What are the historical boundaries of the present twentieth century? The boundaries of the 19th century in culture do not coincide with the calendar framework

Igor Nikolaevich Sukhikh (born in 1952) - critic, literary critic, Doctor of Philology, professor at St. Petersburg State University. Author of the books: “Problems of Chekhov's poetics” (L., 1987; 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg, 2007), “Sergei Dovlatov: time, place, fate” (St. Petersburg, 1996; 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg. , 2006), “Books of the 20th century: Russian canon” (M., 2001), “Twenty books of the 20th century” (St. Petersburg, 2004). Winner of the Zvezda magazine award (1998) and the Gogol Prize (2005). Lives in St. Petersburg.

Published in the magazine “Zvezda” in 2005-2007. The textbook “Literature of the 19th Century” has been approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for teaching in the 10th grade.

Igor Sukhikh

Russian literature. XX century

Twentieth century: from Russia to Russia

Calendar and history: short twentieth century

First of all, let's agree on the difference between calendar And historical concepts of the century. Calendar centuries (centuries) are equal to each other, historical centuries ( era) are determined by turning points and can be shorter or longer than a calendar century.

The beginning of the 19th century in Russia almost coincided with the calendar: with the accession to the throne of Alexander I (1801), a new era began. European historians begin their century a decade earlier, with the Great French Revolution (1789-1794).

The calendar boundary of the twentieth century was noticed and celebrated. At the beginning of 1901
M. Gorky writes to an acquaintance: “I met the new century wonderfully, in a large company of people who were alive in spirit, healthy in body, and cheerfully disposed. They are a sure guarantee that the new century will truly be a century of spiritual renewal. Faith is a powerful force, and they believe in the inviolability of the ideal and in their own strength to firmly move towards it. They will all die on the road, hardly any of them will smile on happiness, many will experience great torment, many people will die, but the earth will give birth to even more of them, and - in the end - beauty, justice will prevail, the best aspirations of man will win” (K. P. Pyatnitsky, January 22 or 23, 1901).

People of the nineteenth century.

How they were in a hurry to part with their time!

How they later regretted it...

However, the historical 19th century ended almost a decade and a half later than the calendar one. The boundary between eras, the beginning of the “Real Twentieth Century”, which A. A. Akhmatova wrote about, was, as we remember, the First World War (1914).

The last historical frontier (scar) was formed quite recently, before our eyes. It was defined by events such as the destruction of the Berlin Wall and the reunification of Germany, the disappearance of the Soviet Union, the end of the Cold War and the emergence of a new world order.

Thus, against the background long 19th century historians talk about short 20th century. His calendar lasted only three quarters of a century (1914-1991).
In Russian history, three-quarters of a century included two world wars and a civil war, three (or four) revolutions, collectivization and modernization, the “GULAG Archipelago” and space flights.

At the turn of the 1980s and 1990s, the global conflicts and threats that defined the atmosphere of the 20th century seemed to have disappeared. The formula “ end of story" Many philosophers and sociologists argued: the tragic history of the twentieth century, full of conflicts, has ended, and a long period of peaceful, evolutionary development begins, which can hardly be called historical in the usual sense. “History has stopped flowing,” M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin seemed to parody similar theories a century earlier.

But history quickly took revenge on complacent historians. “The End of History” lasted only a decade. On September 11, 2001, the whole world looked in horror at the same television picture: planes hijacked by terrorists crashed into the skyscrapers of the World Trade Center, one of the symbols of US power. These events forced us to talk about the beginning of the “real 21st century”, which will determine conflict of civilizations. A new era has begun, history has again moved into an unknown future, new confrontations and problems have arisen, which people of the 21st century will be witnesses or participants in.

The short twentieth century, after a decade of interval, suddenly became not only the calendar, but also the historical past. There was an opportunity to look at it as a completed era.

Russia: the last years of imperial power

There are two irreconcilable views on the last decades of imperial Russia: “Everything was going well and correctly in the country, it was quickly moving along the European, bourgeois path, and only random circumstances and the Bolshevik revolution prevented this evolutionary development,” some historians believe.

“No, the revolution was inevitable, its origins lie in the unfinished reform of 1861 and even deeper - in Peter’s reforms, which split the country into two irreconcilable cultural classes,” say others.

A. I. Solzhenitsyn ironically reproduces the debate “who started it first”:

“Like two maddened horses in a common harness, but deprived of control, one jerking to the right, the other to the left, shying away from each other and from the cart, they will certainly smash it, turn it over, fall off the slope and destroy themselves - so the Russian government and Russian society, ever since fatal distrust, embitterment, hatred settled and grew between them, they dispersed and carried Russia into the abyss. And to intercept them, to stop them - it seemed that there was no daredevil.

And who will explain now: where did it start? who started? In the continuous flow of history, the one who cuts it in one cross section and says: here! it all started from here!

This irreconcilable discord between government and society - did it begin with the reaction of Alexander III? Then wouldn't it be more accurate - since the assassination of Alexander II? But this was the seventh attempt, and the first was the Karakozov shot.

There is no way for us to recognize the beginning of that discord - later than the Decembrists.

Was it not because of this discord that Paul had already died?

There are those who like to trace this gap back to Peter’s first German disguises - and they are very right. Then to Nikon’s cathedrals” (“Red Wheel”, node two, “October the Sixteenth”, chapter seven, “Cadet Origins”).

If you believe Russian literature, the second point of view seems more justified. The revolution was expected, foreseen, feared, and warned about for many years, but it was still approaching at an alarming speed.

The reign of the last Russian Emperor Nicholas II (1894-1917) was filled with numerous omens and catastrophic events. Having unexpectedly ascended the throne at the age of 26 (his father, Alexander III, full of strength, died suddenly, although he could have “frozen Russia” for several more decades), Nicholas, by his character and upbringing, turned out to be little prepared to govern the country at a turning point.

He inherited from his father the idea of ​​strong autocratic power, an absolute monarchy. “The owner of the Russian land,” he answers the question about his occupation during the All-Russian population census (1897). In one of his speeches (1895), he called “meaningless dreams” the hopes of participating in the governance of the country by the society that had grown up after the peasant reforms (this was a significant clause; the text of the speech read: “groundless dreams”).

But by his character and upbringing, Nikolai was little responsive to the role he took on. S. Yu. Witte, one of the most useful (and unloved by the tsar) figures of the Nicholas era, who was both the Minister of Finance and the Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers, condescendingly asserted that the emperor had “the average education of a guards colonel of a good family.” A similar impression was formed by his simple subject, but a great writer, who only caught a glimpse of the king. “For some reason the conversation turned to Nicholas II. Anton Pavlovich<Чехов>said: └They incorrectly say about him that he is sick, stupid, evil. He is just an ordinary guards officer. I saw him in Crimea. He looks healthy, he’s just a little pale.’” (S. L. Tolstoy. “Essays on the Past”).

“The law of autocracy is this: / The kinder the tsar, the more blood is shed. / And Nicholas II was the kinder of all,” the poet M. A. Voloshin bitterly ironized after the death of the emperor (“Russia”, 1924). Problems in the guards officer's household began immediately, and after a few years the farm completely went into disarray.

The beginning of a new reign marked Khodynka. During the coronation in Moscow (1896), due to the negligence of the police, about three thousand people were trampled, strangled, and mutilated on Khodynskoye Field during the distribution of cheap royal gifts. The emperor found out about this, but the gala dinner and evening ball were not cancelled. (“One drop of royal blood is worth more than millions of corpses of slaves,” his faithful wife, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, would write in her diary a few years later.)

The next symbolic image of the reign was Bloody Sunday. On January 9, 1905, a peaceful demonstration of St. Petersburg workers went to the Winter Palace with a petition to the Tsar Father, but was shot (several hundred people died). The Emperor noted in his diary: “Hard day! Serious riots occurred in St. Petersburg as a result of the workers’ desire to reach the Winter Palace. The troops had to shoot in different places in the city, there were many killed and wounded.” Who gave the order according to which the troops “had to shoot” remains unclear. But the name of the Russian autocrat was also associated with this tragedy.

