Harvesting of coniferous trees. Wood harvesting presentation for a technology lesson on the topic

20.05.2016 12:18

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The Russian Federation is the world leader in terms of forest reserves, owning twenty-two percent of the world's forest reserves. Wood reserves in our country amount to more than eighty billion cubic meters, more than forty billion cubic meters are suitable for use.

Forestry industry of the Russian Federation

The industrial sector, whose enterprises are engaged in the procurement and processing of wood, is called the forest industry or forestry complex. It is one of the oldest industrial sectors and has a complex structure. Each part of this structure is responsible for one of the stages of processing wood raw materials.

The structure of the forest industry is as follows:

1. The logging industry, which includes timber harvesting, logging (extraction of resin and preparation of stump tar), rafting of logs, activities for transferring wood from one type of transport to another, the use of non-valuable wood species and waste (sawmill, sawing sleepers, making chips, boards for containers). It is the largest timber processing industry.
2. Woodworking industry.
3. The pulp and paper industry mechanically and chemically processes wood raw materials.
4. The wood chemical industry processes wood raw materials using the dry method, engages in charcoal burning, and creates rosin and turpentine. This industry includes the production of varnish, ether, plastics, unnatural fibers, hydrolysis (creation of ethyl, tar, turpentine from waste in the manufacture of pulp and paper products).

The forestry and woodworking industries of Russia are conventionally divided into the following groups:

1. creation of lumber and furniture (mechanical processing);
2. wood chemical industry and the creation of pulp and paper products (chemical processing method).

Industrial enterprises related to the forestry and woodworking industries are engaged in:

1. harvesting of wood material;
2. processing of wood material;
3. wood chemical industrial processing of forest raw materials;
4. production of pulp and paper products.

These factories and plants produce round timber, boards, various wooden objects, forest chemical products and paper.

Conditions for the distribution of enterprises that belong to the forest industry

To locate enterprises related to the forest industry, The following conditions should be taken into account:

1. so that the raw material base is located close;
2. there must be sources of energy supply and water sources near the enterprise;
3. the presence of transport and transport roads is necessary;
4. it is better to create forest products in close proximity to their consumers;
5. create jobs.

Coniferous trees predominate on the territory of our state; they are more valuable for industry than trees with leaves. Our forests grow unevenly geographically. The largest number of forests is in several regions: Northern, Ural, Volga-Vyatka, Far Eastern and Siberian.

This industry consumes a lot of wood raw materials and leaves a large amount of waste. Twenty percent of the waste comes from the wood harvesting stage, and from forty percent to seventy percent of the waste is left as a result of processing raw wood materials.

The most important condition for locating industrial wood processing enterprises is the availability of wood raw materials. Therefore, all processes for harvesting and subsequent processing of “business” wood are carried out in those regions of Russia where there are many natural forests. The northern, Siberian, Ural and Far Eastern territories of the country provide four-fifths of all industrial wood.

Sawmills and other wood processing (production of parts for construction needs, plywood, matches, furniture) can be located both in places where timber is harvested and in places where there are no forests (already cut trees are brought there). Basically, forest cutting and processing enterprises are located near rivers (lower reaches and mouths) and places where rivers along which logs are floated are crossed by railways.

Most lumber is produced in Siberia (its eastern and western parts, namely: in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, Irkutsk Region, Tomsk Region and Tyumen Region), the North (in the Komi Republic and the Arkhangelsk Region), the Urals (in the Udmurt Republic, Sverdlovsk Region, Perm region), the Far East (Primorsky Territory, Khabarovsk Territory), in the Kirov region, in the Nizhny Novgorod region.

Woodworking industry of the Russian Federation

This industrial branch performs mechanical, chemical and mechanical processing of wood.

It includes several productions:

1. sawmill (creation of sleepers and lumber);
2. production of houses from wood;
3. production of wooden parts for construction;
4. production of wood-based boards (blocks for doors and windows, parquet boards, wood fiber boards, wood chip boards, carpentry products);
5. production of containers from wood;
6. production of plywood, including parts that are glued and bent, as well as veneer;
7. making matches;
8. furniture manufacturing;
9. production of other wood products (wood flour, skis, frames for greenhouses).

Problems of the forest industry

Today there is a crisis in the forest industry. Although Russia is the first in the world in terms of forest resources, the wood processing, timber and pulp and paper products industries account for only a little more than three percent of total production. This is due to a decrease in demand for this type of product in the Russian domestic market. The market of the Commonwealth of Independent States is also in decline, which is why purchases of forest materials and pulp and paper products in the Russian Federation have decreased. This industry in Russia has become dependent on the foreign market. But in recent years, we have begun to export more “business” wood, cardboard, paper, and plywood to other countries. Seventy-one percent of the Russian Federation's forest products are exported.

Forest reserves are affected by excessive human economic activity and emergency situations (fires). Unauthorized cutting of trees is the main problem for the development of the timber industry in our country. There is currently no clear forest policy. To prevent such logging, it is necessary to eliminate the social instability of residents of the regions where wood is harvested and processed (increasing the number of jobs, opening new enterprises, using alternative energy sources).

Another problem was reducing the loss of raw materials during the harvesting and processing of wood. Wood raw materials should be used rationally (reduce wood waste and losses due to untimely or improper transportation, effectively use wood waste).

It should be remembered that wood processing plants and factories pollute the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to take measures to protect the environment (use treatment facilities, improve production technologies and update equipment).

Directions in which the forest industry needs to be developed

In order to save wood raw materials and increase forest reserves, the forest industry must develop in several directions:

1. apply waste-free technologies;
2. reduce losses of raw materials from wood during its harvesting and alloying;
3. reduce the consumption of wood for the manufacture of sleepers by replacing them with reinforced concrete sleepers and increasing the service life of wood sleepers;
4. replace wooden containers with plastic containers;
5. use coniferous raw materials exclusively for their intended purpose;
6. restore forest lands;
7. protect the forest from fires and unauthorized logging;
8. develop an optimal model for wood resource management;
9. improve legislation for the protection of forest lands.

