now enjoy. None of the vouching powers is granted exclusive patronage over them. No special right to interfere in their internal affairs is allowed.

ARTICLE XXIII
The splendid Porta undertakes to retain in these Principalities an independent and national government, as well as complete freedom of religion, law, trade and navigation. The laws and statutes currently in force in these will be revised. For a full agreement on this revision, a special commission will be appointed, the composition of which the high contracting powers have to agree on. This commission must meet without delay in Bucharest; at this will be the Commissioner of the Sublime Port. This commission has to investigate the present state of the Principalities and propose the grounds for their future structure.

ARTICLE XXIV
E.V. the sultan promises to immediately convene in each of the two regions a couch for that couch, which must be composed in such a way that it can serve as a faithful representative of the benefits of all classes of society. These sofas will be instructed to express the desires of the population regarding the final arrangement of the principalities. The attitude of the commission to sim sofas will be determined by a special instruction from the congress.

ARTICLE XXV
Having accepted the opinion which will be presented by both sofas, for due consideration, the commission will immediately communicate the results of its own work to the present conference venue. The final agreement with the sovereign power over the Principalities must be approved by the convention, which will be concluded by the high contracting parties in Paris, and the Hati-Sheriff, in agreement with the provisions of the convention, will give the final arrangement to these regions with the joint guarantee of all the signatory powers.

ARTICLE XXVI
The Principalities will have a national armed force to guard internal security and ensure border security. No obstacles will be tolerated in the event of extraordinary defensive measures which, with the consent of the Sublime Port, may be adopted in the Principalities to repel an invasion from outside.

ARTICLE XXVII
Should the internal peace of the Principalities be jeopardized or disturbed, the Sublime Porta will enter into an agreement with the other contracting powers on measures necessary to maintain or restore lawful order. Without a preliminary agreement between these powers, there can be no armed intervention.

ARTICLE XXVIII
The Principality of Serbia remains, as before, under the supreme authority of the Sublime Port, in accordance with the imperial Hati-Sheriffs, who assert and determine the rights and advantages thereof, with the general aggregate guarantee of the contracting powers. As a consequence, the aforementioned Principality will retain its independent and national government and complete freedom of religion, law, trade and navigation.

ARTICLE XXIX
The resplendent Porta retains the right to maintain the garrison, determined by previous decrees. Without a preliminary agreement between the high contracting powers, no armed intervention in Serbia can be tolerated.

ARTICLE XXX
E.V. Emperor of All Russia and E.V. the sultan keep their possessions intact in Asia, in the composition in which they legally were before the break. In order to avoid any local disputes, the border lines will be verified and, if necessary, corrected, but in such a way that from this no damage could occur in the land ownership for either side. To this end, immediately after the restoration of diplomatic relations between the Russian court and the Sublime Port, sent
will be replaced by a commission composed of two Russian commissars, two Ottoman commissars, one French commissar and one English commissar. It must carry out the work entrusted to it for eight months, counting from the date of the exchange of the ratifications of this treatise.

ARTICLE XXXI
The lands occupied during the war by the troops of Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the King of Sardinia, on the basis of the conventions signed in Constantinople on March 12, 1854 between France, Great Britain and the Sublime Port, on June 14 of the same year between The Sublime Porte and Austria, and on March 15, 1855, between Sardinia and the Sublime Porte, will be cleared, after the exchange of the ratifications of this treatise, at the earliest possible time. To determine the timing and means of this fulfillment, an agreement has to follow between the Sublime Port and the powers whose troops occupied the lands of her possessions.

ARTICLE XXXII
As long as the treatises or conventions that existed before the war between the warring powers are not renewed or replaced by new acts, mutual trade, both imported and exported, must be carried out on the basis of decrees that had force and effect before the war, and with the subjects of these powers in all in other respects, it will be treated on a par with the most favored nations.

ARTICLE XXXIII
The Convention concluded this day between E.V. Emperor of All Russia with one, and their Majesties the Emperor of the French and Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, on the other hand, with respect to the Aland Islands, is attached and remains annexed to this treatise and will have the same force and effect as if it were an integral part of it.