To divert attention from internal problems, a “small victorious war” was started with Japan (1904-1905). However, despite the heroism of ordinary soldiers and officers (from this campaign there remained a song about the proud “Varyag” and a waltz “On the Hills of Manchuria”), it ended in a humiliating defeat of a huge empire, the loss of the fleet and the southern part of Sakhalin (the roots of the “territorial issue”, which and today Russia and Japan cannot decide, they go back to the very beginning of the twentieth century).

On October 17, 1905, under the pressure of circumstances, the tsar was forced to sign a manifesto that granted Russian society “the unshakable foundations of civil freedom.” A representative institution (the State Duma) appeared in Russia, and censorship was abolished. The country moved towards a constitutional monarchy. However, this did not stop the first Russian revolution, which raged in the empire for about two years (1905-1907).

After its suppression and attenuation, Nicholas II again tried to rule autocratically. The first two compositions of the State Duma were dissolved, the most active and talented statesmen (and supporters of the monarchy) were removed from power, and they were replaced by inept but obedient people. The tsar and the government increasingly lost their support in society. “Can I ask, does the government have friends? And the answer is absolutely confident: no. What kind of friends can fools and blockheads, robbers and thieves have?
writes with deep pain in the diary of A. S. Suvorin, a conservative, a major publisher, and Chekhov’s long-term interlocutor (November 14, 1904).

On September 1, 1911, in the Kiev theater, during the intermission of the performance, which was attended by the Tsar, P. A. Stolypin, one of the most useful statesmen of the Nicholas era, was mortally wounded. With his name, many writers and historians associate the possibility of a different, evolutionary, rather than revolutionary, development of Russia. Stolypin owns the famous words uttered in the State Duma on May 10, 1907 in a dispute with liberal deputies: “You need great upheavals, but we need a great Russia” (they will be written on the monument in Kyiv, which will be erected in 1913 and destroyed in 1917 year). However, there were fewer and fewer people in the Russian government and society who could and wanted to withstand the great upheavals. And the country failed to distance itself from the great upheavals in Europe.

World War: Collapse of an Empire

On June 15, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne and his wife were killed by a Serbian student terrorist in Sarajevo. With these shots, a four-year world war began, in which millions would die (contemporaries do not yet know that it was first and not the bloodiest). July 19 (August 1), 1914 Germany declares war on Russia. The Empire, along with many European countries, is being drawn into a completely unnecessary and senseless world slaughter.

The Germans “started first.” War for some time causes general enthusiasm and the illusion of unity between the autocrat and his subjects, the state and society. The State Duma, almost in its entirety (except for the Social Democrats), votes for war loans. Workers' strikes end. Zemstvo bodies help in the mobilization and medical support of the army. Poets write patriotically inspiring poems, although, like many intellectuals, they are exempt from mobilization (of the major Russian writers of the 20th century, only N.S. Gumilyov and M.M. Zoshchenko took part in hostilities). Even Igor Severyanin forgets about “pineapples in champagne” and writes “Poet of Indignation”, in which he swears by the names of Goethe and Schiller and threatens the German Emperor Wilhelm with retribution, in essence, revolution:

Traitor! marauder! reckless warrior!

The Hohenzollern family will die with you forever...

Retribution to you - solemn and terrible

People's scaffold!

(“Poetry of Indignation”, August 1914)

However, such sentiments did not last long. Already at the beginning of the war, the Russian army suffered a terrible defeat on the territory of East Prussia (the current Kaliningrad region). There were not enough shells and cartridges at the front. Thousands of refugees filled the central regions of the country. It turned out that Russia (like other European countries) is not ready for a long war and, most importantly, does not understand its purpose and meaning.

The illusion of national unity (the example here was the Patriotic War of 1812) is quickly disappearing. This war, even more than the revolution of 1905, splits and fragments Russian society. Hatred changes its address, is directed not at the external enemy, but at internal enemy, whom liberal figures see in the autocracy, the government, speculator traders, generals and officials - in troublemaker Bolsheviks and liberals, junior officers - in mediocre generals, men called up to arms - in officer drill and exactingness.

Vladimir Mayakovsky seems to respond to Igor Severyanin’s leavened patriotism:

To you, who live behind the orgy orgy,

having a bathroom and a warm closet!

Shame on you about those presented to George

read from newspaper columns?!

Do you know, many mediocre,

those who think it’s better to get drunk like, -

maybe now the leg bomb

tore Petrov's lieutenant away?..

If he, brought to slaughter,

suddenly I saw, wounded,

how you have a lip smeared in a cutlet

lustfully humming the Northerner!

(“To you!”, 1915)

The protracted war led to the main catastrophic consequence. Destruction of moral standards, collapse of humanism from abstract theory becomes everyday practice. Tired, desperate millions of ordinary people are getting used to the fact that all issues are resolved by violence, murder, and blood. Having received weapons in their hands, they could use them at their own discretion.

Trying to personally influence the course of hostilities, Emperor Nicholas makes another, as many historians believe, fatal mistake. In 1915, he assumed the duties of Supreme Commander-in-Chief and went to headquarters in Mogilev. Now all military failures are directly associated with the tsar, at the same time, at a distance from Petrograd (the city lost its “German” name in the patriotic excitement immediately after the start of the war), he understands the situation in which Russia finds itself increasingly worse. Nikolai calls warnings about the impending revolution “nonsense” even a few days before it.

When news of unrest in the capital reaches Mogilev in February 1917, the imperial train sets off, but gets stuck near Pskov at the Dno station: the soldiers do not let it through. On March 2, 1917, two members of the State Duma (ironically, monarchists) arrive at the station, and Nicholas II writes and gives them the text of his abdication. Thus, suddenly and prosaically, the reign of the Romanov dynasty, whose three-hundredth anniversary was celebrated just recently, on the eve of the war (1913), ends.

“Rus' disappeared in two days. At most - three.<…>There was no Kingdom left, no Church left, no army left. What's left? Strangely, literally nothing. There remained a vile people, of whom here is one, an old man of about 60 years old, “and so serious,” from the Novgorod province, who expressed himself: “It would be necessary to pull the skin out of the former tsar, one belt at a time.” That is, you don’t immediately rip off the skin, like the Indians scalp, but you have to cut out ribbon after ribbon from his skin in Russian. And what did the tsar do to him, to this “serious peasant”,” conservative philosopher and monarchist V.V. Rozanov bitterly lamented. However, he was forced to utter words about “a Kingdom rotten through and through.” Rozanov blamed what happened primarily on Russian literature, which endlessly criticized the state and idealized the Russian people: “Here is Dostoevsky... Here you have Tolstoy, and Alpatych, and “War and Peace”” (“Apocalypse of Our Time,” 1917-1918 ).

However, another writer, who by the way greatly appreciated Rozanov, expresses the exact opposite opinion. M. M. Prishvin learns from the servant of the writer A. M. Remizov, the illiterate Belarusian Nastya, “news” about the death of Russia, which she apparently picked up in street conversations from some “like-minded person” Rozanov. “...Russia is dying. “It’s not true,” we tell her, “as long as Leo Tolstoy, Pushkin and Dostoevsky are with us, Russia will not perish.” The servants have difficulty learning unfamiliar surnames, calling Tolstoy “Leu”,
and mistaking for him the poets who appeared in the house - M. Kuzmin, F. Sologub. A few days later the story continues. “Once on the street opposite our house people gathered and a speaker told the people that Russia would perish and would soon be a German colony. Then Nastya, in her white headscarf, made her way through the crowd to the speaker and stopped him, telling the crowd: “Don’t believe him, comrades, until Leu Tolstoy, Pushkin and Dostoevsky are with us, Russia will not perish” (Diary. 1917, December 30).

For some, Russian literature was the cause of the death of Russia, for others it was the hope for revival. But in both cases, great guilt or hope was placed on the Word.