Thus, we can conclude that in the Russian Federation the forestry and wood processing industries are mainly concentrated in Siberia, the Urals, the North and the Far East. We provide ourselves with sawmill materials, cardboard, paper and plywood. And in order to continue to meet our needs for products made from wood raw materials, we need to restore forests and minimize environmental pollution during wood processing.

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Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

St. Petersburg State Forestry University named after S. M. Kirov

Department of Forestry

Test

In the discipline "Forestry"

Students of Nefedova Irina

St. Petersburg 2013

Question 1. Name the tasks of final fellings (FFL) and the conditions that must be met when carrying them out

Final felling is carried out in mature and overmature plantings and pursues mainly two goals: harvesting wood to meet the needs of various sectors of the national economy and replacing old plantings with young, more productive ones. Compliance with these principles ensures timely restoration of deforested areas, continuous sustainable forest management and an increase in the environmental protection role of forest ecosystems.

Final fellings (FCU). Fellings, with the help of which industrial timber harvesting takes place in mature and overmature plantations, the main purpose of which is precisely timber harvesting (which formally distinguishes RGP from intermediate felling). Currently, there is no clear boundary between the main and intermediate fellings in terms of organizational and technical characteristics. Three main systems of final felling are used: clear, gradual, selective.

Final fellings are the main component of one of the types of use. They are carried out in accordance with the regional Rules for final felling, which are a regulatory document and are based on the forest fund of the Russian Federation as a natural and economic object of federal property. These fellings are carried out in all forms of farming: high-trunk (plantations of predominantly seed origin, intended for growing large-sized wood), medium-trunk (plantings combining the features of high-trunk and low-trunk farming of mixed seed and vegetative origin), low-trunk (plantings of vegetative origin, intended for growing relatively small wood assortments).

Clear-cutting (clear-cutting) - felling in which stands of trees that have reached the age of felling (ripeness) are cut down in one go, after which a treeless area remains - clearing (sometimes with preserved undergrowth). There are regional Rules that define silvicultural standards and methods of felling, taking into account the characteristics of local forest conditions (Age of felling, Age of forest maturity, Forest conditions)

Clear cuttings are the main method of final felling in Russia; they are used in forests of groups II and III. When clear cutting is carried out in a cutting area, all trees are cut down from a diameter at breast height of 8 or 12 cm, and in cedar plantations - from 28 cm, leaving seed trees of valuable species to be cut down. The following features are characteristic of clear felling:

1) mature or overmature tree stands are cut down in one step, which can last up to 1 year;

2) after felling, a even-aged or conditionally even-aged forest stand appears on the area, provided that the undergrowth is preserved during felling;

3) artificial restoration of forests produces stands of absolutely the same age;

4) the use of mechanisms turns out to be the most productive, and the cost of harvested wood is the cheapest.

Depending on the area of ​​the cutting area and its parameters, clear-cutting is divided into narrow-cutting, wide-cutting, concentrated, strip-gradual and conditionally clear-cutting.

Gradual felling is a final felling in which the tree stand is cut down in several stages over 1-2 age classes. There are uniformly gradual fellings (with each step the tree stand is evenly thinned out), group-gradual (with each step, groups of trees occupying an area of ​​0.005 - 0.03 hectares are cut down), hollow (with each step, groups of trees occupying an area of ​​0.03 - 1 hectare are cut down, and ), strip-gradual (at each step, parallel strips are cut down, separated by uncut strips that are multiples of their width), long-gradual (two-step felling, carried out in forest stands of different ages, with trees that have reached operational size being felled in the first step, and those left behind in the second step). trees).

Selective logging is general logging in which a portion of trees of a certain age, size, quality or condition are cut down (usually all or part of the trees that have reached operational size). There are voluntary selective felling (uniform selective felling, in which trees that are mature, overmature, and mature with slow growth are cut down first), group selective felling, in which clumps of large trees are cut down, forced selective felling (selective felling, with which involves cutting down all trees that have reached the size and quality required by the logger). Compulsory-selective labor is currently not formally applied. In reality, almost all selective final fellings carried out in the Russian forest fund are forced and selective.

Question 2: What are the environmental consequences of clear-cutting?

Clear cutting is a cutting where the tree stand is cut down completely in one go. In certain cases, after felling, a small part of the tree stand remains standing, in particular, thin wood.

Clear cuttings cause changes in forest growth conditions: light and thermal conditions change sharply, noticeable hydrological changes occur, and therefore ground and soil conditions and the composition of the forests emerging after cutting can greatly change (change of species). Clear-cutting varies in the size and shape of the areas being cut, as well as in the intensity of the felling of the tree stand.

Serious disadvantages that entail environmental consequences include a strong change in the forest environment. Concentrated felling, breaking the complex multifactorial relationships and interactions of the components of the plant community, in any type of forest leads to a catastrophic change in the forest phytocenosis. During the logging process, not only the structural part of the phytocenosis (tree stand) is removed, but it is also significantly disturbed. In this case, self-seeding and undergrowth are almost completely destroyed, litter is torn off over a large area and mixed with the upper soil horizon. In practice, new forest growing conditions are created, and the ecological influence of the former forest is lost. The zoocenosis (its composition) also changes greatly, because protective factors disappear and sometimes new resources become available. Complete removal of trees, processing of nanorelief and soil, disruption of forest litter, living ground cover, undergrowth, undergrowth, etc. lead to significant dynamics of the most important soil-forming processes, ammonification, nitrification; other destruction of cellulose and decomposition of soil humus are observed. The structural part of the biocenosis - the climate (atmosphere) - also changes. There are sharp changes in the temperature and humidity of the air, its movement and composition. Such logging makes significant changes to the nature of the forest, especially to the ecological situation. They lead to a simplification of the natural environment, a decrease in plant mass, and disruption of the environment as a whole. Such fellings contribute to the formation of unproductive types of clearings that approach grass, lichen, and moss biocenoses and poorly perform ecological functions.