ARTICLE XXXIV
This treaty will be ratified and the ratifications thereof will be exchanged in Paris within four weeks, and if possible even earlier. On the assurance of what, etc.

In Paris, on the 30th day of March 1856.
SIGNED BY:
Orlov [Russia]
Brunnov [Russia]
Buol-Schauenstein [Austria]
Gübner [Austria]
A.Valevsky [France]
Burkenay [France]
Clarendon [UK]
Cowley [UK]
Manteuffel [Prussia]
Gazfeldt [Prussia]
K.Kavour [Sardinia]
De Villamarina [Sardinia]
Aali [Turkey]
Megemed-Cemil [Turkey]

ADDITIONAL AND TEMPORARY ARTICLE
The provisions of the Treaty on the Straits signed this date will not apply to warships, which the warring powers will use to withdraw their troops from the lands occupied by them by sea. These decrees will come into full force as soon as this withdrawal of troops is brought to an end. In Paris, on the 30th day of March 1856.
SIGNED BY:
Orlov [Russia]
Brunnov [Russia]
Buol-Schauenstein [Austria]
Gübner [Austria]
A.Valevsky [France]
Burkenay [France]
Clarendon [UK]
Cowley [UK]
Manteuffel [Prussia]
Gazfeldt [Prussia]
K.Kavour [Sardinia]
De Villamarina [Sardinia]
Aali [Turkey]
Megemed-Cemil [Turkey]

This history is long-standing, it is already more than a century and a half, but the geographical names and countries, the mention of which is inevitable when presenting its storyline, evoke certain associations with the present. Crimea, Turkey, Russia, France, Britain - these are the scenery for the dramatic events that developed in the middle of the 19th century. All wars end in peace, even the longest and most bloody ones. Another question is to what extent its terms are beneficial for some countries and humiliating for others. The Paris Peace was the result of the Crimean War, which was waged against Russia by the combined troops of France, Great Britain and Turkey.

Pre-war situation

In the middle of the century, Europe was going through a serious crisis. inside Austria and Prussia could lead to the collapse of these states, the displacement of borders and the collapse of the ruling dynasties. The Russian tsar sent an army to help the Austrian emperor, which stabilized the situation. It seemed that peace would come for a long time, but it turned out differently.

Revolutionary movements arose in Wallachia and Moldavia. After the introduction of Russian and Turkish troops into these areas, a number of controversial issues arose regarding the boundaries of the protectorates, the rights of religious communities and the Holy Places, which ultimately meant a conflict regarding the spheres of influence of the powers adjacent to the Black Sea basin. In addition to the directly interested main countries, it also involved other states that did not want to lose their geopolitical benefits - France, Britain and Prussia (which quickly forgot about gratitude for the miraculous salvation of their monarch). The Russian delegation headed by Prince. Menshikov did not show the required degree of diplomacy, made ultimatum demands and, having failed to achieve a result, left Constantinople. In early June, the forty thousandth Russian corps invaded the Danube principalities. In the fall, the fleets of France and Britain led their warships through the Dardanelles, providing military assistance to Turkey. On November 30, the squadron under the command of Ushakov struck a preemptive strike against the Turkish naval forces in Sinop, and the Western powers had already directly intervened in the conflict, which came as a surprise to Nicholas I. Contrary to expectations, it turned out to be well prepared. In 1854, the Crimean War began.

War

Waging a land war with Russia seemed risky to the Western powers (the Napoleonic campaign was still fresh in my memory), and the strategic plan was to strike at the most vulnerable place - in the Crimea, using the advantage of the naval forces. The poorly developed linking the peninsula with the central provinces played into the hands of the Anglo-French-Turkish coalition, which made it difficult to supply troops and supply reinforcements. The landing site was Yevpatoria, then there was a serious clash on it. It turned out that the Russian troops were not sufficiently prepared for the war, both in terms of weapons and in terms of training. They had to retreat to Sevastopol, the siege of which lasted a year. In the face of a shortage of ammunition, food and other resources, the Russian command managed to establish the defense of the city, in a short time to build fortifications (initially there were almost none on land). Meanwhile, the forces of the Western Allies suffered from disease and daring attacks by the defenders of Sevastopol. As the negotiators later noted, the signing of the Paris Peace took place with the invisible participation of the hero who died during the defense of the city.

