What was in Byzantium. History of Byzantium

The Byzantine state took shape as a result of the separation of the eastern part of the Roman Empire at the end of the 4th century. AD It existed for over a thousand years, until the defeat in 1453 of its capital, Constantinople, during the Turkish invasion.

The development of the Byzantine state, distinguished by its originality, went through several stages. The first stage (IV - the middle of the 7th century) was a period of decomposition of the slave-owning system, the emergence of elements of early feudal relations in the depths of Byzantine society. The state of this period was a centralized monarchy with a developed military-bureaucratic apparatus, but with some restrictions on the power of the emperor. The second stage (from the end of the 7th to the end of the 12th century) was the period of the formation of the feudal order. At this time, the state acquires the finished features of a peculiar form of an unlimited monarchy, different from the despotic monarchies of the East and the monarchies of the feudal West. Imperial power in Byzantium reaches its highest level. Finally, at the third stage (XIII-XV centuries) there is a deepening of the political crisis of Byzantine society, caused by the intensification of the process of its feudalization in the face of growing Turkish military aggression. This period is characterized by a sharp weakening of the Byzantine state and its actual collapse in the XIII-XIV centuries, which led it to the XV century. to death.

Byzantium had a significant influence on the political development of the peoples of Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as Transcaucasia. For a long time she was the custodian and conductor of the state-legal heritage of antiquity. The perception by the feudal states of Bulgaria, Serbia, Kievan Rus and Georgia of the vast cultural heritage of the Byzantine state contributed to their progressive development.

Social system. The specific features of the development of Byzantine medieval society are already evident at the first stage of its development. The process of decomposition of the slave-owning order was slow in Byzantium. The relatively high level of development of commodity-money relations, the long-term preservation of the strong economic and political positions of numerous Byzantine cities (Antioch, Alexandria, Damascus, Constantinople, etc.) contributed to the political stability of Byzantium and restrained the process of the collapse of the slave system.

The ruling class of Byzantium IV-VII centuries. was uneven. The leading economic and social positions in Byzantium were occupied by the old senatorial aristocracy and the provincial nobility, whose dominance was based on large private land ownership of the slave type. Along with them, a high place in the social structure of Byzantine society was occupied by the urban municipal elite of the large cities of the empire, especially the capital, Constantinople.

The composition of the exploited part of Byzantine society was also distinguished by considerable heterogeneity. Slaves were at the bottom of the social ladder. Their legal status, determined by the norms of late Roman law, differed sharply from that of the various categories of the free. The latter included primarily free peasant landowners. Preservation in the IV-VI centuries. free peasantry is an important feature of the social system of Byzantium. Free peasants lived in neighboring communities and had the right to private ownership of land. They were exploited directly by the Byzantine state: they paid a land tax and carried all sorts of heavy property and personal duties. Widely used in Byzantium of this period was the late Roman form of exploitation of the peasants - the colony. Byzantine legislation divided the columns into free and "assigned". Forced to rent land from large landowners, the columns were in a position dependent on their masters. The position of the "assigned" columns was especially difficult: they were attached to the ground. Free and "assigned" columns carried duties both in favor of their masters and in favor of the state. The situation of both categories of Byzantine columns deteriorated sharply in the 6th century.

The social system of Byzantium is undergoing serious changes during the most acute political and social crisis of the end of the 6th - the first half of the 7th century. The Arab invasion-invasion of the barbarians, accompanied by their massive settling on the territory of the empire, the destruction and decline of many cities, accelerated the breaking of slaveholding and the formation of feudal orders in Byzantium. In wars and social clashes, a significant part of the representatives of those social groups that dominated Byzantium in the previous period perished. At the same time, the preservation of state forms of ownership, communal land tenure, and the enormous prevalence of unlimited private ownership of land in subsequent centuries seriously slowed down the formation of new feudal property and, moreover, the development of the exploitation of the Byzantine peasantry.

Only by the tenth century the tendency to create a feudal seigneurial system prevailed, based on the labor of the peasantry dependent on the land magnates, while maintaining, however, control by the state. The main forms of feudal land tenure are "conditional land grants in the form pronia, arithmos - approved even later, in the XI-XII centuries. Thus, the most famous feudal institution - the debate, which flourished in the 12th-13th centuries, represented various types of land grants to the proniar from the state on the terms of service, usually for the life of the proniar or emperor.

The slow nature of the development of feudal relations determined the characteristics of the social composition of the ruling class of Byzantine society at the second stage of its development. The ruling class at that time consisted of heterogeneous social strata: high-ranking secular and ecclesiastical officials, local military service nobility and the communal elite, separated from the prosperous peasantry. All these forces were not consolidated for a long time and did not develop into closed estates. The hereditary vassal-seigneurial system, characteristic of a developed feudal system, began to take shape in Byzantium only by the 11th-12th centuries. The incompleteness of the development of the feudal seigneurial system led to the relative weakness of the Byzantine landowning nobility. The leading place in the structure of the ruling class of Byzantium belonged to the capital nobility and the highest officials of the empire, which were in sharp competition with the military landowning provincial nobility.

And in the second period of development of the Byzantine state, numerous differences in the legal status of individual strata of the working population remained. In Byzantium, the formation of a class of feudal-dependent peasantry dragged on for a long time. The empire still retained a significant category of free communal peasants, as well as a special stratum of state peasants who sat on the lands that belonged to the treasury and the emperor. Both of these categories of peasants were exploited mainly in a centralized form through the state tax system. Taxable peasants sitting on state lands actually become serfs at this time: they are assigned to the treasury and lose their freedom of movement. They had to pay canon - land tax, head tax, state grain rent, cattle tax. Particularly ruinous for the communal peasants was the obligation to pay taxes for the escheated and abandoned lands of their neighbors.

From the XI-XII centuries. there is a steady increase in the number of privately owned peasants at the expense of free and even state peasants, which indicates the formation of feudal-type land ownership in Byzantium. Privately owned Byzantine peasants were called wigs. They did not have the right to own land and were considered as hereditary holders of their allotments, they were obliged to pay rent to the master in labor, natural, monetary forms. Unlike state peasants, they were not attached to the land until the 13th-14th centuries.

The lowest position in Byzantine society, as before, was occupied by slaves. The long-term preservation of slavery was a characteristic feature of the social system of Byzantium. Slave labor was widely used in the household of the Byzantine nobility. Servants - slaves of the Constantinople nobles numbered in the hundreds. In the X-XI centuries. the social position of Byzantine slaves improves somewhat; for example, they receive the right to enter into church marriages. The conversion of the free into slavery is suppressed. Slaves are often transferred to the position of wigs. In the XI-XII centuries. the tendency to blur the lines between slaves and other categories of the exploited classes of Byzantium intensified.

Political system. Byzantine state IV-VII centuries. inherited, with certain features, the main features of the state system of the late Roman Empire. At the head of the state was the emperor, heir to the power of the Roman Caesars. He possessed full legislative, judicial and executive power and was the supreme patron and protector of the Christian Church. The Byzantine Orthodox Church played a huge role in strengthening the authority of the emperor.

It was the church that developed and consecrated the official doctrine of the divine origin of imperial power and preached the unity of the state and the church, spiritual and temporal power (their symphony). Unlike the Catholic (Western) Church, the Byzantine Church was much more economically and politically dependent on the emperor, as it existed in a powerful centralized state.

The early Byzantine church was directly subordinate to the emperor. Emperor Justinian I intervened most completely in the management of church affairs, often treating the highest church hierarchs (bishops and patriarchs) as his own officials.

The power of the Byzantine emperor in the IV-VII centuries. was not arbitrary. With all the breadth of the emperor's powers, it was tempered by the need to follow the "general laws" of the empire, and especially by the absence of the principle of heredity to the throne. The new Byzantine emperor was elected by the senate, "the people of Constantinople" and the army, whose role in the election of the emperor of Byzantium was steadily declining.

An important factor in the political life of the Byzantine state of that time was the approval of the emperor's candidacy by "the people of Constantinople." Even in the IV century. By imperial decree, the "people of Constantinople" - various social strata and groups of the population of the capital, who gathered at the Constantinople hippodrome, were given the right to express requests and make demands to the emperor. On this basis, special political organizations arose in Byzantium - the so-called city parties. (dima). The social support of the two largest dims - they were called "blue" and "green" - were various groupings of the ruling class. The former were supported by the senatorial and municipal aristocracy, the latter by the commercial and financial elite of the Byzantine cities. Dimas had a certain organization and even armed detachments. In the 5th century similar organizations of the type of metropolitan dims were created in other cities of the Byzantine Empire. Over time, they turned into a kind of all-imperial organizations, closely connected with each other. In the IV-VI centuries. the role of dims in political life was significant. Byzantine emperors often had to rely in their policy on one of these parties.

Another factor restraining the autocracy of the emperor was the presence of a special state body of the Byzantine aristocracy - Senate of Constantinople. Any business of the empire could be considered in the senate. His influence was ensured by the very composition of the Senate, which included almost the entire ruling elite of the ruling class of Byzantium. By the 5th century the number of senators was 2 thousand people. The discussion of state affairs by the senate, as well as its right to participate in the election of a new emperor, provided the Byzantine aristocracy with a certain share in the management of the affairs of the empire.

That is why the early Byzantine emperors, including the most powerful Justinian I, recognized in legislative acts the need for "the consent of the great Senate and the people." This testifies to the stability of some political traditions that have been preserved since the days of republican statehood.

From the 8th century a new strengthening of the central power of Byzantium begins. It determined the development of Byzantine statehood for a long time. The basis of centralization and broad aggressive policy of Byzantium in the 9th-10th centuries. was the stabilization of the economy on a new feudal basis. The Byzantine state, which reached its highest development during the reign of the Macedonian dynasty (867-1057), sought to control all aspects of the economic, political and cultural life of the country with the help of a huge bureaucratic apparatus. The rigidly centralized nature of the empire sharply distinguished Byzantium from the contemporary feudal states of Europe.