With the removal of the maternal canopy, the conditions in the clearings change dramatically: the influx of solar radiation and illumination increases up to 20 times, the relative humidity decreases, the wind speed increases, and significant temperature changes and changes in the moisture content of the root layer of soil are observed in the clearings. A sharp change in the ecological situation leads to the fact that the process of natural reforestation sometimes stretches for many years, and the area cleared during this period not only loses its protective functions, but is also removed from the cultivation process. Carrying out concentrated cuttings in the forests of the southern zone can lead to turf and even steppe formation of clearings, and in the forests of the northern zone - to swamping. In such clearings there is a high risk of the formation of pockets of harmful insects, especially May beetle, and insufficient cleaning of cutting areas is characterized by a sharp increase in fire danger.

Concentrated logging in plantations of different ages causes especially great harm, because inherently do not correspond to the nature of such plantings. In forest plots where there is an unfavorable water-air regime (ruts, depressions), moisture-loving sphagnum, cuckoo flax, cotton grass, and sometimes shrubby willows will first settle. There is no regeneration by tree species in the first decade after cutting down. Their settlement occurs only in the space between the tracks and along the sides of the portages. Due to the high density of soils and poverty of nutrients in areas with destroyed soil cover, in the first years after the settlement of tree species, their growth is stunted. The roots of established woody plants are not able to penetrate the compacted soil, and self-seeding dies when washed out by precipitation and squeezed out by frost.

The negative impact of concentrated logging has been aggravated by the mechanization of logging.

Such logging in most forest types necessitates expensive silvicultural work. Such cuttings contribute to the formation of unproductive types of felling, lose protective functions, and slow down the aging processes of natural forest regeneration. However, with strict adherence to silvicultural requirements for logging technology on gentle slopes, logging does not cause erosion processes.

Question 3. Give the rationale and characteristics of group-gradual felling. In which forest stands should they be used?

Group selective felling is carried out in all groups of forests from grouped stands of different ages, with predominantly group removal of overmature and ripe trees being carried out in accordance with their distribution over the area. The standards for logging in terms of intensity and frequency are the same as for voluntary selective logging. Group-gradual and hollow cuttings, in which the tree stand is cut down in groups (hollows) in several stages in places where there are clumps of undergrowth, for two age classes, are carried out in even-aged stands with group placement of undergrowth over the area of ​​the forest area. The felling of mature trees is carried out gradually around groups of undergrowth on areas of 0.005-0.030 hectares and up to 1.0 hectares (in hollows) in 3-5 stages, carried out over 30-40 years.

They are carried out in all groups of forests, but mainly in forests of the first and second groups.

In accordance with the characteristics of the structure of forest stands, the nature of the displacement of species and the distribution of young growth available under the canopy over the area, group-gradual ones are carried out.

Depending on the completeness and composition of the forest stand, the presence of second-tier trees and undergrowth under its canopy, and their condition, two- or three-, less often four-stage gradual felling is used.

All types of gradual felling are carried out under the condition that the stability of thinned stands in groups of forest types on sufficiently deep drained soils is ensured.

Question 4. Tell us about measures to promote natural reforestation after clear cutting

clear logging ecological

Measures to promote natural forest regeneration include all activities aimed at creating favorable conditions for successful forest regeneration. They can be carried out before or after felling, as well as simultaneously with it. In some cases, such activities may pursue other goals not related to logging.

All measures to promote natural regeneration of forests can be combined into the following seven groups:

1) logging technologies with the preservation of undergrowth;

2) thinning of tree stands and undergrowth;

3) abandonment of seed sources;

4) mechanical impact on litter and soil;

5) roasting - controlled fire in clearings;

6) clearing of clearings;

7) rational organization of livestock grazing.

All these activities can be carried out either separately or in combination with each other. To enhance the reforestation effect of assistance measures, several measures should be simultaneously applied that organically complement each other. For example, thinning of stands and undergrowth, along with increasing the flow of light into the crowns (increased seed production) and under the canopy (improving light conditions for undergrowth), should be supplemented by an effect on the litter and soil (mineralization). Leaving seed sources should be accompanied by mechanical or fire impact on the litter and soil.

1. The use of logging technologies with the preservation of undergrowth is a highly effective measure with mandatory observance of technological discipline. According to G.F. Morozov, any forest cutting should be synonymous with renewal. This means that after felling, in the place where the mature forest was harvested, young growth of economically valuable species should remain. This can only be achieved by preserving reliable undergrowth of the preliminary generation. The forester must worry about the accumulation of this undergrowth in advance, ensuring favorable conditions for reforestation under the canopy of the tree stand that is to be felled.

2. Thinning of the tree stand and undergrowth. It is used for reforestation felling - gradual and selective according to degrees of intensity (very low intensity - the volume of cut wood reaches 10 percent of its total stock, low intensity - 11...20 percent, moderate intensity - 21...30 percent, moderately high intensity - 31...40 percent, high intensity - 41...50 percent; very high intensity - 51...70 percent)

3. Leaving seed sources. At clear-cutting sites of mature, overmature forest plantations, while promoting natural reforestation, the sources of contamination identified during the allotment of cutting areas are preserved, which include single seed trees, seed groups, clumps, strips, as well as forest walls, if they contain seed trees.

The number of individual seeds left must be at least 20 per hectare. The distance between groups of testes should not exceed 100 m.

Seed groups of 3...5 trees are left in case of increased danger of windfall of pine, spruce and increased germination of seeds in larch (cross-pollination is required). The abandonment of seed groups should be carried out primarily at the expense of areas of middle-aged and ripening forest stands of the main species.

Individual seed plants should be selected in a tree stand based on external features that characterize their wind resistance: the camber of the trunk in the presence of an extended symmetrical crown. individual seed trees and groups of pine trees left in clear-cut areas.