V. V. Nabokov, emigrant writer, esthete, son of the Minister of the Provisional Government V. D. Nabokov, will give the hero of the novel “The Gift” (1937-1938) full of “tasteless temptation” and yet a seductive pun connecting the reign of his grandfather and grandson , guilt and retribution in the history of post-reform Russia: “He vividly felt a certain state deception in the actions of the “Tsar-Liberator,” who was very soon tired of this whole story of granting freedoms; royal boredom was the main shade of the reaction. After the manifesto, they shot at the people at the Bezdna station, and the epigrammatic streak in Fyodor Konstantinovich was tickled by the tasteless temptation to consider the future fate of government Russia as a transfer between the Bezdna and Dno stations.”

Historians, having been understanding what happened for almost a century, explain and are perplexed: “When Nicholas II finally set off from Mogilev to Petrograd, he was stopped at the Dno station. The symbolism of the station names reinforces the irrational nature of what was happening. Historians have convincingly proven that Russia had all the conditions for revolution: reluctance to continue the war, the disintegration of the imperial court, the growth of the proletariat and its demands, the ossified framework of the old regime that hindered the young bourgeoisie. No one, however, has proven that the autocracy should have collapsed without resistance in February 1917.” (M. Geller. “History of the Russian Empire”).

In a situation of uncertainty and irrationality, perhaps it is worth listening to the poet’s simple and wise explanation:

Universal experience says

that kingdoms are perishing

not because life is hard

or terrible ordeals.

And they die because

(and the more painful it is, the longer it takes),

that the people of their kingdom

no longer respected.

(B. Sh. Okudzhava, 1968)

The thousand-year-old “kingdom-state” (if we count time from Ancient Rus') and the three-hundred-year-old dynasty at the beginning of the “Real Twentieth Century” finally lost the respect of their subjects. Therefore they had to die. Not in February, but in March or April. However, it soon became clear that this did not bring people the expected happiness.

1917: let's drive the nag of history

Karl Marx believed revolutions locomotives of history. In 1917, Russia quickly replaced as many as two locomotives. “Ecumenical experience,” however, says that these locomotives do not always go in the right direction. Bottom turned out to be the end of one and the beginning of a new segment of the historical path. “When we finally reached the bottom, there was a knock from below,” as if the Polish aphorist S. E. Lec bitterly joked about this. The final station of the revolutionary locomotive in the spring of 1917 was visible to few people.

The events of February-March were bourgeois-democratic revolution. After Nicholas abdicated and his brother refused to ascend the throne, Russia became a republic, perhaps the freest country in the world. The revolution occurred not only instantly, but also almost bloodlessly. She was welcomed and accepted by almost all social groups and strata - workers, military, intellectuals.

The hero of Yu. V. Trifonov’s novel “The Old Man” (1978), one of the best works dedicated to Soviet history, meets the spring of 1917 as a high school student: “And the first days are March, drunken spring, crowds of thousands on the wet, snow-covered Petrograd avenues, wandering from dawn to dusk.<…>
And complete freedom from everything, from everyone! You don’t have to go to school, there are continuous rallies, elections, discussions of the “school constitution,” Nikolai Apollonovich, instead of a lecture on great reforms, talks about the French Revolution, and at the end of the lesson we learn “Marseillaise” in French, and Nikolai Apollonovich has tears in his eyes "

Further in the novel an episode from school life is told. In anatomy class we have to dissect a rat. But the student council, established after the revolution, organizes a meeting to discuss her fate. On it, some students, forgetting about the unfortunate rat, talk about historical expediency and the Paris Commune. Others fiercely defend the rights of the doomed Feni
(the rat even has a name): “Great goals require sacrifices! But the victims do not agree to this! Just ask the rat! And you take advantage of muteness; if she could speak, she would answer!” The issue is resolved by democratic voting: the rat is pardoned, the “failed victim of science” is taken out into the yard and released from the cage. “The ending darkens the mood a little: our Fenya, once free, is confused, gape, and is immediately grabbed by some cat running through the yard...”

In this seemingly absurd episode, Trifonov subtly demonstrates the irony of history. Justice democratically triumphed by universal suffrage, but the rat did not have time to take advantage of its results and died anyway. Idea and reality, intentions and results did not coincide dramatically. This turned out to be the fate of not only the rat Feni, but also the February Revolution.

After Nicholas's abdication, a Provisional Government was formed, consisting of major industrialists, professors, and famous zemstvo figures. After several reshuffles, it was headed by A.F. Kerensky (1881-1970), an active participant in the revolutionary movement, lawyer, orator, who had a magnetic effect on the crowd. At the same time, the Petrograd Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies was created, in which the Bolsheviks played a leading role. A dangerous dual power was established in the country, although the main burden of governing the country lay with the Provisional Government.

The movement by inertia continued in the same direction: the new government advocated war to a victorious end, soldiers died at the front, speculators grew fat in the rear, peasants dreamed of landowner land, the Bolsheviks, guided by the ideas of Marx, called for a socialist revolution, after which power would pass into the hands of proletariat.

In April 1917, V.I. Lenin arrived in Russia from a long emigration and put forward the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bgrowing the bourgeois-democratic revolution into a socialist revolution. In the summer, the Provisional Government uncertainly tries to cope with the Bolsheviks; Lenin hides in Finland, near Lake Razliv.

The brilliant orator Kerensky turns out to be a bad politician. The new democratic government is losing trust even faster than the tsarist government. The path that took the Romanov dynasty three hundred years, the Provisional Government completed in ten months. When the Bolshevik Party begins preparations for an armed uprising in October 1917, the Provisional Government has practically no defenders left. The capture of Zimny ​​on October 25, 1917, which is considered the main, symbolic event Great October Socialist Revolution, was simple and easy: armed soldiers and sailors, encountering almost no resistance, entered the palace, arrested the ministers of the Provisional Government and sent them to the Peter and Paul Fortress.

In the “October poem” “Good!” (1927) V.V. Mayakovsky will depict this revolution as an instant rebirth, a leap into another historical time. At the beginning of the sixth chapter, the wind blows, cars and trams rush “under capitalism,” and at the end, after the storming of the Winter Palace, “the trams continued their race / already under socialism.” Even earlier, in “Left March” (1918), the poet joyfully shouts: “Hush, speakers! / Your / word, / Comrade Mauser. / It’s enough to live by the law / given by Adam and Eve. / Let’s drive history to hell. / Left! / Left! / Left!”

But, looking from a historical distance, Trifonov’s young hero sees in what is happening not the joy of victory, but another act of tragedy: “A hungry, strange, unprecedented time! Everything is possible, and nothing can be understood.<…>So many people have disappeared. A great cycle begins: people, trials, hopes, killing in the name of truth. But we have no idea what awaits us.”

To be continued

Since the late sixties, a new tight knot in Russian history has been tightening. The second Alexander era ended on March 1, 1881 with the explosion of two bombs on the Catherine Canal. As a result of the seventh attempt, the emperor was mortally wounded, the terrorists were executed (although L.N. Tolstoy, in a letter to the new tsar, asked for mercy, hoping that as a result of this act of Christian mercy, future terrorists would abandon their goals and the history of Russia would follow a peaceful, evolutionary path) , and the new Emperor Alexander III, returned to the policy of “freezing” Russia, containing and curtailing all reforms.

The view of the reign of Alexander III is very unstable. Under him, Russia did not fight, industry developed, and the outskirts of the empire were developed. But the emperor completely abandoned political and liberal changes, quickly removed officials who worked under his father from power, and persecuted all manifestations of free-thinking. This time is called era of counter-reforms.

If the era of Alexander II was in some way reminiscent of “the days of the Alexanders, a wonderful beginning,” then the time of Alexander III was their sad end. This is the second dead-end era, Chekhov’s time of “gloomy people”, life “in the twilight”, a time of confusion, the search for new ideals

Looking from another time, but relying on the judgments of his contemporaries, the poetic image of time was created by A. Blok in the unfinished poem “Retribution” (1911). Here Russia appeared as a fairy-tale beauty, bewitched by evil forces, and the main villain-sorcerer turned out to be the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K P. Pobedonostsev, an implacable conservative, the emperor's closest adviser.