In the 8th century political organizations and institutions that previously restrained the omnipotence of the Byzantine emperor, fall into decay or are completely liquidated. From the IX century even the nominal proclamation of the emperor by "the people of Constantinople" ceases. The political role of the Senate of Constantinople, which had already fallen at the end of the 7th century, was finally reduced to nothing by the imperial decree of the end of the 9th century, which deprived the senate of the right to participate in the legislation of the empire.

The only major political force in the Byzantine state remains the Orthodox (Greek) Church. Her authority and influence are being strengthened. In particular, the role of the head of the church of the Patriarch of Constantinople in the socio-political life of Byzantium is growing. Patriarchs often become regents for underage emperors and directly intervene in the political struggle for the throne, taking advantage of the fact that from the 7th century the only procedure that legitimizes "installation to the kingdom" becomes. the wedding of the emperor by the patriarch in the church of St. Sophia. However, even at this time the Byzantine church failed to achieve independence from the imperial power. The emperor retained the right to choose a patriarch from among three candidates recommended by church hierarchs, and to depose an objectionable patriarch.

Strengthening the foundations of imperial power in the VIII-IX centuries. accompanied by a change in its attributes. The Greek titles of basileus (king) and autocrator (autocrat) are finally approved for the Byzantine emperors. The cult of the emperor-basileus reaches unprecedented proportions. The divine emperor was considered the ruler of the universe (Ecumene). His prerogatives were unlimited. Vasilevs issued laws, appointed and dismissed senior officials, was the supreme judge and commander of the army and navy.

Characteristically, with such omnipotence, his position was not very strong. Approximately half of all Byzantine emperors were forcibly removed from power. The system of succession to the throne for a long time was absent among the Byzantines: the son of Basileus was not considered by custom as an obligatory legitimate heir. It was not birth that made the emperor, but "divine election." Therefore, the emperors widely practiced the institution of co-rulers, thus choosing, even during the life of the heir, the principle of legitimate succession to the throne began to be established in Byzantium only from the end of the 11th century.

Traditionalism, the routine of ceremonials worked out to the smallest detail and consecrated by custom, seriously fettered the personal capabilities of the emperors. Their real power, according to a number of researchers, begins to steadily weaken. This was facilitated by new trends generated by the impact of feudal relations. As feudalism developed in Byzantium, lord-vassal relations, new to Byzantine state practice, developed between emperors and large feudal landowners (dinates). Starting from the tenth century. the Byzantine autocrat is often forced to conclude feudal agreements with some of his subjects - dinats, taking on the duties of a feudal lord.

The state system of Byzantium at the main stages of its development is characterized by the presence of a huge bureaucratic apparatus, both central and local. It was based on the principles of a strict hierarchy. All Byzantine officialdom was divided into ranks (titles). Their system was deeply developed. In the tenth century in the Byzantine "table of ranks" there were 60 such ranks. The central administration of the empire was concentrated in Council of State (Consistory, and later synclite). It was the highest body under the emperor, in charge of the current affairs of the state. Its functions were not clearly defined, and in practice it played a significant political role. The State Council consisted of the highest state and palace officials, who were the closest assistants to the emperor. These included two praetorian prefects, prefect of Constantinople, master and quaestor of the palace, two committees of finance. These top officials of the empire had extensive powers, including judicial ones. Thus, two praetorian prefects were the highest leaders of the local state apparatus; the prefect of Constantinople was the civil ruler of the capital and the chairman of the senate.

The highest palace ranks also had important functions: master - chief of the palace and questor - chief lawyer and chairman of the consistory. They directly managed the affairs of the empire with the help of an extensive bureaucratic apparatus. The total number of Byzantine officials at this time was enormous. At least 10,000 civil officials served in the departments of the two praetorian prefects alone.

The role of the central state apparatus increased in the 9th-11th centuries. The state bureaucracy at that time controlled all spheres of the political, economic and even cultural life of Byzantium. Its structure has become even more complex and cumbersome. The number of departments ("secrets") increased to 60. From the 9th century. due to the growth of the imperial economy and the court, the palace administration becomes more complicated. The distinctions between government departments and palace services are becoming less and less clear. The palace administration is increasingly intervening in the management of national affairs.

Another feature characteristic of the central administration of Byzantium at that time was the dispersal of individual state functions between various, often duplicating each other, state departments. Thus, financial management was divided from the 7th century. into several "secrets" that are not subordinate to each other. Judicial functions were divided among various institutions: the court of the patriarch, the court of the city prefect (eparch), a special court for the palace services of the emperor, etc.

Local government. The local state apparatus of the empire in the IV-VII centuries. was entirely based on the late Roman system of government (division into prefectures, dioceses and provinces). Civil power was separated from the military and had priority over the latter during this period. At the head of the local administration of the empire were two praetorian prefects. These senior civil officials wielded broad administrative, judicial, and financial powers. Directly subordinate to the prefects were the civil rulers of the dioceses and provinces. The rulers of the provinces, the main link of local government, along with extensive administrative and financial powers, also had judicial power. They were judges of first instance in all significant court cases within the province.

In the 7th century the old system of local government was replaced by a new, feminist system. Themes originated as military districts and were originally much larger than the old provinces. At the head of the themes were strategis, who united in their hands the fullness of military and civil power. The militarization of the local government of the empire was a consequence of the aggravation of the foreign policy situation and the social and class antagonisms of Byzantine society. Later, with the intensification of the feudalization of Byzantine society, the theme organization of local government began to weaken in the 11th century. finally falls into disrepair.

Army. In the IV-VII centuries. Byzantium's army was built on late Roman principles, divided into frontier and mobile troops. In order to reduce the threat of a seizure of power by military leaders, the Byzantine emperors practiced the fragmentation of the highest command of the army between five leaders (masters). The composition of the Byzantine army gradually changed. In the VI-VII centuries. barbarian contingents play an ever greater role in the army.

The basis of the army with the beginning of the second period of development of the Byzantine state (the end of the 7th-9th centuries) was the stratiotic (peasant) militia. At this time, a powerful navy was also created in Byzantium.

The Byzantine army experienced further transformation in the subsequent 10th-11th centuries. With the intensification of the process of feudalization, the stratiot militia disintegrated. The core of the army becomes the cavalry, consisting of the economically and socially isolated stratiotic elite. It was already a professional army, which, however, did not have a high combat capability. Therefore, the Byzantine emperors increasingly began to resort to the help of hired foreign detachments (mainly from Western Europe and Kievan Rus). In organizational terms, the Byzantine army, as before, was divided into two parts: the capital and local (theme) contingents, and the role and importance of the latter was steadily declining.

At the turn of the XI-XII centuries. the highly centralized Byzantine state becomes an objective brake that hindered the progressive development of the peoples that were part of Byzantium.

Political and socio-economic crisis of Byzantium in the XIII century. and the subsequent death of the Byzantine state therefore became a natural historical outcome.

Byzantine law.

Byzantine law, which has a history of more than a thousand years, is a unique phenomenon in medieval Europe. It is characterized by a relatively high degree of stability, internal integrity, and the ability to adapt to changing socio-economic and political conditions. These qualities of law in Byzantium were determined by a number of historical factors, among which the traditionally strong central imperial power, the Roman legal heritage, and the Byzantine Christian church were of particular importance. These factors had an integrating effect on the law, gave it the properties of a system.

Already in the early stages of the development of the state in Byzantium, a peculiar legal system developed, which grew directly from Roman law, but was influenced by specific transitional relations to feudalism in a society that was distinguished by great social and ethnic diversity. Under the influence of time and purely local conditions, in particular a variety of legal customs, Roman legal institutions gradually evolved. But the fundamental foundations of Roman law and legal culture were not undermined and did not undergo fundamental changes, which was largely facilitated by the long-term preservation of the slave-owning system in Byzantium.

The direct succession of Roman and Byzantine law was reflected in the use of imperial law as the main source of law. The relative stability of the political system of Byzantium contributed to the fact that it was here that the first attempts were made to codify the imperial constitutions, and then the Roman law as a whole. So, the first official set of Roman laws was the Code of the Byzantine emperor Theodosius (Codex Theodosianus) compiled in 438, which included all the imperial constitutions since the reign of Constantine (from 312). Thus, in Byzantium, earlier Roman legislation, which was not included in this collection, lost its force.

In the IV-VI centuries. In Byzantium, a high level of development of legal thought is observed, independent legal schools are emerging (the most famous are in Beirut and Constantinople). Among the lawyers of the Beirut school, who combined their teaching work with participation in imperial codification works, Domninus, Skiliatius, Cyril, Patricius and others became especially famous.

Byzantine jurists were not just keepers of ancient legal and cultural traditions. They adapted Roman law in relation to the new needs of society, while making changes and insertions (interpolations) into the classical texts of Roman jurists. Thus, the ground was prepared for large-scale codification work. It is no coincidence that it was in Byzantium, as already indicated, in the middle of the VI century. under the leadership of the eminent jurist Tribonian, a comprehensive systematization of Roman law was carried out, the result of which was his laws of justinian(Corpus juris civilis). This codification up to the XI century. remained not only the most important source of the current law of Byzantium, but also was the foundation on which its legal system was finally formed.

The code of laws of Justinian, being basically a transcription of Roman law, also reflected some specifically Byzantine features. They are found in a number of interpolations in the text of the Digest, even more so in the Codex and especially in the Novellas of Justinian. This last part of the code, made not in Latin, but in Greek and including about 160 constitutions (novellas) of Justinian himself, to a large extent reflected the peculiar conditions of Byzantine society of that time. Although there was a certain turn towards classical Roman law in the codification of Justinian, it fully manifested the tendencies characteristic of the postclassical period and which were further developed in subsequent stages of the history of Byzantine law. These tendencies found their expression primarily in the well-known simplification and "vulgarization" of Roman law under the influence of late Hellenistic (so-called Greco-Eastern) law.