Some trees (selected without taking into account their wind resistance) have residual deformation of the trunks due to strong wind load

Sources of contamination in the form of clumps and strips are left, as a rule, from species that are weakly resistant to wind (spruce, fir) and in areas with moist, poorly drained soils. Seed clumps can occupy an area from 0.01 ha to 1.0 ha. The width of the seed strips to maintain stability must be at least 30 m.

4. Mechanical impact on litter and soil - mineralization of the soil surface is carried out by various tillage tools, which must correspond to soil and ground conditions. On soils with excess moisture, it is necessary to create micro-highs. For heavy or light soils with different conditions of living ground cover, various tools are used - from anchor peelers to cutters, cultivators, plows.

5. Firing - controlled fire. This measure is one of the most effective, however, it is also unsafe. With appropriate measures, it is carried out in the countries of the Scandinavian Peninsula. In Russia, the measure is not applied due to fear of letting the fire get out of control. "Fire is a bad master, but a good apprentice." However, since 1998, in the forests of Siberia, VNIIPOMleskhoz has been introducing burning of litter and combustible materials under the forest canopy to reduce forest fires. This relatively inexpensive, but quite effective technology for reducing forest fires consists of regulating the reserves of forest combustible materials using controlled preventive strip burnings.

This technology does not contradict the current Fire Safety Rules in Forests of the Russian Federation, which allow controlled burning to prevent forest fires, including on non-forested lands of the forest fund, on fire barriers in early spring, as well as for burning the ground cover between two mineralized strips .

The results of research by VNIIPOMleskhoz showed that strip burning is effective in forest vegetation and meteorological conditions that provide optimal burning parameters of forest litter, destruction of the main combustion conductors and other small ground combustible materials without causing damage to plantings.

Burning of combustible materials in strips of the required width under the canopy of plantings is carried out before the onset of a high fire danger. Area burning should be carried out within closed blocks of existing or newly created barriers to spread combustion through ground combustible materials. The most effective and cost-effective way to create such obstacles is to use strips of high-expansion foam.

Studies have shown that a relatively low-intensity controlled fire does not cause significant damage to the forest stand, completely or significantly destroying litter, shrubs and deciduous undergrowth. At the same time, pine is able to withstand low fire without significant damage even in a middle-aged tree stand due to its thick, heat-insulating bark.

Since 1998, scientists in the Krasnoyarsk Territory have successfully introduced burning technology. The accumulated experience of using controlled fire has confirmed the effectiveness of the technology of preventive strip burning under the forest canopy and the wide interest of forestry enterprises in its practical application. The widespread introduction of controlled fire under the forest canopy to reduce the risk of fire can be successfully used as a measure to promote the natural regeneration of pine trees. 6. Cleaning clearings is a measure that helps preserve moisture on dry soils: crushed logging residues are evenly scattered, shading the soil.

On fresh soils, they are collected in heaps and either burned or left to rot. In waterlogged areas, logging residues are collected in the form of small heaps. By rotting, they create microelevations on which a water-air regime of the root-inhabited horizon develops that is favorable for the existence of seedlings, self-seeding and undergrowth.

7. Rational organization of livestock grazing. By grazing livestock, you can reduce the competitive influence of living ground cover, disturbing the sodding of the soil, and prepare it for receiving seeds. Thus, grazing pigs in oak forests in productive years is highly effective as a promotional measure. At the beginning of acorn fall (mostly diseased acorns fall), pigs are grazed, which not only prepare the soil, but also eat diseased acorns. This measure was widely used in Russia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. American and Canadian foresters adopted this experience.

Unfortunately, as noted back in 1984 by A.K. Denisov, little attention is paid to promoting renewal, especially through soil mineralization, by both designers and implementers. The opinion about the futility of this measure has taken root. It really does not produce results if you are not guided by the laws of life and forest development, and in spite of them you carry out assistance for show. The fact is that mineralization is carried out without observing elementary rules: phenological observations of seed production are not systematically carried out, the years of work are not in all cases linked to seed years, the choice of tools is not differentiated by forest type, the timing of work is not consistent with the timing of seed fall and leaf fall and shedding of needles. As a result, the very idea of ​​an event is discredited, which in the past, if silvicultural requirements were met, gave positive results. The use of controlled fire, which gives excellent results in the Scandinavian countries, is still not widely used in our country. Forest management often unreasonably (standardized) plans artificial reforestation. Whereas an in-depth analysis of natural reforestation by region would provide the basis for recommendations on the use of this process, eliminating the change of species. In addition, this would save labor and financial resources. Two decades later, the situation in this matter has not changed, but on the contrary, it has only worsened. Perhaps only the onset of the global economic crisis will contribute to a change in attitude towards this effective measure of reforestation.

This situation cannot suit creative forest rangers. What are the reasons for the lack of undergrowth under the canopy in ripening, mature and overmature plantings? There are many factors influencing the absence of teenagers. They are both objective (natural) and subjective (economic-personal) in nature. Most often, this is the absence of a forestry management system designed to use the biological potential of plantations and preserve their biological diversity. Excessive widespread interest in forest crops is a costly technology for reforestation. This requires optimization. Only a detailed analysis of the situation and subsequent adjustments to forest management can lead to the formation of productive and sustainable forests and provide real savings in money and labor costs for reforestation.

Question 5. What are the rules for selecting trees when caring for a forest?

The allocation of cutting areas for maintenance felling is carried out with the selection of trees intended for felling, their marking, counting, and the establishment of trial plots in young forests.

In deciduous forests, cutting areas are allocated during the growing season, and in coniferous forests - throughout the year.

Adjacent forest taxation units, forest stands of which require the same type of forest maintenance felling, with the same main species and homogeneous forest conditions, but differing in composition, density and age, are combined into one cutting area.

When the boundaries of forest areas designated for forest maintenance fellings are not clearly defined, boundary lines are cut, goniometric surveys and measurements of boundary lines are made, and the area is determined.