In those distant, deaf years, sleep and darkness reigned in the hearts: Pobedonostsev spread out his owl's wings over Russia, Alexander III suddenly died on October 20, 1894. The transfer of power, unlike 1825 or 1881, this time seems to have occurred naturally, without conflict or disaster. But in fact, the last reign almost immediately began to turn into an endless chain of conflicts and disasters, ending with the death of both the imperial family and the empire itself. “I fail in my endeavors... I have no luck. And, besides, human will is powerless,” Nicholas II admitted in a difficult moment to one of his faithful comrades, P. A. Stolypin. The last tsar was a wonderful family man, but a weak, short-sighted, and much mistaken ruler of Russia. He insisted on the inviolability of the principle of autocratic power. At the very beginning of his reign, he spoke out against “meaningless dreams about the participation of zemstvo representatives in internal government affairs” (the tsar made a symptomatic reservation: in fact, the speech talked about baseless dreams). Nicholas blindly believed the myths about the unity of the tsar and the people, did not take into account the realities of the “industrial age”, refused liberal reforms, yielding to society only under the pressure of the revolutionary movement that was gaining strength. Already the Moscow coronation of the new emperor led to tragedy: during the distribution of royal gifts on the Khodynka field on May 18, 1896, a terrible stampede arose in which more than 1,300 people died. The decade of Nicholas's reign was marked by the January "Bloody Sunday", when a peaceful deputation of workers was shot at the Winter Palace, and by the first Russian revolution of 1905, the culmination of which was the December armed uprising in Moscow. In this struggle, society won back some democratic institutions (primarily the State Duma). But the result of another irreconcilable battle between society and the state was a new round of terror after the Narodnaya Volya movement, in which hundreds of dignitaries, including some members of the royal family, and thousands of terrorists, and often innocent people, were killed by the verdict of military courts. From this era to the twentieth century, the concepts of “Stolypin tie” (gallows) and Stolypin carriage (a carriage transporting prisoners) have passed. Chairman of the Council of Ministers P. A. Stolypin, who gave his name to these terrible “inventions,” was one of the most devoted people to the emperor, and also died at the hands of a terrorist. Another decade passed in disasters and dire premonitions of the future. The last shock of Nicholas's reign was August 1914, the beginning of the war with Germany, which Russia entered unprepared and from which it emerged only four years later, through two more revolutions, the death of the royal family, a change in the social system, and civil war. But these were already catastrophes of the new century, which revealed the illusory nature of many things and phenomena, theories and principles. The nineteenth century was thus given another calendar decade and a half. The First World War turned out to be a milestone, the end of a previous era. This is the sinusoid of Russian history of the 19th century, its rapid rise and no less catastrophic fall.

Questions and tasks

1. How did contemporaries evaluate the outgoing 18th century? What explained these estimates?

2. What are the not calendar, but historical boundaries of the “present, not calendar” “Nineteenth Century”? What historical events mark its beginning and end?

3. Which emperors ruled Russia in the 19th century?

4. Slavophile A. S. Khomyakov, at the beginning of the reign of Alexander II, deduced a humorous law of historical alternation: “In Russia, good and bad rulers alternate through one: Peter III was bad, Catherine I was good, Paul I was bad, Alexander I was good, Nicholas I bad, this one will be good! Was this pattern justified in the subsequent Russian history of the 19th century? And in the twentieth century?

5. Which eras of Russian history are designated as twenties, thirties, forties, sixties, seventies, eighties? What is the main meaning of these eras?

6. What is the meaning of the definitions “people of the twenties”, “people of the thirties”, “people of the forties”, “sixties”, “seventies”, “eighties”?

7. A rebellion cannot end in success.

Otherwise his name is different.

8. What is the meaning of the polemic between Chaadaev and Pushkin about the fate of Russia? Who, from your point of view, was right in this dispute?

9. In which era of the 19th century did the dispute between Westerners and Slavophiles unfold? How were these community camps different?

10. In 1856, L. N. Tolstoy wrote the story “Father and Son,” which received the final title “Two Hussars.” The story begins with a huge period sentence (193 words), representing the characteristics of an entire era.

« In the 1800s, at a time when there were no railroads, no highways, no gas, no stearin light, no springy low sofas, no furniture without varnish, no disillusioned young men with glass, no liberal female philosophers, nor the lovely lady camellias, of which there are so many in our time - in those naive times when, leaving Moscow for St. Petersburg in a cart or carriage, they took with them a whole home-cooked kitchen, drove for eight days along a soft dusty or muddy road and they believed in Pozharsky cutlets, in Valdai bells and bagels - when tallow candles burned on long autumn evenings, illuminating family circles of twenty and thirty people, at balls wax and spermaceti candles were inserted into candelabra, when furniture was placed symmetrically, when our fathers were still young not only because of the absence of wrinkles and gray hair, but they shot at women and from the other corner of the room rushed to pick up accidentally and not accidentally dropped handkerchiefs, our mothers wore short waists and huge sleeves and solved family matters by taking out tickets; when the lovely camellia ladies were hiding from the daylight - in the naive times of the Masonic lodges, Martinists, Tugendbund, in the times of the Miloradovichs, Davydovs, Pushkins - in the provincial city of K. there was a congress of landowners and the noble elections ended.”

Comment on the subject realities and names of this fragment, based on dictionaries and encyclopedias ( Camellia ladies, Pozharsky cutlets, Martinists, Miloradovich etc.).

Try, based on the details of this passage, to determine in what times Tolstoy’s father and son live (the second half of the story is dedicated to him).

What Tolstoy's intention does this characteristic of the era predict?

What work of Russian literature of the sixties does Tolstoy's original title predict?

Try, imitating Tolstoy, to characterize our time in one sentence-period.

11. In a historical poem and two historical novels by remarkable Russians

writers of the twentieth century, created approximately a century after the events described, in

Tolstoy style encyclopedic period characteristics are given

post-reform Russia.

B. L. Pasternak Nine hundred and fifth year (1936)

Drum roll
Cast iron signals are drowned out.
Thunder of shameful carts -
The rumble of the first platforms.
Serf Russia
It turns out
From a short harness
To a vacant lot
And it's called
Russia after reforms.

These are the People's Will,
Perovskaya,
First of March
Nihilists in undershirts,
dungeons,
Students in pince-nez.
The story of our fathers
Exactly a story
From the age of the Stuarts,
More distant than Pushkin,
And it seems
Just like in a dream.

And you can’t get any closer:
Twenty-five years - underground.
The treasure is in the ground.
On the ground -
A soulless kaleidoscope.
To dig up a treasure,
We are the eyes
We strain until it hurts.
Submitting to his will,
We go down into the tunnel ourselves.

Dostoevsky was here.
These recluses
Without waiting,
What do they have
No matter the search,
That is the removal of relics to the museum,
They were going to execution
And for that,
So that their underground leader Nechaev can show off his beauty
Hid it in the ground
Concealed
From times and enemies and friends.

It was yesterday,
And if we were born thirty years earlier,
Come from the yard
In the kerosene haze of lanterns,
Among the flickering retorts
We would find
What are those laboratory assistants -
Our mothers
Or
Friends of mothers.

The history of the 20th century was full of events of a very different nature - there were both great discoveries and great disasters. States were created and destroyed, and revolutions and civil wars forced people to leave their homes to go to foreign lands, but to save their lives. In art, the twentieth century also left an indelible mark, completely updating it and creating completely new directions and schools. There were great achievements in science as well.

World history of the 20th century

The 20th century began for Europe with very sad events - the Russo-Japanese War happened, and in Russia in 1905 the first revolution, albeit one that ended in failure, took place. This was the first war in the history of the 20th century in which weapons such as destroyers, battleships and heavy long-range artillery were used.