Byzantine jurists, unlike their classical predecessors, who avoided definitions and used a casuistic style of presentation, often strove for simplifications, clarification of terms, and development of simple and understandable definitions. So, in the final (50th) book of the Digest, special titles (16 and 17) are introduced, where the interpretation of words and basic concepts is given. The definition of terms was especially common in educational literature, including in the Institutions of Justinian. The work of Cyril the Elder "On Definitions" was especially popular at that time.

The formation of the Byzantine legal system was also significantly influenced by legal customs, especially common in the eastern provinces. Customary law, with its inherent primitivism, undermined the logical harmony of the Roman system of law, distorted a number of its institutions, but introduced into it a vital stream that reflected the development of new social relations: communal and feudal. From late Greek law, such an institution as emphyteusis, new forms of adoption and emancipation of subject persons, etc., passed into the Justinian Code of Laws. ) process.

A number of interpolations included in the Code of Laws of Justinian did not stem from legal practice, but reflected the ideological currents common in Byzantium (Platonism, Stoicism, Christianity). Especially noticeable in the codification of Justinian was the influence of Christianity. Thus, the Institutions and the Code were directly opened by the emperor's appeal to Christ, and the legislative acts themselves contained numerous references to the sacred books. Some legal institutions are beginning to be interpreted in a purely religious spirit, for example, marriage is already seen as a "divine bond" (nexum divinum). Under the influence of Christianity, some ethical constructions are also introduced into the rationalistic scheme of Roman law. So, Justinian in the Digests, along with the concept of law (jus), uses the traditional concept of "justice" (justitia), but interprets the latter as "justice", and in the spirit of Christian morality. He includes the construction of natural law (jus naturale) in the code of laws, but interprets it not in the sense that it was understood by classical jurists of the 3rd century, but as a law established by divine providence. The main directions of the processing of classical Roman law, which were reflected in numerous interpolations, in the codification of Justinian, were more fully developed in the subsequent history of Byzantine law.

In the Byzantine courts, the application of Justinian's codification ran into great difficulties. A number of its provisions became obsolete, but most importantly, it was too complicated and inaccessible to the population of the empire. In this regard, in the VI-VII centuries. for practical purposes, Byzantine lawyers compiled simplified comments on Justinian's legislation in Greek in the form of paraphrases (retellings), indices (indexes), scholia (educational notes). The Paraphrases of the Institutions of Justinian, compiled in Greek for law students by Theophanes, as well as the Scholia of Stephanus, which included the famous Index to the Digests of Justinian, were widely known. Byzantine lawyers, on the basis of extracts from Justinian's codification, also compiled practical collections containing lists and samples of contracts, claim forms, etc.

At the same time, a number of new imperial laws were adopted in Byzantium, where, under the influence of developing community orders, the norms of customary law were increasingly perceived. Thus, one of the characteristic tendencies in the development of the Byzantine legal system was manifested, namely, the desire of the imperial power to consolidate all law in a written law.

The main monuments of Byzantine lawVIII- XIVcenturies At the turn of the VII-VIII centuries. the legal system of Byzantium is undergoing serious trials associated with a deep crisis of the economic system, the decline of cities, the settlement of barbarians on state lands, the invasion of the Arabs, etc. It was at this time that the process of transformation of Byzantine law from late antique to medieval was gradually completed. In the 8th century with the general economic and cultural upsurge, the legislative activity of the Byzantine emperors and law schools is again revived.

At the second stage of the history of Byzantine law, legislation, supported not only by the Roman legal tradition and customary law, but also by the own experience of Byzantine jurists, becomes more flexible and resilient. It was the vital needs of Byzantine society that made necessary new work on the systematization of legislation and on the processing of Justinian's codification, which was carried out in Latin and which was owned by only a small circle of people. Judicial practice could not be satisfied with the fact that in the Digests of Justinian, many terms and entire fragments from the writings of Modestinus, Papinian and other classical lawyers were given in Greek. The actual transformation of Byzantium into a Greek-Slavic state insistently demanded a change in the language of legislative acts.

The needs of judicial practice made it necessary to revise the Justinian Code of Laws and present it in a concise and understandable form. In 726 (according to some sources - in 741), at the direction of the iconoclast emperor Leo of Isauria, Eclogue("selected laws"), which was the most important stage in the development of Byzantine law.

The compilers of the Eclogue retained only a small part of the legal material from Justinian's codification, so it consisted of 18 small titles, some of them included only one article each. In the very subtitle to the Eclogue, it was indicated that it was a reduction and correction "in the spirit of greater philanthropy" of the legislation of the "great Justinian". The iconoclastic phraseology of the Eclogue was reflected only in its introductory part, which spoke of the need to be guided by "true justice", and not express "in words admiration" for it, and even prescribed "in deeds" to give preference to the poor and the poor. The Eclogue had a special title (VIII) dedicated to slaves. Some cases of turning free people into slaves (for example, deserters) were envisaged, but the main emphasis was placed on new ways and forms of freeing slaves (for example, their release to freedom in churches, etc.), which reflected the development of feudal relations.

In the Eclogue, the influence of the Christian religion and morality was fully manifested, and references to the Gospel were used to substantiate a number of legal provisions. Christian ideas penetrated especially deeply into marriage and family law (titles I-VII). Eclogue introduced betrothal, previously unknown to Byzantine law (from the age of 7), which required the formal consent of the betrothed themselves, and in fact, due to their infancy, their parents. The marriageable age was set at 15 for men and 13 for women. Under the influence of the Christian church, the number of legal grounds for divorce was reduced. A woman, according to Christian morality, occupied a subordinate place in the family, but unlike classical Roman law, Eclogue reflected a tendency to equalize the property regime of husband and wife. The dowry and marriage gift received by the wife were considered not as the property of the husband, but as property given to him for management. When inheriting by will, a mandatory share of children was established (at least 1/3 of the inheritance), seven categories of heirs were determined, to whom the property of the deceased successively passed in the absence of a will.

The titles of Eclogues devoted to contract law (IX-XIII), of the numerous transactions considered in the Code of Justinian's Laws, mention only purchase and sale, loan, contribution (storage), partnership. In the contract of sale, concluded both orally and in writing, under the influence of Greek law, a deposit was introduced. In the loan agreement, probably as a concession to church dogmas, the mention of interest known to Roman law was omitted. They briefly spoke about such an important institution as hiring, which included the lease of land, which could be provided for a period not exceeding 29 years. Obviously, the leasing of private lands in Byzantium was not widespread. But characteristic is the mention in the Eclogue of the leasing of state, imperial and church lands with an annual contribution by the tenant of the rent.

Another institution typical of developing feudalism was also widely developed in Eclogue - emphyteusis. The latter was established as an eternal or as a limited lease "for up to three generations, inheriting one after another by will or without a will." The person (emphyteut) who received the emphyteusis, usually land, was obliged to pay the owner "without evasions" an annual fee, and also to take care of the "preservation and improvement of real estate." If the emphyteut did not pay the stipulated fee for three years, he could be deprived of the real estate provided to him.

The most extensive and detailed in the Eclogue was title XVII, dedicated to crimes and punishments. Under the influence of deepening social contradictions, many new provisions were introduced into criminal law, reflecting the intensification of state repression. It is no coincidence that this particular title of Eclogues was most famous and was invariably used in subsequent legislative codes of Byzantium.

The Eclogue provided for the prosecution of state criminals: defectors to the enemy, counterfeiters, etc. An article was highlighted that spoke of persons raising a rebellion against the emperor or participating in "a conspiracy against him or against the state of Christians." Such persons were regarded as intending to "destroy everything", and therefore they "must be put to death at the same hour." The legislator also paid much attention to crimes against the Christian religion. Persons who gave a false oath on the "divine gospels", raised their hand to the priest during prayer, renounced the "immaculate Christian faith" in captivity, sorcerers, healers, amulet makers, adherents of religions hostile to Christianity, participants in pagan or heretical movements ( in particular, the Manichaeans and Montanists).

The Eclogue provided punishments for murder and bodily harm inflicted in a fight, and the punishment was differentiated depending on whether these crimes were premeditated or unintentional. So, "if someone beat his slave with whips or sticks and the slave died, then his master is not condemned as a murderer." The responsibility of the owner arose only in the case of the premeditated murder of a slave (“he tortured him immoderately, or poisoned him with poison, or burned him”).

The Eclogue also lists a number of property crimes: theft, robbery, destruction of other people's property, Arson, looting of other people's graves. But most of her articles were devoted to crimes that infringe on the system of family and moral relations established by the state and consecrated by the church. Among them stand out: incest, rape, adultery, intercourse with a nun, goddaughter, girl, bestiality, fetal poisoning, etc.

Developed and more cruel (even in comparison with the legislation of Justinian) was the system of punishments. Quite often, the Eclogue provided for the death penalty. But the system of self-mutilating and corporal punishments was especially refined, which in classical Roman law was applied mainly to slaves, and now were extended to free people: cutting off the nose, tearing out the tongue, cutting off the hand, blinding, castration, etc. Dishonoring punishment (for example, cutting the beard and hair), as well as confiscation of property.

For some crimes, the nature of the punishment in the Eclogue was determined depending on the social status of the perpetrator. So, according to Art. 22 For dignitaries, a large fine was due for communication with someone else's slave. For the same crime, a "simple person" was subject not only to a fine, but also to flogging. Punishments for having a relationship with a girl “without the knowledge of her parents” were also differentiated: for persons “wealthy”, persons of “average well-being”, as well as for “poor and indigent”. If the former had to pay compensation to the seduced, the amount of which depended on their position, then the latter were subjected to flogging, shaving and deportation (title XVII, art. 29). However, in the vast majority of other articles, criminal liability was not made dependent on the social status of the guilty person. According to a number of researchers, this manifested the desire of the creators of Eclogue to somewhat soften social contrasts.

Social inequality is enshrined in the Eclogue and in those of its provisions that are devoted to evidence (title XIV). It expressly states that "witnesses of rank, or office, or occupation (or wealth) are presumed to be acceptable." As for the "witnesses unknown", ie. persons of a lower social status, they, if the testimony given by them was disputed in court, were interrogated under whips.