When allocating cutting areas for thinning and through-cutting, trees designated for felling with a diameter of 1.3 meters 8 centimeters or more at a height of 1.3 meters 8 centimeters or more are marked with notches and branded at the root neck.

The supply of felled wood is determined on the basis of a complete count of trees designated for felling. The stock of trees to be cut down with a diameter thinner than 8 centimeters is determined in stockpiling measures on specially established trial plots.

During the count, trees cut down to accommodate technological corridors and loading points are taken into account separately

Question 6. Name Morozov’s principles (foundations) of forestry

1. Silvicultural creed, silvicultural policy for a specialist;

2. The idea of ​​renewal in the process of forest use;

3. The idea of ​​permanence of forest use should be closely connected with the idea of ​​renewal - this is the “holy of holies” of our forestry;

4. The basis of economic activity in the forest should be: your own compass, your own rudder, your own symbol of faith;

5. Adapting your activities to the environment and, finally, 6. Possibly less weakening of the sustainability of forest communities. Reviewing the remaining handwritten notes and sketches of G.F. Morozov, G.N. Vysotsky was amazed at how deeply and comprehensively Georgy Fedorovich thought, how deeply and widely he embraced the essence of various phenomena. The mental makeup of Georgy Fedorovich reached the highest maturity, the highest clarity, the highest point of horizons and strengthened a number of most valuable scientific works not only in the narrow field of forestry, but also in the field of social biology, geography and even philosophy. Georgy Fedorovich was a unique person!

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Wood harvesting is the primary stage in the use of forest resources. In industry, it includes logging work, transport of wood and its cutting, work in timber warehouses, shipment of products by land and water transport and is carried out in the republic mainly timber industry enterprises(timber enterprises). 1 They consist of separate workshops: logging points, workshops, areas, lower warehouses. Timber industry enterprises may also include production facilities for primary wood processing and waste disposal. Such combinations of logging and wood processing allow for more efficient use of forest resources. The production process of timber industry enterprises has its own characteristics compared to enterprises in other industries, in which it is carried out in fairly stable conditions. Wood harvesting is carried out in the open air under a variety of natural and industrial conditions. Objects of labor have different quantitative and qualitative characteristics, raw materials have a low territorial concentration (small supply of wood in forest areas). The workshops and production areas of timber industry enterprises are geographically separated. All this requires an individual approach to the development of forest resources and has a negative impact on production management, efficiency indicators, and mechanization of production processes.

For timber harvesting, forestry authorities allocate forest exploitation areas to timber industry enterprises for long-term development. They include annual felling sectors - cutting areas, which

1 Wood is also harvested by self-procurers and forestry enterprises - forestry enterprises. The main function of forestry enterprises is the rational reproduction of forest resources and their preparation for industrial use. Timber harvesting is a side activity for them. Transport of timber in the logging industry is also carried out by specialized enterprises: rafting offices, roadsteads, timber transshipment exchanges and mills.

Fig.3. Scheme of the forest exploitation area.

1 - 69 - cutting areas

divided into sections-areas gravitating towards one loading area. For the purpose of organizing logging operations, cutting areas are divided into apiaries. At each of them, wood felling is carried out in a certain way. Wood harvesting is preceded by preparatory the stage during which measures for the safe and efficient organization of basic procurement work are carried out. An extensive transport network is being created throughout the entire area of ​​production areas. It includes highways, branches, mustaches. 1 The collective nature of timber transport routes determines the creation of roads with different durations and capacity. Highways are designed for delivery of wood to the lower warehouse and are used during the entire period of development of forest resources. They, as a rule, divide operational areas into two equal parts. Branches are laid on both sides of it, which are used to transport wood from a certain area and are used for up to 10 years. The least stressed element of the transport network timber hauler. Depending on the soil and climatic conditions, it has a soil, gravel or prefabricated covering made of short-term slabs and is usually used for no more than one year. Its exploitation depends on the period of timber cutting in the area adjacent to it. The mustaches are laid from the cutting area (loading area) to permanent transport routes and are usually adjacent to logging branches, and the branches are adjacent to highways (Fig. 3). During the preparatory period, dangerous and dead trees are removed, loading areas, points (upper warehouses), and skidding roads are created, where stumps and stones are removed, and wetlands are lined.

Primary wood harvesting work - logging They consist of felling (cutting) and skidding of wood. Felling is carried out with and without the root system. Trees in the forest are located over a large area, which creates difficulties for mechanization of work. Until the first half of the 20th century, this operation was performed mainly by primitive means: axes, hand saws. The first attempts to mechanize this process were carried out on the basis of steam saws, and later motor saws. 2 At the present stage, forest felling is carried out mainly with chainsaws, separating the tree from the root and lower part of the dump. Special tractor-based machines are increasingly being used. Such forestry machines cut trees, form them into packages, and transport them to loading points. Machines are used that perform only one function or combine several operations. Based on the functions performed and their totality, forestry machines are named: felling, bunching, skidding, felling

1 In Russia, during the development of forests, for the removal of every million cubic meters. m of wood, about 30 km of permanent main roads and branches and up to 160 km of temporary ones are built.

2 The first chainsaws appeared in Belarus in the pre-war years.

skidding, delimbing and bunching. Machines have been created that perform forest felling by pulling out trees with their root system. This allows you to extract almost the entire mass of the tree. With the traditional felling method, up to 5% of the biological mass of the tree remains in the form of a stump and roots in the cutting area. However, such wood harvesting requires large energy costs. Therefore, it is rarely carried out, mainly when preparing the territory for a reservoir, for other land. The use of forestry machines eliminates manual labor at logging sites, reduces the labor intensity of production, ensures the highest technical and economic indicators of logging operations and is the preferred direction of scientific and technological progress in logging.