Peace conditions

Ultimately, Russia suffered a military defeat. In 1855, during the Sevastopol defense, Emperor Nicholas I died, and Alexander II inherited the throne. It was clear to the new autocrat that the hostilities, despite the brilliant successes in the Asian theater, were developing unfavorably for Russia. The deaths of Kornilov and Nakhimov actually decapitated the command, and the further retention of the city became problematic. In 1856, Sevastopol was occupied by the troops of the Western coalition. The leaders of Britain, France and Turkey drew up a draft agreement consisting of four points, which was adopted by Alexander II. The treaty itself, called the "Paris Peace", was signed on March 30, 1856. It should be noted that the victorious countries, exhausted by a long military campaign, very costly and bloody, took care of the acceptability of its points for Russia. This was facilitated by the victorious actions of our army in the Asian theater, in particular the successful assault on the fortress of Kara. The conditions of the Paris Peace primarily affected relations with Turkey, which undertook to ensure the rights of the Christian population on its territory, the neutrality of the Black Sea water area, the withdrawal in its favor of two hundred square miles of territory and the inviolability of its borders.

Peaceful Black Sea

At first glance, the just demand for the demilitarization of the Black Sea coast in order to avoid further conflicts between the countries actually contributed to the strengthening of Turkey's positions in the region, since the Ottoman Empire reserved the right to have fleets in the Mediterranean and Marmara Seas. The Paris Peace also included an annex (convention) concerning straits through which foreign warships could not pass in peacetime.

End of the terms of the Paris Peace

Any military defeat leads to a limitation of the capabilities of the defeated side. The Paris Peace permanently changed the balance of power in Europe, which had developed after the signing of the Vienna Treatises (1815), and not in favor of Russia. The war as a whole revealed many shortcomings and vices in the organization of army and naval development, which prompted the Russian leadership to carry out a number of reforms. After another, this time victorious, Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878), all restrictions on sovereignty and territorial losses were leveled. This is how the Paris Peace ended. The year 1878 was the date of the signing of the Berlin Treaty, which restored the regional dominance of Russia in the Black Sea.

Russian-English world 1856

Paris Treaty completed Crimean war 1853-1856 (in 1853 - Russian-Turkish, since 1854 - Russia against Turkey, Great Britain, France and Sardinia).

A comment:

The Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 ended the Crimean War of 1853–56. Signed on March 18 (30) at the Paris Congress by representatives of Russia, on the one hand, England, France, Turkey, Sardinia, as well as Austria and Prussia participating in the negotiations, on the other. According to the P. m., Russia returned Kara to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured by the allies. The black m. Was declared neutral, Russia and Turkey were deprived of the right to have a military man on the black m. navy and naval-mor. arsenals. This was the most difficult condition for Russia, infringing on its state. sovereignty. The freedom of navigation on the Danube was proclaimed under the control of the international. commissions. Russia transferred the mouth of the Danube and part of the South to the Moldavian principality. Bessarabia. All powers pledged not to interfere in the internal. affairs of Turkey and jointly guaranteed the autonomy of the Danube principalities and Serbia while maintaining the upper hand over them, the power of the Sultan. To finish, determine the position and rights of the Danube principalities, it was decided to convene a special. conference (Paris Conference of 1858), although Russian. the delegation insisted on the immediate unification of Moldova and Wallachia, the maximum weakening of the tour. influence on them. The patronage over Christian subjects in Turkey, carried out by Russia before the war, was transferred to Europe. powers. Three conventions were attached to P. m. 1st confirmed mainly the London Convention of 1841 on the closure of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles for the military. ships of all countries except Turkey; 2nd set the number of light soldiers. ships of Russia and Turkey on the Black Sea for the guard service (6 steam ships of 800 tons and 4 ships of 200 tons for both sides); 3rd ordered Russia not to build a military on the Aland Islands in the Baltic Sea. fortifications. P. m. Weakened the international. Russia's influence in Europe and in Eastern affairs led to an even greater exacerbation of the so-called. Eastern question, contributed to the further expansion of the West. powers on Bl. East and the transformation of Turkey into a semi-colony. The victory of Russia in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, which ended with the Treaty of San Stefano, caused the replacement of P. m. By a new treatise adopted at the Berlin Congress of 1878.