The excessive conciseness of the Eclogue, the absence in it of such important issues as the methods of acquiring and losing property rights, prescription, etc., led to the fact that, despite its great practical significance, the courts in a number of cases subsequently had to refer directly to Justinian's codification.

In a number of its lists, the Eclogue was supplemented by the Agricultural, Maritime and Military laws. Of these, the most important agricultural law, which in its content resembled Western European "barbarian truths". He filled a significant gap in the Eclogue: he regulated the relations that developed in rural communities, which by the 8th century. began to play an important role in the life of Byzantine society.

There are two main versions (editions) of the Agricultural Law: the early one (the most valuable as a source of customary law) and the later one, which already reflected a higher level of social differentiation. The time and place of the compilation of the early revision are disputed. Some researchers attribute it to the end of the 7th century. (to Justinian II), others insist on her southern Italian origin. However, the prevailing point of view is that the Agricultural Law was drawn up in Constantinople under the emperors of the Isaurian dynasty in the 20s of the 8th century, i.e., approximately at the same time as Eclogue, as an appendix to which it was usually copied.

The agricultural law was a private compilation, but then received official recognition, possibly simultaneously with the Eclogue. The early edition of the Agricultural Law consisted of 85 articles and, as is typical for monuments of customary law, did not have a clearly defined internal structure. The agricultural law was in force in the Byzantine Empire throughout its history, but later editions, relating, in particular, to the 14th century, already had 103 articles grouped into 10 titles.

The legal norms included in the Agricultural Law were aimed at resolving the most typical conflicts that arose within rural communities. Much attention was paid to the observance of the boundaries of adjacent plots, the consequences of unauthorized plowing of land, and the exchange of land plots. The communal order is most convincingly evidenced by Art. 8, providing for the distribution of land plots by lot. Great importance is attached to the lease of land and vineyards. The Agricultural Law specifically stipulates the interests of the state treasury, which collects taxes from the owners of land plots, as well as extraordinary taxes (Articles 18, 19).

Numerous articles of the Agricultural Law are formulated in a casuistic manner, establishing liability for the theft of someone else's livestock, agricultural implements, for cutting down someone else's forest, etc. In most cases, theft or damage to someone else's property entailed only property sanctions, which were intended primarily to compensate the harm caused. But in those cases when the damage was especially significant and thus threatened the developing private property order, self-mutilation and corporal punishment were applied (cutting off the hand of a thief, setting fire to someone else's barn, etc.) and even the death penalty (for burning out of revenge someone else's threshing floor, for the majority, thefts committed by slaves).

Of the other appendices to the Eclogue, the most important was the Law of the Sea, which in Western Europe became known as Rhodes maritime law. The compilation of this collection dates back to the 7th-8th centuries. It collected the legal customs that developed in the practice of ancient and medieval maritime trade and were partially processed by Roman lawyers. The Maritime Law contained rules related to navigation, transportation of goods and passengers, chartering ships, throwing cargo in case of danger at sea (the so-called accident ), the division of profits and losses between the shipowner and the owner of the cargo, etc. Separate norms of this collection were used in international trade until the 15th century.

The further development of Byzantine law is associated with the legislative activity of the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty (icon worshipers) Basil I and Leo VI. Having canceled the Eclogue, compiled by his political opponents (iconoclasts), Basil I ordered again

to revise the Justinian Code of Laws, remove outdated provisions from it, clarify difficult legal terms and translate them into Greek. The result of legislative work was the publication in 879 Prochiron, which in subsequent centuries was one of the most authoritative sources of Byzantine law and left a noticeable mark on the history of the law of neighboring Slavic states.

Prochiron, in comparison with the Eclogue, was a more complete collection of laws (17 titles were additionally included), but in terms of legal technique (in terms of the clarity of the arrangement of legal material, its edition), it was inferior to the latter. Although in the preface to Prochiron the Eclogue is referred to not as "selected" but as "perverted" laws, Basil I borrowed from it a number of provisions, especially those relating to criminal law.

The changes made by Prochiron to the legal system of Byzantium were not significant, and on some issues of private law, a tilt was made towards Justinian (or even pre-Justinian) legislation, such as, for example, in gifts between husband and wife, in the dowry regime, in the wills of freedmen etc. But Prochiron to some extent also reflected the new conditions of Byzantine society in the 9th century. It sets out contract law in more detail (a partnership agreement is being developed, a direct ban on interest on a loan is established, etc.), some changes are made to family law (a prenuptial gift is introduced, etc.).

Shortly after the compilation of Prochiron (between 884 and 886), a new manual of law was issued on behalf of Emperor Basil I and his co-ruler sons, which also had the goal of "purifying the old laws" and facilitating the use of the right set forth in the codification of Justinian. This guide is called Epanagoge(i.e. reworked repetition). In its structure, it followed the Digests of Justinian, reproduced many of the provisions of Prochiron, as well as Eclogues. For all its compilability, it presented in more detail, and in some details and in a new way, a number of issues of private law. But the most significant changes were made by the Epanagoge in the sphere of public law. A number of new provisions were formulated, such as, for example, on the patriarchal power, supplementing the imperial one, on the rights of the clergy. These provisions determined the relationship between the Orthodox Church and the state and were subsequently widely used in church law.

The short codes of Byzantine law could not fully satisfy the needs of judicial practice, which from time to time was forced to turn to the increasingly outdated Justinian Code of Laws. Under Emperor Leo VI (the Wise), whose reign (886-912) was marked by the rise of legal science, major codification work, begun under Basil I, was completed on a new revision of Justinian's legislation. Drawn up in this way around 890 under the guidance of the eminent jurist Simbacius "Vasiliki"("Basilica"), i.e. "royal laws", were called upon to replace the collections of Justinian's law, which were becoming more and more difficult to understand (including due to the language barrier).

The huge legal material used in Vasiliki is located more compactly and consistently than in the Code of Laws of Justinian, which consisted of several independent parts (books). "Vasiliki" is a single legislative monument, including 60 books divided into titles and fragments. Each title "Basilik" began with a fragment of the text of one of the Roman lawyers quoted in the Digests (other opinions, as less authoritative, were omitted), then the corresponding additions from the Code, Institutions and Novels followed. Justinian's law in "Basiliki" was used not directly, but through Greek translations and comments (epitomes, paraphrases) of Byzantine jurists of the 6th century. - Anonymous, Theophilus, Dorotheus and others.

Basiliki did not include those provisions from the codification of Justinian, which, in the opinion of the compilers, had no practical significance (most of the Institutions, the titles of the Digest (1 and 2) on justice and the origin of law, etc.). A number of constitutions were also excluded from the Code and Novels of Justinian, which were revised by subsequent legislation. But the processing and reduction of the previous law in "Vasiliki" was carried out insufficiently carefully and hastily. They preserved a significant number of obsolete or obsolete norms, mentioning, for example, long-vanished positions (Roman consuls, imperial legates, etc.) or areas that were not part of Byzantium (Egypt, Scythia, etc.).

"Vasiliki" includes extensive legal material relating primarily to public and church law (books 1, 3-5 - about the church, book 6 - about government positions, books 7-9 - about the trial, book. 60 - about crimes, etc.). However, most of "Vasilik" is devoted to issues of private law, including the legal status of persons (book 46 - on the status of free people, book 48 - on slaves, book 55 - on peasants, etc.), although in this sphere, as well as in inheritance law (book 45), in connection with the development of feudal relations, many provisions of Roman law have lost their former significance. Most often in judicial practice, the norms "Vasilik" were used, which regulate obligations (kn. 19 on the sale and purchase, kn. 23 and 25, devoted to mortgage transactions, kn. 26 on suretyship and payment of debt).

The compilation of Basil did not mean the abolition of Justinian's legislation, which, however, was increasingly falling into disuse. From the end of the XII century. "Vasiliki" became the only valid code of Byzantine law.

Vasiliki did not reach us in full, a number of books (including book 50 on the right of ownership and possession) have survived only in fragments. Most of the manuscripts, along with the text "Basilik", include explanations to them (scholia) by Byzantine jurists of the 6th century, as well as the 11th-12th centuries. (the so-called "ancient" and "late" scholia). The scholia had no official significance, but were taken into account in the Byzantine courts. They are of particular value when there is no corresponding text from Vasilik themselves.

After compiling "Vasilik", Byzantine law developed through the legislative acts of the emperors - short stories, chrisovuls (imperial letters). Significant changes were, for example, introduced by the novels of Leo the Wise. He allowed state dignitaries to acquire land without control in the districts under their jurisdiction, again lifted the ban on the collection of interest, finally abolished concubinage, banned marriages that did not receive church recognition, etc.

A noticeable influence on the development of late Byzantine law was exerted by some private legal compilations, among which the "Guide to the Laws, or the Six Books" by Constantine Armenopoulos (circa 1345) stood out in particular. This leadership was very authoritative in the courts of Byzantium, and after its fall continued to operate on the territory of Greece, Wallachia and Moldavia. The "Sex Book" of Armenopulo was recognized as the effective law of Bessarabia in the 19th century after its annexation to Russia.

An integral part of the legal system of Byzantium was church law, which consisted mainly of the decisions of the ecumenical councils and patriarchs. An important place here belongs to the decisions of the Ecumenical Council of Trul at the end of the 7th century, which approved the official body of canons and forbade the use of "false canons", or canons not sanctioned by any other Ecumenical Council. Based on the recognized norms of church law, and also partially of imperial law, special collections were compiled - Nomocanons (the most famous was the Nomocanon, developed in the 6th century by Scholastic), the content of which was periodically updated. So, for example, the Nomocanon in the 11th century edition included an important provision according to which Justinian's legislation was repealed, and "Basiliki" thus became the only valid law of Byzantium. Nomocanons had a direct impact on Russian law, their translations were included in the Pilot Books.

Lecture: Arab caliphate and Islamic law.

1. Arab caliphate.

2. Islamic law

Arab Caliphate.

The caliphate as a medieval state was formed as a result of the unification of Arab tribes, the center of settlement of which was the Arabian Peninsula.