Forest cutting in the regions, as a rule, is carried out in volumes no more than estimated cutting area. It represents the optimal annual scientifically based timber harvesting rate, ensuring full reproduction of forest resources and obtaining the largest amount of commercial timber from each hectare of forested area. The optimal felling sizes are determined based on the availability of technologically mature wood and the continuity of forest management. Wood harvesting in volumes exceeding the estimated cutting area leads to depletion of forest resources and an increase in the share of young forests in the age structure. The type of felling depends on the specifics of the forest area. In forests of group 1, only selective cutting of intermediate use is carried out for forestry purposes (maintenance, restoration of species composition, etc.). 1 At the same time, only individual trees are cut down and favorable conditions are created for the reproduction of forest resources, improving their quantitative and qualitative composition. Final felling is prohibited, and if carried out, it is limited, in order to improve the forest environment. In forests of the second and third groups, intermediate and main fellings are carried out. During the last fellings, all the wood mass is removed from mature stands. Felling is carried out using the continuous concentrated timber industry method. Such fellings are very convenient for highly mechanized harvesting, but are not better for natural forest reproduction and require artificial afforestation.

In areas with a predominance of young and middle-aged forests, with intensive forestry management, more than half of the total amount of timber is harvested annually through intermediate felling. 2

It is impossible to build a road to every felled tree. Therefore, the felled trees are collected in bags and transported along skidding tracks to loading points (loading areas, upper warehouses) to a vehicle. Loading platforms are located near timber trucks

1 Intermediate felling is carried out by forestry enterprises.

2 According to the requirements and economic purpose, industrial and firewood is harvested.

roads and wood is concentrated on them. This process of transporting wood from felling sites to loading points is called skidding. They skid wood in sticks* and with trees along apiary skidding trails. This process is carried out in difficult off-road conditions using special tractor-based equipment. In mountainous areas, in wetlands, skidding is carried out using rope installations, and on steep slopes along special forest descents in trays.

From areas where wood is concentrated near logging roads, it is delivered to places of primary processing - lower warehouses. This process is called removal of wood. To remove wood and ship it to consumers, water and land transport are used. The method of removal depends on the terrain, forest area, and its location. The main part of the wood in logs, assortments and trees is transported along logging roads to lower warehouses by special timber trucks, as well as wheeled tractors, and railways, including narrow gauge ones. Water transportation is the cheapest way to deliver wood. It is especially common when delivering wood to the consumer and less so to lower warehouses. Therefore, most timber processing enterprises are located along river banks. The disadvantage of waterborne wood delivery is the seasonal nature of its transportation, which requires large stocks of raw materials in warehouses. Overland delivery is more expensive, but allows raw materials to be delivered to the consumer throughout the year, which reduces the cost of maintaining a warehouse. Therefore, it is most advisable to locate timber processing enterprises at the intersection of water and land routes.

Water transportation of wood is carried out on specialized timber vessels, barges, as well as by rafting, purse and mole. The easiest way to raft is mole. In this case, the wood moves down the river in a free state by the force of the current. In this way, it is possible to float wood along small non-navigable rivers during a short period of high water, when the water level is sufficient for floating timber. This makes it possible to bring into operation remote forest areas in areas with an undeveloped transport system. However, a swamp is formed in the moth raft, wood is thrown onto the banks, this causes its loss, impedes the movement of fish, fills rivers to the bottom with logs and turns them into “wooden” ones. For this reason, moth rafting is limited on small rivers of spawning importance. At purse In rafting, the logs float freely and are not connected to each other. The floating wood has a special fence with a carpenter and forms round, cigar-shaped bags that are moved by towing. This type of rafting is used in bodies of water with a small flow of water (lakes, reservoirs, lower reaches of rivers). Rafting in rafts carried out by the force of the river current, towing along rivers, lakes and seas. On river roadsteads, river ice and banks, individual logs are tied with wire, chains, cable and form packages from which a raft is formed. This process is carried out both manually and mechanically.

Thus, at various stages of wood harvesting, it is moved in certain ways, reloaded from one type of vehicle to another. This requires various types of warehouses in which certain reserves of wood are formed, and thereby create the necessary conditions for regular shipment and delivery of raw materials to the consumer. Based on their importance in the logging process, the type of wood being processed, the characteristics of connecting transport routes and other characteristics, a typology of timber warehouses is drawn up. According to their location in the timber industry, there are upper, lower, consumer warehouses, timber transshipment depots, timber exchanges, and ports. 1 Upper warehouses(loading points) represent places of concentration of wood and its transshipment at the junction of logging transport and tracks (mustache, branches) of timber transport. Lower warehouses- points for the concentration of wood, its primary processing and shipment of timber to the consumer at the junctions of timber and public transport: railway, water. Depending on the type of public transport, there are two types of lower warehouses - railside and riverside. Warehouses of the first type are located at the intersection of timber transport and railways, the second - at the intersection of rafting rivers. At the lower warehouses, unloading, stacking, loading of wood, and bucking of logs into assortments are carried out. When transporting wood by trees, they are cleared of branches and crowns. This is a labor-intensive process. Initially, it was carried out at the cutting site only with chain saws, later - with mobile delimbing machines at the upper warehouses and loading areas, which improved working conditions, especially in winter, and reduced labor costs. Cleaning trees from branches in lower warehouses made it possible to concentrate this process, use semi-automatic lines, concentrate the receipt of waste in one place and create favorable conditions for their disposal on productive equipment, and the integrated use of wood. For this reason, it is more effective to transfer and cross-cut logs from upper warehouses to lower ones, where this process is carried out not with chainsaws, but on semi-automatic lines. At the same time, the following assortments are obtained: saw logs, sleepers, construction timber, pulpwood, plywood, containers, matches,

1 The main types of timber industry enterprises are upper and lower warehouses. Other types of warehouses are typical for the stage of transportation of wood to the consumer. Timber transshipment bases - places of concentration of processing and shipment of timber at the junction of different types of public transport (railway and water). Consumer warehouses- points for the concentration of raw materials from sawmills, pulp and paper, mining and other enterprises. Forest ports- places of concentration, processing and shipment of timber at the junction of transport routes within state use and international water lines

ski, pencil, resonant and other ridges,* in total more than 40 types of products. At the lower warehouses there may also be production of primary wood processing - sawmilling, production of containers, pine-vitamin flour, production of chopped firewood, technological chips, wood boards (Fig. 4).