P. M. Tarasov.

Used materials of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia in 8 volumes, vol. 6

Publication:

Collection of treaties between Russia and other states. 1856-1917. M., 1952, p. 23-24.

155 years ago, a document appeared that for many years determined not only the external, but also the internal policy of European countries. March 30, 1856 in the capital of France, Count A.F. Orlov and his foreign diplomatic colleagues signed the Paris Peace Treaty, which ended the protracted Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The outbreak of military events did not portend any danger for Russia. Turkey, nicknamed "a sick man" and weakened by internal squabbles, could not single-handedly offer worthy resistance to the Russian army, and the end of 1853. was marked by a series of brilliant victories of Russian weapons. The brightest of them was the Sinop naval battle, in which Admiral Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish squadron. After this defeat, England and France could no longer remain aloof from the events taking place in the East, and were forced to enter the war on the side of Turkey. This subsequently predetermined the success of the allies.

Despite Turkey's weakness, its place in European foreign policy was very important. The "sick man" was necessary for the European powers as a certain buffer preventing the penetration of Russia through the waters of the Black Sea into the Mediterranean Sea. The existing limited maritime communication between Russia and Europe was beneficial to foreign powers. It can even be said that at this time Russia claimed to enter a narrow circle of "world powers", while England and France, the international hegemons of that time, opposed this in every possible way.

Austria was also drawn into the complicated relations between the three countries. She sought to strengthen her position in the Balkans (including at the expense of Turkey) and prevent the Russians there, who had views of these territories and covered themselves with the protection of fraternal Slavic peoples. This tangle of contradictions

Defense of Sevastopol - a fragment of the picture
Franz Roubaud

It swelled throughout the 19th century, and the Crimean War became its kind of denouement (although the conflict was finally resolved only by the beginning of the First World War).

A coalition of opponents attacked Russian troops from all fronts. British ships unexpectedly appeared in the White Sea, where they unsuccessfully fired at the Solovetsky Monastery, which refused to surrender. Even more sudden was the attack on Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, the garrison of which was able to repulse the attack of the united Anglo-French landing. However, the main hostilities took place in the south of Russia and, above all, in the Crimea.

Allied units gradually concentrated their forces on the peninsula and tightened the ring around the main center of Russian forces in the region - Sevastopol. And while it was not possible to organize a complete blockade, the allies converged with Russian units in separate battles, often winning victories. But the losses they suffered at the same time (including because of the rapidly spreading cholera) were very significant. But all this did not save Sevastopol from the blockade.

The defense of the city lasted 11 months, after which the defenders of the city had to surrender and capitulate. Fierce battles, including the legendary battle on the Malakhov Kurgan, ended in victory for the allies. September 11, 1855 The Anglo-French army entered the destroyed city. However, the benefit from the victory was not as absolute as the invaders had hoped: while the battles for the main Black Sea port were going on, the Russian troops were able to take a strategic point in

Eastern Turkey - the city of Kars, which jeopardized the security of Turkey. This move saved Russia from concluding a shameful defeatist peace.