The Russian Empire lost this war and suffered colossal human, financial and territorial losses. However, the Russian government decided to enter into peace negotiations only when more than two billion rubles in gold were spent from the treasury on the war - a fantastic amount even today, but in those days simply unthinkable.

In the context of global history, this war was just another clash of colonial powers in the struggle for the territory of a weakened neighbor, and the role of the victim fell to the weakening Chinese Empire.

Russian Revolution and its consequences

One of the most significant events of the 20th century, of course, was the February and October revolutions. The fall of the monarchy in Russia caused a whole series of unexpected and incredibly powerful events. The liquidation of the empire was followed by the defeat of Russia in the First World War, the separation from it of such countries as Poland, Finland, Ukraine and the countries of the Caucasus.

For Europe, the revolution and the subsequent Civil War also did not pass without a trace. The Ottoman Empire, liquidated in 1922, and the German Empire in 1918 also ceased to exist. The Austro-Hungarian Empire lasted until 1918 and broke up into several independent states.

However, within Russia, calm did not come immediately after the revolution. The civil war lasted until 1922 and ended with the creation of the USSR, the collapse of which in 1991 would be another important event.

World War I

This war was the first so-called trench warfare, in which a huge amount of time was spent not so much on moving troops forward and capturing cities, but on meaningless waiting in the trenches.

In addition, artillery was used en masse, chemical weapons were used for the first time, and gas masks were invented. Another important feature was the use of combat aviation, the formation of which actually took place during the fighting, although aviator schools were created several years before it began. Along with aviation, forces were created that were supposed to fight it. This is how the air defense troops appeared.

Developments in information and communications technology have also found their way onto the battlefield. Information began to be transmitted from headquarters to the front tens of times faster thanks to the construction of telegraph lines.

But not only the development of material culture and technology was affected by this terrible war. There was also a place for it in art. The twentieth century was a turning point for culture when many old forms were rejected and new ones replaced them.

Arts and literature

Culture on the eve of the First World War was experiencing an unprecedented rise, which resulted in the creation of a variety of movements both in literature and in painting, sculpture and cinema.

Perhaps the brightest and one of the most well-known artistic movements in art was futurism. Under this name it is customary to unite a number of movements in literature, painting, sculpture and cinema, which trace their genealogy to the famous manifesto of Futurism, written by the Italian poet Marinetti.

Futurism became most widespread, along with Italy, in Russia, where such literary communities of futurists as “Gilea” and OBERIU appeared, the largest representatives of which were Khlebnikov, Mayakovsky, Kharms, Severyanin and Zabolotsky.

As for the fine arts, pictorial futurism had Fauvism as its foundation, while also borrowing a lot from the then popular cubism, which was born in France at the beginning of the century. In the 20th century, the history of art and politics are inextricably linked, as many avant-garde writers, painters and filmmakers drew up their own plans for the reconstruction of the society of the future.

The Second World War

The history of the 20th century cannot be complete without a story about the most catastrophic event - the Second World War, which began a year ago and lasted until September 2, 1945. All the horrors that accompanied the war left an indelible mark in the memory of mankind.

Russia in the 20th century, like other European countries, experienced many terrible events, but none of them can compare in their consequences with the Great Patriotic War, which was part of the Second World War. According to various sources, the number of war victims in the USSR reached twenty million people. This number includes both military and civilian residents of the country, as well as numerous victims of the siege of Leningrad.

Cold War with Former Allies

Sixty-two sovereign states out of seventy-three that existed at that time were drawn into hostilities on the fronts of the World War. The fighting took place in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia, the Caucasus and the Atlantic Ocean, as well as the Arctic Circle.

World War II and the Cold War followed one another. Yesterday's allies became first rivals, and later enemies. Crises and conflicts followed one after another for several decades, until the Soviet Union ceased to exist, thereby putting an end to the competition between the two systems - capitalist and socialist.

Cultural Revolution in China

If we tell the history of the twentieth century in terms of national history, it can sound like a long list of wars, revolutions and endless violence, often inflicted on completely random people.

By the mid-sixties, when the world had not yet fully comprehended the consequences of the October Revolution and the Civil War in Russia, another revolution unfolded at the other end of the continent, which went down in history under the name of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.

The cause of the Cultural Revolution in the PRC is considered to be an internal party split and Mao’s fear of losing his dominant position within the party hierarchy. As a result, it was decided to begin an active struggle against those party representatives who were supporters of small property and private initiative. All of them were accused of counter-revolutionary propaganda and were either shot or sent to prison. Thus began mass terror that lasted more than ten years and the cult of personality of Mao Zedong.

Space Race

Space exploration was one of the most popular trends in the twentieth century. Although today people have become accustomed to international cooperation in the field of high technology and space exploration, at that time space was an arena of intense confrontation and fierce competition.

The first frontier for which the two superpowers fought was near-Earth orbit. By the early fifties, both the USA and the USSR had samples of rocket technology that served as prototypes for launch vehicles of a later time.

Despite all the speed with which they worked, Soviet rocket scientists were the first to put the cargo into orbit, and on October 4, 1957, the first man-made satellite appeared in Earth orbit, which made 1440 orbits around the planet, and then burned up in the dense layers of the atmosphere.

Also, Soviet engineers were the first to launch the first living creature into orbit - a dog, and later a person. In April 1961, a rocket launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, in the cargo compartment of which there was the Vostok-1 spacecraft, in which Yuri Gagarin was. The event of launching the first man into space was risky.

In the conditions of the race, space exploration could cost an astronaut his life, since in a hurry to get ahead of the Americans, Russian engineers made a number of decisions that were quite risky from a technical point of view. However, both takeoff and landing were successful. So the USSR won the next stage of the competition, called the Space Race.

Flights to the Moon

Having lost the first few stages in space exploration, American politicians and scientists decided to set themselves a more ambitious and difficult task, for which the Soviet Union might simply not have had enough resources and technical developments.

The next milestone that needed to be taken was the flight to the Moon - the natural satellite of the Earth. The project, called Apollo, was initiated in 1961 and aimed to carry out a manned expedition to the Moon and land a man on its surface.

No matter how ambitious this task seemed at the time the project began, it was solved in 1969 with the landing of Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. In total, six manned flights to the earth's satellite were made as part of the program.

Defeat of the socialist camp

The Cold War, as we know, ended with the defeat of the socialist countries not only in the arms race, but also in economic competition. There is a consensus among most leading economists that the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist camp were economic.

Despite the fact that in some countries there is widespread resentment regarding the events of the late eighties and early nineties, for most countries in Eastern and Central Europe the liberation from Soviet domination turned out to be extremely favorable.

The list of the most important events of the 20th century invariably contains a line mentioning the fall of the Berlin Wall, which served as a physical symbol of the division of the world into two hostile camps. The date of the collapse of this symbol of totalitarianism is considered to be November 9, 1989.

Technological progress in the 20th century

The twentieth century was rich in inventions; never before had technological progress progressed at such a speed. Hundreds of very significant inventions and discoveries have been made over a hundred years, but a few of them are worthy of special mention because of their extreme importance for the development of human civilization.

One of the inventions without which modern life is unthinkable is, of course, the airplane. Despite the fact that people have dreamed of flight for many millennia, the first flight in human history was accomplished only in 1903. This achievement, fantastic in its consequences, belongs to the brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright.

Another important invention related to aviation was the backpack parachute, designed by St. Petersburg engineer Gleb Kotelnikov. It was Kotelnikov who received a patent for his invention in 1912. Also in 1910, the first seaplane was designed.

But perhaps the most terrible invention of the twentieth century was the nuclear bomb, the single use of which plunged humanity into horror that has not passed to this day.

Medicine in the 20th century

The technology of artificial production of penicillin is also considered one of the main inventions of the 20th century, thanks to which humanity was able to get rid of many infectious diseases. The scientist who discovered the bactericidal properties of the fungus was Alexander Fleming.