A characteristic feature of the emergence of statehood among the Arabs in the 7th century. there was a religious coloring of this process, which was accompanied by the formation of a new world religion - Islam. The political movement for the unification of the tribes under the slogans of rejecting paganism and polytheism, which objectively reflected the tendencies of the emergence of a new system, was called "Hanif".

The search by Hanif preachers for a new truth and a new god, which took place under the strong influence of Judaism and Christianity, is associated primarily with the name of Muhammad. Mohammed (about 570-632), a shepherd who became rich as a result of a successful marriage, an orphan from Mecca, on whom "revelations descended", then recorded in the Koran, proclaimed the need to establish the cult of a single god - Allah (Islam is translated from Arabic and means "tradition himself" to God) and a new social order that excluded tribal strife. The head of the Arabs was supposed to be a prophet - "the messenger of Allah on earth."

Calls of early Islam for social justice (limiting usury, establishing alms for the poor, freeing slaves, honesty in trade) displeased the tribal merchant nobility with the "revelations" of Muhammad, which forced him to flee with a group of closest associates in 622 from Mecca to Yathrib (later - Medina , "city of the Prophet"). Here he managed to enlist the support of various social groups, including the Bedouin nomads. The first mosque was erected here, the order of Muslim worship was determined.

Muhammad argued that the Islamic teaching does not contradict the two previously widespread monotheistic religions - Judaism and Christianity, but only confirms and clarifies them. However, already at that time it became clear that Islam contains something new. His rigidity, and sometimes even fanatical intolerance, was quite clearly manifested in certain issues, especially in matters of power and the right to power. According to the doctrine of Islam, religious power is inseparable from secular power and is the basis of the latter, in connection with which Islam demanded equally unconditional obedience to God, the prophet and "those who have power."

For ten years, in the 20-30s. 7th century the organizational restructuring of the Muslim community in Medina into a state entity was completed. Mohammed himself was in it a spiritual, military leader and judge. With the help of the new religion and military detachments of the community, a struggle began with the opponents of the new socio-political structure.

The closest relatives and associates of Mohammed gradually consolidated into a privileged group that received the exclusive right to power. From its ranks, after the death of the prophet, they began to choose new sole leaders of Muslims - caliphs ("deputies of the prophet") (Some groups of Islamic tribal nobility formed an opposition group of Shiites, which recognized the right to power only by inheritance and only for the descendants (and not associates) of the prophet. ). The first four caliphs, the so-called "righteous" caliphs, suppressed dissatisfaction with Islam among certain sections and completed the political unification of Arabia. In the VII - the first half of the VIII century. Huge territories were conquered from the former Byzantine and Persian possessions, including the Middle East, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, North Africa and Spain. The Arab army also entered the territory of France, but was defeated by the knights of Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732.

In the history of the medieval empire, called the Arab Caliphate, two periods are usually distinguished: Damascus, or the period of the reign of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750), and Baghdad, or the period of the reign of the Abbassid dynasty (750-1258), which correspond to the main stages of development of the Arab medieval society and state.

Islamic state. The development of the Arab society was subject to the basic laws of the evolution of Eastern medieval societies, with a certain specificity of the action of religious and cultural-national factors.

The characteristic features of the Muslim social system were the dominant position of state ownership of land with the widespread use of slave labor in the state economy (irrigation, mines, workshops), the state exploitation of peasants through rent-tax in favor of the ruling elite, the religious-state regulation of all spheres of public life, the absence clearly defined class groups, a special status for cities, any freedoms and privileges.

Since the legal status of an individual was determined by religion, differences in the legal status of Muslims and non-Muslims came to the fore. (zimmiev). Initially, the attitude towards the conquered non-Muslims was distinguished by sufficient tolerance: they retained self-government, their own language and their own courts. However, over time, their humiliated position became more and more obvious: their relationship with Muslims was regulated by Islamic law, they could not marry Muslims, they had to wear clothes that distinguish them, supply the Arab army with food, pay a heavy land tax and poll tax. At the same time, the policy of Islamization (planting a new religion) and Arabization (settlement of Arabs in the conquered territories, spread of the Arabic language) was carried out at a rapid pace without much coercion on the part of the conquerors.

At the first stage of development, the caliphate was a relatively centralized theocratic monarchy. In the hands of the caliph was concentrated spiritual (imamat) and secular (emirate) power, which was considered indivisible and unlimited. The first caliphs were elected by the Muslim nobility, but rather quickly the power of the caliph began to be transferred by his testamentary order.

Later, the chief adviser and the highest official under the caliph became vizier. According to Islamic law, the viziers could be of two types: with broad power or with limited powers, that is, only carrying out the orders of the caliph. In the early caliphate it was common practice to appoint a vizier with limited authority. Important officials at the court also included the chief of the Caliph's bodyguard, the head of the police, and a special official in charge of supervising other officials.

The central organs of state administration were special government offices - sofas. They took shape even under the Umayyads, who also introduced mandatory office work in Arabic. The Divan of Military Affairs was in charge of equipping and arming the army. It kept lists of people who were part of the permanent army, indicating the salary they received or the amount of awards for military service. The divan of internal affairs controlled the financial bodies involved in accounting for tax and other revenues, for this purpose collected the necessary statistical information, etc. The divan of the postal service performed special functions. He was engaged in the delivery of mail and government cargo, supervised the construction and repair of roads, caravanserais and wells. Moreover, this institution actually performed the functions of the secret police. As the functions of the Arab state expanded, the central state apparatus became more complex, and the total number of central departments grew.

The system of local government bodies during the 7th-8th centuries. underwent significant changes. Initially, the local bureaucracy in the conquered countries remained intact, and the old methods of government were preserved. As the power of the rulers of the caliphate was consolidated, the local administration was streamlined according to the Persian model. The territory of the caliphate was divided into provinces, ruled, as a rule, by military governors - emirs, who were responsible only to the caliph. The emirs were usually appointed by the Caliph from among their close associates. However, there were also emirs appointed from representatives of the local nobility, from the former rulers of the conquered territories. The emirs were in charge of the armed forces, the local administrative-financial and police apparatus. The emirs had assistants - naibov.

Small administrative divisions in the caliphate (cities, villages) were controlled by officials of various ranks and titles. Often these functions were assigned to the leaders of local Muslim religious communities - foremen (sheikhs).

Judicial functions in the caliphate were separated from administrative ones. Local authorities had no right to interfere in the decisions of judges.

The chief judge was the head of state - the caliph. In general, the administration of justice was the privilege of the clergy. In practice, the supreme judicial power was exercised by a board of the most authoritative theologians, who were also jurists. On behalf of the caliph, they appointed lower-ranking judges (qadi) and special commissioners from among the representatives of the clergy, who supervised their activities in the field.

The powers of the qadi were extensive. They considered court cases of all categories on the ground, monitored the execution of court decisions, supervised places of detention, certified wills, distributed inheritance, checked the legality of land use, managed the so-called waqf property (transferred by the owners to religious organizations). When making decisions, qadis were guided primarily by the Koran and the Sunnah and decided cases on the basis of their independent interpretation. The judgments and sentences of the qadi were, as a rule, final and not subject to appeal. The exception was cases when the caliph himself or his representatives changed the decision of the qadi. The non-Muslim population was usually subject to the jurisdiction of courts composed of members of their own clergy.

The large role of the army in the caliphate was determined by the very doctrine of Islam. The main strategic task of the caliphs was considered to be the conquest of the territory inhabited by non-Muslims, through a "holy war". All adult and free Muslims were obliged to take part in it, but in extreme cases it was allowed to hire detachments of "infidels" (non-Muslims) to participate in the "holy war".

At the first stage of the conquests, the Arab army was a tribal militia. However, the need to strengthen and centralize the army caused a series of military reforms at the end of the 7th - the middle of the 8th centuries. The Arab army began to consist of two main parts (standing troops and volunteers), and each was under the command of a special commander. In the permanent army, a special place was occupied by privileged Muslim warriors. The main arm of the army was light cavalry. Arab army in the 7th - 8th centuries. mainly replenished at the expense of the militias. Mercenary at this time was almost not practiced.

A huge medieval empire consisting of heterogeneous parts, despite the unifying factor of Islam and authoritarian-theocratic forms of exercising power, could not exist for a long time as a single centralized state. Starting from the IX century. in the state system, the Caliphate are undergoing significant changes.

First of all, there was an actual restriction of the secular power of the caliph. His deputy, the grand vizier, relying on the support of the nobility, pushes the supreme ruler away from the real levers of power and control. By the beginning of the IX century. the viziers actually began to rule the country. Without reporting to the caliph, the vizier could independently appoint the highest state officials. The caliphs began to share spiritual power with the chief qadi, who led the courts and education.

Secondly, in the state mechanism of the caliphate, the role of the army, its influence on political life, increased even more. The militia was replaced by a professional mercenary army. The palace guard of the caliph is created from the slaves of Turkic, Caucasian and even Slavic origin (Mamluks), which in the 9th century. becomes one of the main pillars of the central government. However, at the end of the IX century. its influence is strengthened so much that the guards commanders deal with objectionable caliphs and enthrone their proteges.

Thirdly separatist tendencies intensify in the provinces. The power of the emirs, as well as local tribal leaders, is becoming more and more independent of the center. From the 9th century the political power of the governors over the administered territories becomes in fact hereditary. Entire dynasties of emirs appear, at best recognizing (if they were not Shiites) the spiritual authority of the caliph. The emirs create their own army, withhold tax revenues in their favor, and thus turn into independent rulers. The fact that the caliphs themselves granted them enormous rights to suppress the growing liberation uprisings also contributed to the strengthening of their power.

The collapse of the Caliphate emirates and sultanates - independent states in Spain, Morocco, Egypt, Central Asia, Transcaucasia - led to the fact that the Baghdad caliph, remaining the spiritual head of the Sunnis, by the tenth century. actually controlled only part of Persia and the capital territory. In the X and XI centuries. as a result of the capture of Baghdad by various nomadic tribes, the caliph was twice deprived of secular power. The eastern caliphate was finally conquered and abolished by the Mongols in the 13th century. The residence of the caliphs was moved to Cairo, / to the western part of the caliphate, where the caliph retained spiritual leadership among the Sunnis until the beginning of the 16th century, when it passed to the Turkish sultans.