Timber harvesting leads to the destruction of forests and disruption of natural landscapes. To restore and preserve them, it is important to carry out rational logging and not allow wood harvesting in excess of the estimated cutting area. The mechanization of logging operations leads to the use of powerful, heavy machines that disturb the soil and vegetation cover and thereby slow down and complicate the reproduction of forest resources. To preserve valuable undergrowth, it is important to improve skidding operations based on the creation of a rational system of portages, preferential skidding of wood by trees. Environmental problems in logging are closely related to the rational use of forest resources. During logging operations, up to half of the reserves of wood resources generate waste in the form of crowns, branches, stumps, dead wood, and non-commercial wood. Waste left at the cutting site litters it, is a source of forest fires, the spread of forest pests, and prevents reforestation. Therefore, cutting areas must be cleared of waste and disposed of. Skidding of wood by trees contributes to less clutter in cutting areas. At the same time, practically no branches remain in the cutting areas. Rational use of forest resources involves the involvement of the entire logging fund in production, reducing wood losses during harvesting. During logging, partial use of the cutting area is allowed, low-grade wood is left, especially deciduous trees, and the forest is lost during rafting. Waste disposal is of paramount importance. In the best logging enterprises, less than half of the logging substandard wood is utilized. The production of wood chips, vitamin flour, and medicinal preparations from crowns, which account for 14-15% of the tree’s mass, deserves special attention. All this, already at the initial stage of using forest resources, will allow us to obtain more products from each tree and preserve forests in their natural form.

STAGES OF FORESTRY ACTIVITY

The sequence of logging work consists of selecting a forest plot and legally securing a cutting area for commercial logging. In a designated area of ​​the forest, felling (felling) of the forest is carried out. The fallen forest must be cleared of branches and tops - such wood is called “log”. The next stage begins the development of wood (logs) into assortments of a certain length. The wood, formed in accordance with the required parameters, is subject to either removal or further processing at sawmills. An important point in the course of logging activitiesare reforestation and sanitary work to care for forest plantations.

SELECTION OF A FOREST SITE

Timber harvesting takes place on a forest area (cutting area, plot, allotment, woodcutter, preparation site, kuren), assigned to the organization in the form of a lease for 49 years.

A cutting area is usually understood as a part of a forest zone for cutting down mature and overmature forest plantations. Such an area is marked out by boundaries, so-called sight lines (logging signs in the form of pillars or stakes) or in the form of natural boundaries. Parameters of the cutting area: the cutting area can reach several tens of hectares. The width of the cutting area varies from 50 meters to 1 kilometer. It is important to note that the “width of the cutting area” refers to the length of the site along the short side.

When logging activities, the concept of “calculated cutting areas” is used. This is the annual rate of use of a certain area of ​​the forest (for example, felling). When determining the estimated cutting area, a methodology is used that includes such parameters as the method of felling at a given cutting area and the forms of logging operations.

Cutting areas can be located in relation to each other in several ways: direct adjoining of cutting areas, as well as inter-strip, side-by-side and staggered arrangement of cutting areas.

Logging plots are often cutting areas that have size restrictions. The cooker (or woodcutter) is designed exclusively for chopping wood.

LEGAL REGISTRATION OF A FOREST PLOT FOR RENT

Today, the organization of logging activities to meet the needs for raw materials to support sawmill operations or for the sale of round timber is carried out in several ways. Among the main methods is the rental of forest land plots acquired through auctions. At the same time, owners of forest lands are required to submit reports on the forest use of the acquired area every year. In addition to the acquisition of forest plots for organizing logging operations, lease through an auction, today it is possible to purchase forest plantations for timber felling for a period of up to a year.

Logging activities necessary to create a raw material base for the organization of sawmills or for the sale of round timber are carried out today in several ways.Currently, the most common way to purchase a forest plot is through auctions. At the same time, owners of forest lands are required to submit reports on the forest use of the acquired area every year.

The acquisition of a forest plot with the right of redemption is possible after submitting an application and relevant documents to the local executive authorities.

After surveying and agreeing on the boundaries of the site with neighboring ones, the Federal Office will issue the necessary technical documentation, after which it is necessary to obtain a resolution from the municipality to transfer the site to private ownership.

In addition to the acquisition of forest plots for organizing logging operations, lease through an auction, today it is possible to purchase forest plantations for timber felling for a period of up to a year.

The Russian Ministry of Industry and Trade has developed a number of measures to support investors who invest financial resources in forest development.The project involves providing benefits for the use of forest areas depending on the volume of investment and the nature of wood processing industries.

WOOD SPECIES

The main types of wood common in Russia are represented by coniferous and deciduous species.

Coniferous trees, namely pine, spruce, cedar, are classified as “soft species”. Coniferous wood also includes types of wood such as larch and fir (yew tree) and others.

Deciduous ("hard") species - oak, eucalyptus, maple, the wood of which is widely used in the production of furniture and finishing materials. Deciduous wood also includes birch, beech, cherry, elm, maple, linden, aspen, ash, boxwood and others.

MULCHING FOREST

Forest mulching is necessary for cleaning and maintaining roads, pipelines and other utilities. This process often requires the complete removal of standing trees, stumps and vegetation.Before felling a tree, bushes or snow are removed around it.

FOREST FELLING

Felling of wood and subsequent cleaning of the trunk from the top and branches to the state of a whip at cutting sites is carried out usingharvester.Such combines are referred to in logging activities asHarvester. Harvesters at a logging site are called upon to carry out at least four operations. This includes felling, limbing, skidding, bucking and sorting.