All advances in medicine in the twentieth century were inextricably linked with the development of such fields of knowledge as physics and chemistry. After all, without the achievements of fundamental physics, chemistry or biology, the invention of the X-ray machine, chemotherapy, radiation and vitamin therapy would have been impossible.

In the 21st century, medicine is even more closely connected with high-tech branches of science and industry, which opens up truly fascinating prospects in the fight against diseases such as cancer, HIV and many other intractable diseases. It is worth noting that the discovery of the DNA helix and its subsequent decoding also allows us to hope for the possibility of curing inherited diseases.

After the USSR

Russia in the 20th century experienced many disasters, including wars, including civil ones, the collapse of the country and revolutions. At the end of the century, another extremely important event happened - the Soviet Union ceased to exist, and in its place sovereign states were formed, some of which plunged into civil war or war with their neighbors, and some, like the Baltic countries, quickly joined the European Union and began building an effective democratic state.

Transcript

1 SECONDARY (FULL) GENERAL EDUCATION LITERATURE IN 11TH CLASS (basic level) Book for teachers Edited by I. N. Sukhikh Moscow Publishing center "Academy" 2010 Faculty of Philology and Arts St. Petersburg State University 2010

2 UDC: BBK ya721 L642 Authors: S.P. Belokurova (“Preface”; “General characteristics of the era. Literature in the twentieth century”; “Maxim Gorky”; “The Soviet century: two Russian literatures or one? General characteristics”; “In “.V. Mayakovsky”; “M.A. Sholokhov”; “B. L. Pasternak” in collaboration with E.N. Brodsky; V. Ezhova); M.G. Dorofeeva (“M. A. Bulgakov”; “A. T. Tvardovsky”; “V. M. Shukshin”; “N. M. Rubtsov”; “V. S. Vysotsky”; “S. D. Dovlatov”); "Conclusion. Unfinished disputes"); I. V. Ezhova (“S. A. Yesenin”; “I. A. Brodsky” in collaboration with S. P. Belokurova); T.Ya. Eremina (“A.I. Solzhenitsyn”); E.N. Kozlova (“A.A. Akhmatova”; “B.L. Pasternak” in collaboration with S.P. Belokurova); M.Yu. Startseva (“Soviet century: on different floors. General characteristics”; “Yu. V. Trifonov”); I.N.Sukhikh (“A.V.Vampilov”); I.L. Sholpo (“Silver Age: faces of modernism. General characteristics”; “A. A. Blok”; “I. A. Bunin”; “O. E. Mandelstam”; “M. I. Tsvetaeva”) Literature in grade 11 (basic level): book for L642 teachers: methodological manual: secondary (complete) general education / [S. P. Belokurova, M.G. Dorofeeva, I.V. Ezhova, etc.] ; edited by I.N.Sukhikh. M.: Publishing center "Academy", p. ISBN Book for teachers for the textbook by I. N. Sukhikh “Literature. 11th grade" is structured as lesson-by-lesson planning of the educational material of the course. Methodological recommendations include an indication of the approximate number of hours for reading and studying works of fiction, various types of questions and tasks (including analytical, research and creative, tasks for frontal, group and individual work), topics for research projects and a list of references for each topic of the program. For literature teachers. UDC: BBK ya721 The original layout of this publication is the property of the Publishing Center "Academy", and its reproduction in any way without the consent of the copyright holder is prohibited ISBN Belokurova S.P., Dorofeeva M.G., Ezhova I.V. and others, 2010 Educational and Publishing Center "Academy", 2010 Design. Publishing center "Academy", 2010

3 Preface “Literature. Grade 11 (basic level): a book for the teacher" and "Literature. Grade 11 (basic level): workshop" represent a comprehensive methodological support for literature lessons according to I.N. Sukhikh’s program 1 and involve the full use of materials from his textbook 2. The structure and objectives of the manuals are focused on the already carried out methodological support of the textbook by I.N. Sukhikh for grade 10 3. The methodological recommendations offered in the book for teachers are structured as lesson planning and include: title of the topic (including options); an indication of the approximate number of hours for studying biographical material, reading and studying works; the main types of questions and tasks for work in the lesson (reproductive, analytical, research, creative, generalizing, control 4, etc.; tasks for frontal, group and individual work); possible activities in the lesson for students and teachers; homework (individual, group, differentiated 5, optional, etc.); assignments for students’ independent work, topics for research projects, creative works, etc.; list of references for each topic. The teacher's book contains links to the workshop, which includes biographical materials, fragments of critical articles studied in the 11th grade literature course, texts of works for comparative analysis, questions and assignments of various types and levels of complexity. As a rule, when studying a work of art included in the program, from emotional perception through explanations, commentary, and vocabulary work, we move on to analysis-interpretation and then to the synthesis of meanings discovered in the process of analysis. Various types of written assignments will allow the teacher to monitor educational results. 3

4 To implement educational tasks, the method of “close (slow) reading”, the method of critical thinking, various methods of text interpretation, comparative analysis of literary texts, as well as the synthesis of traditional and innovative methods of studying literary texts are used. Questions and assignments from the textbook that are not covered in class can be offered to students as independent work, test papers, or topics for research projects. The teacher and students choose literature for additional reading from the list given at the end of each chapter of the textbook. A list of references for all topics is located on p. 266 methodological manual. Footnotes and notes are given after the overview and monographic chapters. The lesson planning proposed in the teacher's book is designed for a basic level of learning, but this material can be creatively used in classes of any profile. The program allocates 102 hours (3 lessons per week) to study the literature course in grade 11. The manual contains notes from 100 lessons. Two lessons are reserved. Footnotes and notes 1 See: Sukhikh I.N. Literature: program for classes (basic level). M., See: Sukhikh I.N. Literature. Grade 11 (basic level): textbook. M., See: Belokurova S.P., Sukhikh I.N. Russian literature in grade 10 (basic level): a book for teachers. M., 2008; Belokurova S.P., Sukhikh I.N. Literature. Grade 10 (basic level): workshop. M., If the task is proposed to be completed in writing, this is specifically stated. In other cases, tasks are completed orally. 5 Tasks of increased complexity are marked with *.

5 General characteristics of the era. Literature in the 20th century (2 hours) Lesson 1. The twentieth century: beginnings and ends (chronology of historical events of the 20th century) I. Teacher reading the chapter of the textbook “Calendar and History: Short 20th Century”. What are the historical boundaries of the Present Twentieth Century? II. Independent work. Fill out the table “Main dates and historical events of the 20th century” (see Workshop. General characteristics of the era. Literature in the 20th century, task 1). III. Conversation with students. Read excerpts from the article by culturologist M.N. Epstein “De" but de sièсle, or From post- to proto-. Manifesto of the New Century” (see Workshop. General characteristics of the era. Literature in the twentieth century, task 2). What discoveries and achievements in the field of science, philosophy, and the social sphere determined the face of the 20th century? Which of them turned out to be hostile to man in the future? Do you share the expectations and concerns of a cultural scientist about the 21st century? Write a miniature essay on one of the topics: “What kind of future unknown civilization do I imagine and what is the place of the book in it?” or “Which works of the 19th and 20th centuries will be in demand in our century?” V. Homework 1. Read the chapters of the textbook “Russia: the last years of imperial power”, “World War: the collapse of the empire”, “1917: we will drive the nag of history.” "," "USSR: advances and retreats of Soviet power", "Great Patriotic War: the bitter greatness of Victory", "Thaw: turning point", "Stagnation: lost decades?", "1991: new Russia". the main stages and events of Russian history of the twentieth century and the response to them in literature (see Workshop. General characteristics of the era. Literature in the twentieth century, task 5).