At the end of 1855, when the hostilities subsided somewhat, a rumor spread in the highest echelons of power that peace negotiations had begun between Paris and St. Petersburg. The initiator was the French side itself. After the death of Emperor Nicholas I, the French ruler Napoleon III conveyed to the new emperor Alexander II through the Saxon envoy in St. Petersburg his deep condolences on the death of "his friend" - father Alexander Nicholas I. Napoleon also added that the war was not deliberate, but only happened as a result of " some insurmountable circumstances, ”and the French ruler did not want her.

At the same time, Russian Foreign Minister Nesselrode and the envoy in Vienna began official correspondence with their French counterparts, where the questions of the post-war structure of Europe were discussed in detail. But contacts were soon cut off. This stems from Austria, which officially did not take part in the war, but closely followed the events. The Austrian emperor feared that the war would end with a Franco-Russian compromise, and after the signing of the final treaty, his country would receive no benefit at all. Austrians

An ultimatum was sent to the Russian side with preliminary conditions for peace, abandoning which Russia would find itself drawn into another war. In addition, Britain and France supported the Austrian document.

The ultimatum consisted of several points. Russia had to stop providing patronage to the Danube principalities - Moldavia and Wallachia - and agree to a new border in Bessarabia. According to the proposed project, Russia was deprived of access to the Danube. The most painful point was the point according to which the Black Sea became neutral, and the entrance to it for military ships was strictly prohibited. And, finally, Russia was deprived of the right to patronize the Orthodox population of Turkey, now the care of the Christian inhabitants of the Muslim country was entrusted to all the allied great powers. In addition, according to the additional clause of the ultimatum, others could subsequently be added to these basic four conditions.

The situation in which Russia found itself was truly a stalemate. Either she had to make unprecedented concessions that threw her off the pedestal of the great powers, or to refuse the ultimatum, which would entail Austria's entry into the war and further devastation, and, possibly, more serious losses. At two meetings in the palace, despite some opposition from the supporters of the former emperor's policy, it was decided to agree with the demands of the allies. The emperor and his entourage understood the difficulties that a devastated and torn country would have to face if the hostilities continued.

Nesselrode K.V., Minister
foreign affairs of Russia

January 4, 1856 Nesselrode informed the Austrian side of the consent of Alexander II. At a meeting of representatives of the two countries, a protocol was signed, in which the points of the ultimatum were declared the preliminary conditions of a peace treaty, and the meeting of the plenipotentiaries for negotiating peace was postponed to Paris.

On February 25, the Paris Congress began in the capital of France. Representatives of Russia, France, England, Austria, Sardinia and Turkey took part in its work. Later, diplomats from Prussia also joined. The task of Russia was extremely clear, but not easy: playing on the contradictions that existed between the allied powers, primarily between France and England, to achieve the non-signing of the treaty on all the specified points of the ultimatum and to prevent the introduction of new conditions that infringed on the interests of Russia.

However, the allies, without knowing it, contributed to the achievement of these goals. From the very beginning of the Congress, the British and Austrian sides found themselves in opposition to France. Napoleon III, pursuing the goal of bringing his state to a leading position in Europe and becoming the world "hegemon", played a double game. He simultaneously tried to remain on friendly terms with England and Austria and to get closer to Russia to further counter British influence on the continent.

Adhering to such double standards, France did not want the complete humiliation of Russia after the Crimean War and suggested limiting the peace treaty to only the above points. Thanks to this, the Russian side managed to avoid an unpleasant discussion of the Polish issue, as well as to prevent territorial losses in the Caucasus and the declaration of the Sea of ​​Azov as neutral waters (where warships could not be located), on which England insisted.

The final version, signed on March 30, dealt a blow to Russia's great-power claims and undermined its influence in the Balkans and the Middle East. Particularly painful were the articles on the "neutralization" of the Black Sea and military shipping in the Black Sea straits. However, the territorial losses were not so great: only the Danube delta and part of Bessarabia went to Moldova.

The question of the hegemon in Europe remained open. After the Crimean War and subsequent events in Europe, this role was claimed not only by England and France, but also by Prussia. The consequences of this rivalry are all too well known to contemporaries.