It is interesting to note that a combine harvester that performs only four logging operations is calledfelling machine.A computer is installed in the operator's cabin of a harvesting combine. Using a computer, the operation of the combine head is controlled and the required length of logs to be cut is set. Automation of the wood cleaning process allows you to achieve the maximum yield of industrial round timber in the process of cutting to the desired size. Moreover, the computer installed on the harvester can keep records of harvested and cut wood, as well as analyze the species of harvested raw materials.

In felling areas and plots, forest cutting can be done in various ways. In the first case, during the felling process, all the trees are cut down completely (in a row). Sometimes certain trees are cut down in several stages at certain intervals. There are cutting methods in which, at the end of felling, all trees of a known species, or of a certain size, and other cases must be left in the area allocated for harvesting..

Timber cutting, depending on the volume of logging, is carried out manually and mechanized. When manually felling trees, the feller makes a cut on the side of the tree in which he is going to cut it, after which he moves to the opposite side and makes the main cut, leaving a small undercut so that the tree cannot rotate around its longitudinal axis. The lumberjack works together with the feller. When using mechanized felling, the removal of knots and bucking is carried out by a harvester.

FORMATION OF “WHIPS”

Next, loppers, usually working in groups, clear the trunk of branches and remove the top. Delimbing is permitted at a distance of at least 50 meters from the felling site.

The development of wood, in turn, involves, first of all, the formation of “logs”. By “sticks” we mean the trunks of a fallen tree, which, as a result of sawing, have already been separated from the root part and cleared of branches and the upper part of the tree.

DISTRIBUTION OF “WHIPS” BY ASSORTMENT

Wood assortments are pieces of wood of various types. The distribution of “logs” by assortment involves the formation of batches of logs by grade in accordance with the types of work for which trees that have been cleared of tops and branches are intended. The types of timber used are logs. Assortments of construction and industrial timber (logs and logs) are combined into a group called “industrial timber”.

Industrial forest, depending on the type of wood and diameter, is in turn divided into sawlogs, veneer logs and pulpwood. The saw log is intended for sawing to produce lumber. Flank logs are necessary for the production of plywood and veneer. Pulpwood is the main raw material for pulp production. Logs of various diameters are used for construction work.

As a result of processing wood to form “logs,” loggers form batches of logs and logs. If the assortments intended for sawing are a segment from the middle and upper parts of the whip, then the ridge is a segment of the lower, butt part of the trunk. The ridge forms the raw material base for plywood production. The logs are also used in the production of veneer, containers, skis, sleepers and matches. It is important to note that hardwood logs are used to a large extent for plywood and veneer production.

DRILLING WOOD TO THE LOWER WAREHOUSE

Fallen wood is hauled from the cutting area to the upper timber storage area in the form of tree trunks.. There are several other ways to transport wood trunks. The first method is that wood trunks are moved along technological corridors. The corridors are first prepared - stones are removed and holes are filled. Round timber can also be dragged by drags. Previously for skiddingwere usedhorses .

The most common mechanical method of transporting logs in a semi-suspended or suspended state is with skidders.

TRANSPORTATION OF WOOD

—transportation of timber outside the cutting area.Removing timber can be difficult and expensive because trees are often located far from roads or waterways. Road construction and maintenance may be limited in national forests or other desert areas because it can lead to erosion in riparian zones. When cut logs are near a road, heavy equipment can simply lift the logs onto trucks. Most often, special heavy equipment is used to collect logs from the site and move them close to the road to be lifted by trucks.

There are many ways to transport cut logs that are located far from roads. Special equipment pulls several logs along the ground to a platform where a truck waits. Less common or now largely replaced forms of log transportation include horses. The cheapest way to transport timber is to float assorted timber along rivers and reservoirs.

Each growing tree creates a microclimate around itself, where flora and fauna develop in conjunction.

Trees produce oxygen, which we use shim, and absorb carbon dioxide. Considering that more timber is cut down and destroyed by fires than grows again, the problem of forest restoration becomes a priority.

For the construction of buildings and the manufacture of products, only mature wood, whose age ranges, depending on the breed, from 80 to 120 years. The ripeness of wood is determined by forestry specialists - taxators.(The word "taxation" is translated from German as "assessment".)

When harvesting wood, they try not to spoil fertile soil layer and do not pollute the soil with branches.

Trees are being cut down fellers gas-powered and electric chain saws (Fig. 1). Forestry machines are also used for these purposes. They not only cut down trees, but also lay them in the desired direction without damaging other trees, and also trim branches. This way they getwhips.

All wood materials that have preserved its natural state are calledtimber.

From logs They cut down the walls of wooden buildings, make various wooden structures, and obtain lumber.

Ridges are called timber 2...4 m long, intended for the manufacture of sliced ​​veneer, skis, pencils.

Churakami called short timber, with replaceable for the production of peeled veneer. Gluing veneer sheets become plywood.

Wood is stored in stacks in packed form. (“Stack” translated from German means “warehouse.”)

The logs are transported by skidders or timber trucks to bucking, where they are sawed into logs, logs, logs, and firewood (Fig. 2). (The term "to skid" comes from the German word "to drag".)

The diameter of the timber is measured with a meter, a measuring fork (Fig. 3, a) or a measuring clamp (Fig. 3, b).

In this case, the diameters are measured D 1 And D2 in summit parts of the log in a mutually perpendicular direction, because the cross-section of the log often has an oval (non-circular) shape.

Then calculate the average diameter as half the sum:

D = ( D 1 + D 2 ) / 2.

The length of the logs is measured with a tape measure, measuring rod (Fig. 3, c) or a meter.

Knowing the diameter and length of the log, you can roughly calculate its volume V in m 3:

V = π D 2 L / 4,

Where π = 3,14; D - average log diameter in m; L - length of timber in m.

In practice, the volume of timber is determined more accurately using special tables depending on its diameter D in the apical part and length L. These tables take into account the reduction in diameter in the top part of the log relative to the diameter in the thicker partbutt part.

Safety regulations

When in the forest, do not enter the danger zone of forest felling.