6 6 *How would you answer the question posed in the chapter title, “Stagnation: The Lost Decades?”, from the perspective of a historian and from the perspective of a reader? 2. Read excerpts from A. I. Solzhenitsyn’s book “The Gulag Archipelago: An Experience in Artistic Research.” What dates and events of the “short twentieth century” do you consider necessary to include in the table “The main stages and events of Russian history of the twentieth century and their reflection in literature”? Give reasons for your opinion (see Workshop. General characteristics of the era. Literature in the twentieth century, task 4). What works about these events do you know? Why are almost all of them classified as “returned literature”? 3. Copy from the textbook, encyclopedic dictionary and dictionary of literary terms the definitions of the concepts censorship, dissident, samizdat, tamizdat, cult of personality, “returned literature”, publicity. Individual tasks. 1. *Find historical parallels between the events and eras of the 19th and 20th centuries. 2. Read an article about the feat of the Russian military conductor and composer I. A. Shatrov, a poem written to the music of his famous waltz “On the Hills of Manchuria,” the text of the famous song “Varyag” and a commentary on it (see Workshop. General characteristics of the era. Literature in the twentieth century, task 5). How were these songs reflected in the people’s attitude towards the “small victorious war” with Japan? Why did both of them become so popular during the Great Patriotic War? 3. Name the works you know about the First World War and the Great Patriotic War. Why are these historical events reflected differently in literature? 4. Read the poem by B.A. Slutsky “The Twenties, When We Were.” Answer question 10 to the chapter of the textbook “The Twentieth Century: From Russia to Russia.” “What eras and historical events does the poet have in mind? How does its historical periodization differ from the one on which the textbook chapter is based?” Continue “on behalf of the poet” to characterize the eras until the turn of the 21st century. 5. Read an excerpt from an article by historian N.A. Troitsky and, using the chronographs of monographic topics (personalities), as well as materials from the chapter “Literature and

7 power: martyrology of the 20th century" (section "Soviet century: two Russian literatures or one?"), compose a martyrology of writers and poets of the 20th century (see Workshop. General characteristics of the era. Literature in the 20th century, task 6). Lesson 2. Literature of the 20th century: chronicle of the era I. Work with the table (homework 1 including messages from students who completed individual homework 1 4). II. Discussion of homework questions 2. III. Teacher's lecture. Lecture plan. 1. Realism and modernism in the literature of the beginning of the century. 2. A variety of artistic methods and trends of the 1990s. 3. “Socialist realism” as the leading method of Soviet literature. 4. “Poets and Leaders”: the fate of Russian writers of the twentieth century (including a message from a student who completed individual homework 5). IV. Reading by the teacher of a chapter of the textbook “History and Literature: Good! poet." V. Homework. Paperwork. Do you agree that “good!” poet has “absolute, final meaning” for history? Literature Troitsky N.A. Russia in the 19th century. M., Epstein M.N. De" but de sièсle, or From post- to proto-. Manifesto of the new century // Znamya

8 Silver Age: faces of modernism 8 General characteristics (10 hours) Lesson 3. Silver Age: renaissance or decline? I. Discussion of question 8 for the section of the textbook “Silver Age: Faces of Modernism.” “Read the poem by B. A. Slutsky, The Confused Century. What century does the poet mean? Why does he call less than two decades a century? What inventions and scientific theories, besides those mentioned by Slutsky, is this era associated with?” II. Conversation with students. Match the words “gold”, “silver”, “copper”, “iron”. What associations do the phrases “golden age”, “silver age”, “copper age”, “iron age” evoke in you? What do you know about the Silver Age of Russian culture? III. Independent work with the textbook. Read the textbook chapter “Name and Grades: Renaissance or Decline?” and write down in your notebook excerpts from the statements of F.A. Stepun, N.A. Berdyaev and M. Gorky about the Silver Age in two columns (signs of prosperity and signs of decline). Do you see decadence or renaissance, beginning or end, flourishing or decline in the era of the Silver Age? What, from your point of view, is the main contradiction of this era? Draw conclusions based on your observations. IV. Discussion of question 1 in the textbook for the section “Silver Age: Faces of Modernism.”

9 “What are the boundaries of the cultural era called the Silver Age? How are they determined? Why do estimates of this era differ so significantly?” V. Conversation on the painting “Dinner” by L.S. Bakst. What impression does this picture make on you? How is it different from the portraits or genre paintings of the 19th century that you know? What associations does the top third of the picture evoke (try covering the bottom two thirds)? 1 What does the lady look like to you? What definition would you give to her smile? What can you say about the artist's relationship with the model? Is the heroine good or evil? How are interior items and the human figure connected? What is most important for the artist in this picture? How does the painting reflect the worldview of its era? VI. Conversation on the painting by M.V. Dobuzhinsky “Man with Glasses” (portrait of the poet and art critic K.A. Sünnerberg). Compare this portrait with portraits of 19th-century writers and critics that you know. What is its unusualness (pay attention to the relationship between the background and the figure, the nature of the background, the pose of the person being portrayed, his position relative to the light source, attributes, the image of the face)? What is special about the title of the painting? What do you think it is connected with? Why do you think this picture is considered so characteristic of the understanding of the era? VII. Homework. 1. Read the chapter of the textbook “Evolution: decadence modernism avant-garde.” 2. Answer questions 2 and 3 in the textbook for the section “Silver Age: Faces of Modernism.” “What is the difference between the concepts of decadence, modernism and avant-garde? What aspects of the cultural life of the Silver Age do they define? “What was the attitude of the decadents, modernists and avant-garde artists to the traditions of classical literature and art?” 3. Read the poems of the symbolist poets F.K. Sologub (“Do not terrify me with a threat”), V.Ya. Bryusov (“There is something shameful in the power of nature”, “Pale stars 9

10 trembled"), K.D. Balmont ("I caught the departing shadows with a dream"), Vyach.I. Ivanov ("Poets of the Spirit", "Mysticism"), A. Belogo ("Twilight of Heavenly Candles"), Z. N. Gippius (“Song”) and fragments of articles by D. S. Merezhkovsky “On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature”, K. D. Balmont “Elementary words about symbolic poetry” and N. A. Berdyaev “Russian idea” "(see Workshop. Silver Age: faces of modernism. General characteristics, task 1). What motives seemed to you to be leading in the lyrics of the Symbolists? What symbolic images are repeated in their poems? What are the features of the poetics of symbolism (the relationship between the signified and the signifier in a poetic image, the specificity of rhythm and composition, the interaction of the external world and the world of the soul)? How do you imagine the “picture of the world” in Symbolist poetry? How do symbolists understand the meaning of symbolism and the purpose of poetry? What musical and pictorial associations arise when reading symbolist poetry? Which art form is closer to symbolism? 10 Lesson 4. Symbolism: the art of the Other I. Students’ answers to homework questions 2. II. Teacher's word. In Russia, modernism was represented mainly by three directions: symbolism, acmeism and futurism. The most authoritative of them was symbolism, which was formed in France and became widespread in literature, painting, music, architecture and theater of many European countries at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1886, several young French poets created a group that later formed the aesthetic principles of a new literary movement. These principles were formulated by J. Moreas in the “Manifesto of Symbolism.” Moreas also determined the nature of the symbol, which was supposed to take the place of the traditional artistic image. In the 1890s, symbolism also appeared in Russia. What new does this direction bring to art? In order to get the most clear idea of ​​its features, let's look at two pictures. III. A comparison of the paintings by P.A. Fedotov “The Major’s Matchmaking” and V. E. Borisov-Musatov’s “Reservoir”.