Byzantium is an amazing medieval state in the southeast of Europe. A kind of bridge, a baton between antiquity and feudalism. Its entire thousand-year existence is a continuous series of civil wars and with external enemies, mob riots, religious strife, conspiracies, intrigues, coups d'état carried out by the nobility. Either taking off to the pinnacle of power, or plunging into the abyss of despair, decay, insignificance, Byzantium nevertheless managed to preserve itself for 10 centuries, being an example for contemporaries in the state structure, organization of the army, trade, and diplomatic art. Even today, the chronicle of Byzantium is a book that teaches how and not to govern subjects, the country, the world, demonstrates the importance of the role of the individual in history, and shows the sinfulness of human nature. At the same time, historians are still arguing about what the Byzantine society was - late antique, early feudal, or something in between *

The name of this new state was the "Kingdom of the Romans", in the Latin West it was called "Romania", and the Turks subsequently began to call it the "state of the Rum" or simply "Rum". Historians began to call this state “Byzantium” or “Byzantine Empire” in their writings after its fall.

History of Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium

Around 660 BC, on a cape washed by the waters of the Bosphorus, the Black Sea waves of the Golden Horn and the Sea of ​​Marmara, immigrants from the Greek city of Megar founded a trading outpost on the route from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea, named after the leader of the colonists Byzant. The new city was named Byzantium.

Byzantium existed for about seven hundred years, serving as a transit point on the way of merchants and sailors following from Greece to the Greek colonies of the northern shores of the Black Sea and Crimea and back. From the metropolis, merchants brought wine and olive oil, fabrics, ceramics, and other handicraft products, back - bread and furs, ship and timber timber, honey, wax, fish and livestock. The city grew, grew rich and therefore was constantly under the threat of enemy invasion. More than once its inhabitants repulsed the onslaught of barbarian tribes from Thrace, Persians, Spartans, Macedonians. Only in 196-198 AD the city fell under the onslaught of the legions of the Roman emperor Septimius Severus and was destroyed

Byzantium is perhaps the only state in history that has exact dates of birth and death: May 11, 330 - May 29, 1453

History of Byzantium. Briefly

• 324, November 8 - Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (306-337) founded the new capital of the Roman Empire on the site of ancient Byzantium. What prompted this decision is unknown. Perhaps Constantine sought to create a center of the empire, remote from Rome with its continuous strife in the struggle for the imperial throne.
• 330, May 11 - solemn ceremony of proclamation of Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman Empire

The ceremony was accompanied by Christian and pagan religious rites. In memory of the founding of the city, Constantine ordered the minting of a coin. On one side, the emperor himself was depicted in a helmet and with a spear in his hand. There was also an inscription - "Constantinople". On the other side is a woman with ears of corn and a cornucopia in her hands. The emperor granted Constantinople the municipal structure of Rome. A senate was established in it, Egyptian bread, which Rome had previously been supplied with, began to be directed to the needs of the population of Constantinople. Like Rome, built on seven hills, Constantinople is spread over the vast territory of the seven hills of the Bosphorus. During the reign of Constantine, about 30 magnificent palaces and temples were built here, more than 4 thousand large buildings in which the nobility lived, a circus, 2 theaters and a hippodrome, more than 150 baths, about the same number of bakeries, as well as 8 water pipes

• 378 - Battle of Adrianople, in which the Romans were defeated by an army of Goths
• 379 - Theodosius (379-395) becomes Roman emperor. He made peace with the Goths, but the position of the Roman Empire was precarious
• 394 - Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the sole religion of the empire and divided it among his sons. He gave the western one to Honorius, the eastern one to Arcadia
• 395 - Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, which later became the state of Byzantium
• 408 - Theodosius II became emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, during whose reign walls were built around Constantinople, defining the boundaries in which Constantinople existed for many centuries.
• 410, August 24 - the troops of the Visigoth king Alaric captured and sacked Rome
• 476 - Fall of the Western Roman Empire. The leader of the Germans, Odoacer, overthrew the last emperor of the Western Empire, Romulus.

The first centuries of the history of Byzantium. Iconoclasm

The structure of Byzantium included the eastern half of the Roman Empire along the line that ran through the western part of the Balkans to Cyrenaica. Located on three continents - at the junction of Europe, Asia and Africa - it occupied an area of ​​up to 1 million square meters. km, including the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, islands, primarily Crete and Cyprus, strongholds in the Crimea (Chersonese), in the Caucasus (in Georgia), some regions of Arabia, islands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Its borders stretched from the Danube to the Euphrates. The territory of the empire was quite densely populated. According to some estimates, it had 30-35 million inhabitants. The main part was the Greeks and the Hellenized population. In addition to the Greeks, Syrians, Copts, Thracians and Illyrians, Armenians, Georgians, Arabs, Jews lived in Byzantium.

• V century, ending - VI century, beginning - the highest point of rise of early Byzantium. Peace reigned on the eastern frontier. They managed to remove the Ostrogoths from the Balkan Peninsula (488), giving them Italy. During the reign of Emperor Anastasius (491-518), the state had significant savings in the treasury.
• VI-VII centuries - Gradual liberation from Latin. The Greek language became not only the language of church and literature, but also of state administration.
• 527, August 1 - Justinian I became Emperor of Byzantium. Under him, the Code of Justinian was developed - a set of laws that regulated all aspects of the life of Byzantine society, the church of St. Sophia was built - a masterpiece of architecture, an example of the highest level of development of Byzantine culture; there was an uprising of the Constantinople mob, which went down in history under the name "Nika"

The 38-year reign of Justinian was the climax and period of early Byzantine history. His activities played a significant role in the consolidation of Byzantine society, the major successes of Byzantine weapons, which doubled the boundaries of the empire to limits that were never reached in the future. His policy strengthened the authority of the Byzantine state, and the glory of the brilliant capital - Constantinople and the emperor who ruled in it began to spread among the peoples. The explanation for this “rise” of Byzantium is the personality of Justinian himself: colossal ambition, intelligence, organizational talent, extraordinary capacity for work (“the emperor who never sleeps”), perseverance and perseverance in achieving his goals, simplicity and rigor in personal life, the cunning of the peasant who knew how to hide his thoughts and feelings under a feigned external impassivity and calmness

• 513 - The young and energetic Khosrow I Anushirvan came to power in Iran.
• 540-561 - the beginning of a large-scale war between Byzantium and Iran, in which Iran had the goal of blocking in Transcaucasia and South Arabia - Byzantium's connections with the countries of the East, go to the Black Sea and strike at the rich eastern provinces.
• 561 - peace treaty between Byzantium and Iran. Was achieved at acceptable levels for Byzantium, but left Byzantium ravaged and devastated by the once richest eastern provinces
• VI century - the invasion of the Huns and Slavs in the Balkan territories of Byzantium. Their defense was based on a system of border fortresses. However, as a result of continuous invasions, the Balkan provinces of Byzantium were also devastated.

To ensure the continuation of hostilities, Justinian had to increase the tax burden, introduce new extraordinary taxes, natural duties, turn a blind eye to the increasing extortion of officials, if only they would provide revenue to the treasury, he had to curtail not only construction, including military construction, but also sharply reduce army. When Justinian died, his contemporary wrote: (Justinian died) "after he filled the whole world with murmurings and troubles"

• VII century, the beginning - In many parts of the empire, uprisings of slaves and ruined peasants broke out. The poor in Constantinople rebelled
• 602 - the rebels enthroned one of their commanders - Foku. Slave-owning nobility, aristocracies, large landowners opposed him. A civil war began, which led to the destruction of most of the old landed aristocracy, the economic and political positions of this social stratum were sharply weakened
• October 3, 610 - The troops of the new emperor Heraclius entered Constantinople. Foka was executed. The civil war is over
• 626 - war with the Avar Khaganate, which almost ended with the sack of Constantinople
• 628 Heraclius defeats Iran
• 610-649 - Rise of the Arab tribes of Northern Arabia. The whole of Byzantine North Africa was in the hands of the Arabs.
• VII century, the second half - the Arabs smashed the seaside cities of Byzantium, repeatedly tried to capture Constantinople. They took control of the sea
• 681 - the formation of the First Bulgarian kingdom, which for a century became the main enemy of Byzantium in the Balkans
• VII century, ending - VIII century, beginning - a period of political anarchy in Byzantium, caused by the struggle for the imperial throne between groups of feudal nobility. After the overthrow of the emperor Justinian II in 695, six emperors were replaced on the throne in more than two decades.
• 717 - the throne was seized by Leo III the Isaurian - the founder of the new Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty, which ruled Byzantium for a century and a half
• 718 - Unsuccessful Arab attempt to capture Constantinople. The turning point in the history of the country is the beginning of the birth of medieval Byzantium.
• 726-843 - religious strife in Byzantium. Struggle between iconoclasts and iconodules

Byzantium in the era of feudalism

• VIII century - in Byzantium, the number and importance of cities decreased, most coastal cities turned into small port villages, the urban population thinned out, but the rural population increased, metal tools became more expensive and became scarce, trade became poorer, but the role of barter increased significantly. These are all signs of the formation of feudalism in Byzantium
• 821-823 - the first anti-feudal uprising of peasants under the leadership of Thomas the Slav. The people were dissatisfied with the increase in taxes. The uprising took on a general character. The army of Thomas the Slav almost captured Constantinople. Only by bribing some of the supporters of Thomas and having received the support of the Bulgarian Khan Omortag, Emperor Michael II managed to defeat the rebels.
• 867 - Basil I the Macedonian became emperor of Byzantium, the first emperor of a new dynasty - Macedonian

She ruled Byzantium from 867 to 1056, which became the heyday for Byzantium. Its borders expanded almost to the limits of early Byzantium (1 million sq. km). She again belonged to Antioch and northern Syria, the army stood on the Euphrates, the fleet - off the coast of Sicily, protecting southern Italy from attempts by Arab invasions. The power of Byzantium was recognized by Dalmatia and Serbia, and in Transcaucasia by many rulers of Armenia and Georgia. The long struggle with Bulgaria ended with its transformation in 1018 into a Byzantine province. The population of Byzantium reached 20-24 million people, of which 10% were citizens. There were about 400 cities, with the number of inhabitants from 1-2 thousand to tens of thousands. The most famous was Constantinople

Magnificent palaces and temples, many flourishing trade and craft establishments, a bustling port, at the berths of which there were countless ships, a multilingual, colorfully dressed crowd of citizens. The streets of the capital were full of people. Most crowded around the numerous shops in the central part of the city, in the rows of Artopolion, where bakeries and bakeries were located, as well as shops selling vegetables and fish, cheese and various hot snacks. The common people usually ate vegetables, fish and fruits. Countless pubs and taverns sold wine, cakes and fish. These institutions were a kind of clubs for the poor in Constantinople.

Commoners huddled in tall and very narrow houses, which had dozens of tiny apartments or closets. But this housing was also expensive and inaccessible to many. The development of residential areas was carried out very randomly. The houses were literally piled on top of each other, which was one of the reasons for the huge destruction during the frequent earthquakes here. The crooked and very narrow streets were incredibly dirty, littered with garbage. Tall houses did not let in daylight. At night, the streets of Constantinople were practically not illuminated. And although there was a night guard, numerous gangs of robbers were in charge of the city. All city gates were locked at night, and people who did not manage to get through before they closed had to spend the night in the open.

Crowds of beggars huddled at the foot of proud columns and at the pedestals of beautiful statues were an integral part of the picture of the city. The beggars of Constantinople were a kind of corporation. Not every working person had their daily earnings.

• 907, 911, 940 - the first contacts and agreements of the emperors of Byzantium with the princes of Kievan Rus Oleg, Igor, Princess Olga: Russian merchants were granted the right to duty-free trade in the possessions of Byzantium, they were given free food and everything necessary for life in Constantinople for six months, and supplies for the return trip. Igor took upon himself the obligation to defend the possessions of Byzantium in the Crimea, and the emperor promised to provide military assistance, if necessary, to the prince of Kiev
• 976 - Vasily II took the imperial throne

The reign of Vasily II, endowed with extraordinary perseverance, merciless determination, administrative and military talent, was the pinnacle of Byzantine statehood. 16 thousand Bulgarians blinded by his order, who brought him the nickname "Bulgarian Fighters" - a demonstration of the determination to mercilessly crack down on any opposition. The military successes of Byzantium under Basil were its last major successes.

• XI century - the international position of Byzantium worsened. From the north, the Byzantines began to push the Pechenegs, from the east - the Seljuk Turks. In the 60s of the XI century. Byzantine emperors several times undertook campaigns against the Seljuks, but failed to stop their onslaught. By the end of the XI century. almost all Byzantine possessions in Asia Minor were under the rule of the Seljuks. The Normans gained a foothold in northern Greece and the Peloponnese. From the north, waves of Pecheneg invasions rolled almost to the walls of Constantinople. The limits of the empire were inexorably shrinking, and the ring around its capital was gradually shrinking.
• 1054 - The Christian Church split into Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox). it was the most important event for the fate of Byzantium
• 1081, April 4 - Alexei Komnenos, the first emperor of the new dynasty, ascended the Byzantine throne. His descendants John II and Maiuel I were distinguished by military prowess and attention to state affairs. The dynasty was able to return power to the empire for almost a century, and to the capital - brilliance and splendor

The economy of Byzantium experienced an upsurge. In the XII century. it became completely feudal and gave more and more marketable products, expanded the volume of its export to Italy, where cities grew rapidly, in need of grain, wine, oil, vegetables and fruits. The volume of commodity-money relations increased in the XII century. 5 times compared to the 9th century. The Comnenos government weakened the monopoly of Constantinople. In large provincial centers, industries similar to those in Constantinople developed (Athens, Corinth, Nicaea, Smyrna, Ephesus). Privileges were granted to the Italian merchants, which in the first half of the 12th century stimulated the rise of production and trade, the crafts of many provincial centers

The death of Byzantium

• 1096, 1147 - the knights of the first and second crusade came to Constantinople. The emperors bought them off with great difficulty.
• 1182, May - Constantinople mob staged a Latin pogrom.

The townspeople burned and robbed the houses of the Venetians and Genoese, who competed with local merchants, and killed them without regard to age or gender. When part of the Italians made an attempt to escape on their ships, which were in the harbor, they were destroyed by "Greek fire". Many Latins were burned alive in their own homes. Rich and prosperous quarters were turned into ruins. The Byzantines sacked the churches of the Latins, their charities and hospitals. Many clerics were also killed, including the papal legate. Those Italians who managed to leave Constantinople before the massacre began, in revenge, began to ravage the Byzantine cities and villages on the banks of the Bosphorus and on the Princes' Islands. They began to call on the Latin West for retribution everywhere.
All these events further intensified the enmity between Byzantium and the states of Western Europe.

• 1187 - Byzantium and Venice made an alliance. Byzantium granted Venice all the previous privileges and complete tax immunity. Relying on the fleet of Venice, Byzantium reduced its fleet to a minimum
• April 13, 1204 - Participants of the Fourth Crusade stormed Constantinople.

The city was looted. Its destruction was completed by fires that raged until autumn. The fires destroyed the rich trade and craft quarters and completely ruined the merchants and artisans of Constantinople. After this terrible disaster, the trade and craft corporations of the city lost their former importance, and Constantinople lost its exclusive place in world trade for a long time. Many architectural monuments and outstanding works of art perished.

The treasures of the temples made up a huge part of the booty of the crusaders. The Venetians removed from Constantinople many of the rarest works of art. The former splendor of Byzantine cathedrals after the era of the Crusades could only be seen in the churches of Venice. Repositories of the most valuable handwritten books - the center of Byzantine science and culture - fell into the hands of vandals, who made bivouac fires from scrolls. The works of ancient thinkers and scientists, religious books flew into the fire.
The catastrophe of 1204 sharply slowed down the development of Byzantine culture

The conquest of Constantinople by the crusaders marked the collapse of the Byzantine Empire. Several states arose on its ruins.
— The crusaders created the Latin Empire with its capital in Constantinople. It included lands along the shores of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, part of Thrace and a number of islands in the Aegean Sea.
— Venice got the northern suburbs of Constantinople and several cities on the coast of the Sea of ​​Marmara
— the head of the Fourth Crusade, Boniface of Montferrat, became the head of the Thessalonian kingdom, created on the territory of Macedonia and Thessaly
— The Morean Principality arose in Morea
— The Empire of Trebizond formed on the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor
— The Despotate of Epirus appeared in the west of the Balkan Peninsula.
— In the northwestern part of Asia Minor, the Nicene Empire was formed - the most powerful among all the new states

• 1261, July 25 - the army of the Emperor of the Nicaean Empire Michael VIII Palaiologos captured Constantinople. The Latin Empire ceased to exist, and the Byzantine Empire was restored. But the territory of the state was reduced several times. She owned only part of Thrace and Macedonia, several islands of the Archipelago, certain areas of the Peloponnesian Peninsula and the northwestern part of Asia Minor. Byzantium did not regain its trading power either.
• 1274 - Desiring to strengthen the state, Michael supported the idea of ​​a union with the Roman Church, in order, relying on the assistance of the pope, to establish an alliance with the Latin West. This caused a split in Byzantine society.
• XIV century - the Byzantine Empire was steadily going to ruin. Civil strife shook her, she suffered defeat after defeat in wars with external enemies. The Imperial Court is mired in intrigue. Even the outward appearance of Constantinople spoke of the sunset: “it was evident to everyone that the imperial palaces and chambers of the nobles lay in ruins and served as latrines for those walking by and sewers; as well as the majestic buildings of the patriarchy that surrounded the great church of St. Sophia ... were destroyed or completely exterminated "
• XIII century, end - XIV century, beginning - a strong state of the Ottoman Turks arose in the northwestern part of Asia Minor
• XIV century, end - XV century first half - Turkish sultans from the Osman dynasty completely subjugated Asia Minor, captured almost all the possessions of the Byzantine Empire on the Balkan Peninsula. The power of the Byzantine emperors by that time extended only to Constantinople and insignificant territories around it. The emperors were forced to recognize themselves as vassals of the Turkish sultans
• 1452, autumn - the Turks occupied the last Byzantine cities - Mesimvria, Anichal, Visa, Silivria
• 1453 March - Constantinople is surrounded by the huge Turkish army of Sultan Mehmed
• 1453. May 28 - as a result of the assault of the Turks, Constantinople fell. The history of Byzantium is over

Dynasties of Byzantine emperors

• Dynasty of Constantine (306-364)
• Dynasty Valentinian-Theodosius (364-457)
• Dynasty of Lions (457-518)
• Justinian dynasty (518-602)
• Heraclius dynasty (610-717)
• Isaurian dynasty (717-802)
• Nicephorus dynasty (802-820)
• Phrygian dynasty (820-866)
• Macedonian dynasty (866-1059)
• Duk dynasty (1059-1081)
• Komnenos dynasty (1081-1185)
• Dynasty of Angels (1185-1204)
• Palaiologan dynasty (1259-1453)

The main military rivals of Byzantium

• Barbarians: Vandals, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Avars, Lombards
• Iranian kingdom
• Bulgarian kingdom
• Kingdom of Hungary
• Arab Caliphate
• Kievan Rus
• Pechenegs
• Seljuk Turks
• Ottoman Turks

What does Greek fire mean?