11 Which of the paintings do you think was painted earlier and which later? Why did you decide so? In which of the paintings is the plot more clearly expressed? What are the features of the composition of each of the paintings? In which film are the characters more connected to each other? By what means is this connection expressed? What is the compositional unity of one and the other painting based on? Which painting will suffer more when reproduced in black and white? Why? Is it possible to replace some colors in these paintings, for example, the color of the characters’ clothes? 2 What role does the image of the real objective world play in each picture? What is the role of the title in each of the paintings? What is the fundamental difference between the names? IV. Conversation with students. V. E. Borisov-Musatov is an artist whose work is classified as Russian symbolism. How does symbolist painting differ from realistic painting? 3 What is a symbol? How is it different from allegory? Give examples of symbolic images and allegorical images from the works of the 19th century that you studied earlier. Symbolist poet Andrei Bely defined the symbol as follows: “The symbol is a window to Eternity.” How do you understand this definition? V. Conversation on homework 3. VI. Paperwork. Write a miniature essay on the topic “Window to Eternity.” VII. Homework. Complete your written work. Lesson 5. V. Ya. Bryusov: designer of Russian symbolism I. Reading and discussion of written works. II. Conversation on the poem “Creativity” by V.Ya. Bryusov (the text of the poem is given in the chapter of the textbook “Symbolism: a window to Eternity”). What in the text raises questions or bewilderment? What pictures do you imagine when reading a poem? eleven

12 Read the commentary to the poem in the textbook. Does it make everything clear in the text? Does this comment change the perception of the text? What does “shadow of uncreated creatures” mean? Why is the poem called “Creativity”? What is poetic creativity for Bryusov? 12 III. Teacher's lecture about Valery Bryusov. Lecture plan. 1. The beginning of V.Ya. Bryusov’s literary activity in the 1890s. 2. Three collections of “Russian Symbolists” from the beginning of Russian symbolism. 3. Collections “Chefs-d uvre” (“Masterpieces”, 1895) and “Me eum esse” (“This is me”, 1897). 4. The change in the poet’s worldview and the nature of his poetry during the years of the first Russian revolution: the collections “Tertia vigilia” (“Third Watch”, 1900), “Urbi et Orbi” (“To the City and the World”, 1903), “Stephanos” (“Wreath ", 1906) and "All the tunes" (1909). 5. Life after the revolution. Cultural, educational and pedagogical activities. IV. Independent work. Read the poems by V.Ya. Bryusov “Sonnet to Form”, “And having left people, I went into silence”, “I”, “Egyptian Slave”. What is the poetic and moral credo of V.Ya. Bryusov? What is most important to him in poetry? What literary associations did you have when reading the poem “And having left people, I went into silence”? What role do images of world history play in V.Ya. Bryusov’s poems (see Workshop. The Silver Age: Faces of Modernism. General characteristics, task 2)? V. Homework. Answer question 11 in writing in the textbook for the section “Silver Age: Faces of Modernism.” “Read the poem by G.V. Adamovich I don’t forget anything. Which poem does Adamovich enter into dialogue with? Why did he choose him? How does the poet reinterpret his predecessor's poem? What thought, what feeling is dominant in Adamovich’s poem?”

13 Lesson 6. K. D. Balmont and A. Bely: two generations of Russian symbolists I. The teacher’s word. If V. Ya. Bryusov tried to “hypnotize” the reader with a combination of images, then another senior symbolist, K. D. Balmont, tried to do this with the play of sound and the music of phrases. “I am the sophistication of Russian slow speech,” he wrote about himself. II. Analysis of K.D. Balmont’s poem “The Man of Longing” (see Workshop. The Silver Age: Faces of Modernism. General characteristics, task 3). What means of artistic expression does the poet use? What is their role in creating the image? What is the role of alliteration and assonance? Compare “The Boat of Longing” with “Sail” by M.Yu. Lermontov. What do these poems have in common and in what ways are they different? How does Balmont’s image-symbol differ from the symbolic image in poetry of the first half of the 19th century? III. Teacher's word. There are two groups, two generations of Russian symbolists. The senior symbolists include V.Ya.Bryusov, D.S.Merezhkovsky, F.K. Sologub, Z.N.Gippius, K.D.Balmont. The younger generation of symbolists, the so-called “young symbolists”, are A.A. Blok, Andrei Bely (pseudonym of B.N. Bugaev), Vyach. I. Ivanov. The difference between them is not so much age as aesthetic. IV. Comparison of the cycle of poems by K.D. Balmont “The Voice of Sunset” and Andrei Bely’s poem “The Sun” (see Workshop. Silver Age: faces of modernism. General characteristics, task 4). What is the symbolic meaning of the image of the sun in these poems? What picture do you get when you read each of them? How does a real image in the poems of K. D. Balmont degenerate into a symbol? How does Andrei Bely’s poem differ from them? What conclusion can be drawn based on this about the difference between the poetics of younger and older symbolists? Compare your analysis with the one given in your textbook (chapter “Symbolism: a window to Eternity”). What observations of I. N. Sukhikh seem especially important to you? 13

14 V. Analysis of the poems by V.S. Solovyov “Vertical Horizons”, “Canticles are Burning in the Heavens”. What stylistic figure is the main one in the poem “Vertical Horizons”? 4 What images and features of symbolist poetry become the subject of ridicule in the poem “The chandeliers are burning in the heavens”? Why do these particular features of the Symbolists’ poetics evoke the irony of V.S. Solo’ev? (see Workshop. Silver Age: faces of modernism. General characteristics, task 5). VI. Homework. 1. Read the chapter of the textbook “Symbolism: A Window to Eternity.” 2. Read the poems of the Acmeist poets O.E. Mandelstam (“No, not the moon, but a bright dial”, “Inexpressible sadness”), N.S. Gumilyov (“One evening”, “Eight lines”), M.A. Kuzmina (“Such days, the happiest dates”), A.A. Akhmatova (“I learned to live simply, wisely”), G.V. Ivanova (“On melancholic evenings”, “Exists in the lithographs of ancient masters”, “Vase with fruits"), S.M. Gorodetsky (“He believes in weight, he honors space”, “The world is spacious and polyphonic”) and fragments of articles by N.S. Gumilyov “The Legacy of Symbolism and Acmeism” and M.A. Kuzmin “On Beautiful Clarity” (see Workshop. Silver Age: faces of modernism. General characteristics, task 6). 14 Lesson 7. Acmeism: the art of This I. The teacher’s word. Symbolism created a new concept of art, significantly updated aesthetics and became the dominant trend in Russian literature for a decade. However, in 1910, a crisis in this direction was emerging. And in 1913, a new word “Acmeism” appeared in Russian literature. Acmeists and heirs and deniers of symbolism. They developed their own concept of art and their own aesthetics. II. Conversation with students on homework 2. What are the features of the rhythmic-intonation structure of the Acmeist lyrics? What are the features of the poetics of Acmeism (the relationship between the signified and the signifier in the poetic image, the specificity of the composition of poems, the interaction of the external world and the world of the soul)?

15 Why did N. Gumilyov, M. Kuzmin and others call themselves acmeists (from the Greek akme the highest degree of something, flowering, peak, stone) or Adamists? What did they strive to achieve at the top? What is the essence of their aesthetic program? How, from your point of view, do Acmeists differ from Symbolists? What musical and pictorial associations arise in you when reading Acmeist poetry? Which art form is closer to Acmeism? III. Independent work with the textbook. Read the chapter of the textbook “Acmeism: from symbol to thing” before the story about N. S. Gumilyov and write down the main points of the chapter. IV. Homework. Individual tasks. 1. Based on the text of the textbook, prepare a short story about the life of N.S. Gumilyov. 2. Based on the questions from the workshop, tell us about the lyrical hero of the “Captains” cycle. How do the four poems in the cycle differ from each other and how do they relate to each other? How is the plot structured in the first poem? What visual means are used to create the image of the captain in it? What does the second poem add to this image? What is its broad, generalizing meaning? Why is the third poem, telling about sailors, included in the “Captains” cycle? What sound does the fourth poem give to the entire cycle? Why exactly does it close the cycle? How do you see Gumilyov’s lyrical hero? (see Workshop. Silver Age: faces of modernism. General characteristics, task 7). 3. Prepare a report about the features of Gumilyov’s love lyrics, based on questions from the workshop. Read the poems by N.S. Gumilyov dedicated to A.A. Akhmatova: “Addis Ababa, the city of roses,” “Poisoned,” “By the fireplace.” What is the mood of the acrostic poem dedicated to Anna Akhmatova? By what means is it created? How does the motif of poison develop in the poem “Poisoned”? How does this poem characterize the lyrical hero? What is love for him? 15

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