The invention of the Constantinopolitan architect Kalinnik (end of the 7th century) is an incendiary mixture of resin, sulfur, saltpeter, combustible oils. Fire was ejected from special copper pipes. It was impossible to put it out

*used books
Y. Petrosyan "The ancient city on the banks of the Bosphorus"
G. Kurbatov "History of Byzantium"

The history of Byzantium, one of the "world" powers of the Middle Ages, a society of peculiar development and high culture, a society at the junction of the West and the East, was full of turbulent internal events, endless wars with neighbors, intense political, economic, cultural relations with many countries of Europe and the Middle East .

The political structure of Byzantium

From the Roman Empire, Byzantium inherited a monarchical form of government with an emperor at the head. From the 7th century the head of state was often referred to as an autocrator.

The Byzantine Empire consisted of two prefectures - the East and Illyricum, each of which was headed by prefects: the prefect of the praetoria of the East (lat. Praefectus praetorio Orientis) and the prefect of the praetoria of Illyricum (lat. Praefectus praetorio Illyrici). Constantinople was singled out as a separate unit, headed by the prefect of the city of Constantinople (Latin Praefectus urbis Constantinopolitanae).

For a long time, the former system of state and financial management was preserved. But from the end of the 6th century, significant reforms began, mainly related to defense (administrative division into themes instead of exarchates) and the Greek culture of the country (the introduction of the positions of logothete, strategist, drungaria, etc.).

Since the 10th century, feudal principles of governance have been widely spread, this process has led to the approval of representatives of the feudal aristocracy on the throne. Until the very end of the empire, numerous rebellions and the struggle for the imperial throne do not stop. The two highest military officials were the commander-in-chief of the infantry (lat. magister paeditum) and the head of the cavalry (lat. magister equitum), later these positions were combined (Magister militum); in the capital there were two masters of infantry and cavalry (Stratig Opsikia) (lat. Magistri equitum et paeditum in praesenti). In addition, there was the master of infantry and cavalry of the East (Strateg of Anatolika), the master of infantry and cavalry of Illyricum, the master of infantry and cavalry of Thrace (Stratig of Thrace).

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for nearly a thousand years; in historiography, from that time on, it is usually called Byzantium.

The ruling class of Byzantium is characterized by vertical mobility. At all times, a man from the bottom could break through to power. In some cases, it was even easier for him: for example, there was an opportunity to make a career in the army and earn military glory. So, for example, Emperor Michael II Travl was an uneducated mercenary, was sentenced to death by Emperor Leo V for rebellion, and his execution was postponed only because of the celebration of Christmas (820). Vasily I was a peasant, and then a horse rider in the service of a noble nobleman. Roman I Lecapenus was also a native of peasants, Michael IV, before becoming emperor, was a money changer, like one of his brothers.

Army of the Eastern Roman Empire by 395

Although Byzantium inherited its army from the Roman Empire, its structure approached the phalanx system of the Hellenic states. By the end of the existence of Byzantium, she became mostly mercenary and was distinguished by a rather low combat capability. On the other hand, a military command and control system was developed in detail, works on strategy and tactics are published, various technical means are widely used, in particular, a system of beacons is built to warn of enemy attacks. In contrast to the old Roman army, the importance of the fleet is greatly increasing, which the invention of "Greek fire" helps to gain dominance at sea. The Sassanids adopted a fully armored cavalry - cataphracts. At the same time, technically complex throwing weapons, ballistas and catapults, replaced by simpler stone throwers, are disappearing.

The transition to the theme system of recruiting troops provided the country with 150 years of successful wars, but the financial exhaustion of the peasantry and its transition to dependence on the feudal lords led to a gradual decrease in combat capability. The recruiting system was changed to a typically feudal one, where the nobility was required to supply military contingents for the right to own land. In the future, the army and navy fall into ever greater decline, and at the very end of the existence of the empire they are purely mercenary formations.

In 1453, Constantinople, with a population of 60,000 inhabitants, was able to field only a 5,000-strong army and 2,500 mercenaries. Since the 10th century, the emperors of Constantinople hired Russ and warriors from neighboring barbarian tribes. From the 10th century, the ethnically mixed Varangians played a significant role in the heavy infantry, and the light cavalry was recruited from Turkic nomads. After the Viking Age came to an end in the early 11th century, mercenaries from Scandinavia (as well as Normandy and England conquered by the Vikings) rushed to Byzantium across the Mediterranean. The future Norwegian king Harald the Severe fought for several years in the Varangian guard throughout the Mediterranean. The Varangian Guard bravely defended Constantinople from the crusaders in 1204 and were defeated during the capture of the city.

Of great cultural importance was the period of the reign of emperors from Basil I the Macedonian to Alexei I Komnenos (867-1081). The essential features of this period of history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe. Through the work of the famous Byzantines Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic alphabet appeared - Glagolitic, which led to the emergence of their own written literature among the Slavs. Patriarch Photius put up barriers to the claims of the Roman popes and theoretically substantiated the right of Constantinople to church independence from Rome (see Separation of Churches).

In the scientific sphere, this period is distinguished by unusual fertility and a variety of literary enterprises. In the collections and adaptations of this period, precious historical, literary and archaeological material, borrowed from writers now lost, has been preserved.

Economy

The state included rich lands with a large number of cities - Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece. In the cities, artisans and merchants united into estates. Belonging to a class was not a duty, but a privilege; joining it was subject to a number of conditions. The conditions established by the eparch (mayor) for the 22 estates of Constantinople were summarized in the 10th century in a collection of decrees, the Book of the eparch. Despite a corrupt system of government, very high taxes, a slave economy and court intrigues, the Byzantine economy for a long time was the strongest in Europe. Trade was conducted with all the former Roman possessions in the west and with India (through the Sassanids and Arabs) in the east.

Even after the Arab conquests, the empire was very rich. But the financial costs were also very high, and the wealth of the country caused great envy. The decline in trade caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the onslaught of the Turks led to the final weakening of finances and the state as a whole.

In the initial period of the history of the state, the basis of the economy was production and customs structure. 85-90 percent of production in all of Eurasia (with the exception of India and China) came from the Eastern Roman Empire. Absolutely everything was made in the empire: from consumer products (oil lamps, weapons, armor, the production of primitive elevators, mirrors, some other items related to cosmetics), which are now quite widely represented in all museums of the world, to unique works of art, in other areas of the world not represented at all - icon painting, painting, and so on.

Medicine in Byzantium

Byzantine science throughout the entire period of the existence of the state was in close connection with ancient philosophy and metaphysics. The main activity of scientists was in the applied plane, where a number of remarkable successes were achieved, such as the construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople and the invention of Greek fire.

At the same time, pure science practically did not develop either in terms of creating new theories or in terms of developing the ideas of ancient thinkers. From the era of Justinian until the end of the first millennium, scientific knowledge was in a severe decline, but subsequently Byzantine scientists again showed themselves, especially in astronomy and mathematics, already relying on the achievements of Arabic and Persian science.

Medicine was one of the few branches of knowledge in which progress was made compared to antiquity. The influence of Byzantine medicine was felt both in the Arab countries and in Europe during the Renaissance. In the last century of the empire, Byzantium played an important role in the dissemination of ancient Greek literature in Italy during the early Renaissance. By that time, the Academy of Trebizond had become the main center for the study of astronomy and mathematics.

In 330, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great declared the city of Byzantium his capital, renaming it "New Rome" (Constantinople is an unofficial name).

The new capital was located on the most important trade route from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, along which grain was transported. In Rome, new contenders for the throne constantly appeared. Having defeated rivals in exhausting civil wars, Constantine wanted to create a capital, initially and completely subject to him alone. A deep ideological upheaval was called upon to serve the same goal: until recently, persecuted in Rome, Christianity was declared the state religion in the reign of Constantine. Constantinople immediately became the capital of the Christian empire.

The final division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western took place in 395 after the death of Theodosius I the Great. The main difference between Byzantium and the Western Roman Empire was the predominance of Greek culture on its territory. Differences grew, and over the course of two centuries the state finally acquired its individual appearance.

The formation of Byzantium as an independent state can be attributed to the period 330-518. During this period, through the borders on the Danube and the Rhine, numerous barbarian, mainly Germanic tribes penetrated into Roman territory. The situation in the East was no less difficult, and a similar ending could be expected after the Visigoths won the famous battle of Adrianople in 378, the emperor Valens was killed and King Alaric devastated all of Greece. But soon Alaric went west - to Spain and Gaul, where the Goths founded their state, and the danger from their side for Byzantium was over. In 441, the Goths were replaced by the Huns. Their leader Attila started a war several times, and only by paying a large tribute it was possible to buy him off. In the battle of the peoples on the Catalaunian fields (451), Attila was defeated, and his power soon disintegrated.

In the second half of the 5th century, danger came from the Ostrogoths - Theodoric the Great ravaged Macedonia, threatened Constantinople, but he also went west, conquering Italy and founding his state on the ruins of Rome.

In 1204, Constantinople surrendered for the first time under the onslaught of the enemy: enraged by an unsuccessful campaign in the "promised land", the crusaders broke into the city, announced the creation of the Latin Empire and divided the Byzantine lands between the French barons.

The new formation did not last long: on July 51, 1261, Michael VIII Palaiologos occupied Constantinople without a fight, who announced the revival of the Eastern Roman Empire. The dynasty he founded ruled Byzantium until its fall, but this rule was rather miserable. In the end, the emperors lived on handouts from Genoese and Venetian merchants, and even plundered church and private property in kind.

By the beginning of the XIV century, only Constantinople, Thessaloniki and small scattered enclaves in southern Greece remained from the former territories. The desperate attempts of the last emperor of Byzantium, Manuel II, to enlist the military support of Western Europe were not successful. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople was conquered for the second and last time.

Religion of Byzantium

In Christianity, diverse trends fought and clashed: Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism. While in the West the popes, beginning with Leo the Great (440-461), asserted the papal monarchy, in the East the patriarchs of Alexandria, especially Cyril (422-444) and Dioscorus (444-451), tried to establish the papal throne in Alexandria. In addition, as a result of these unrest, old national strife and separatist tendencies surfaced.

Political interests and goals were closely intertwined with the religious conflict.

Since 502, the Persians resumed their onslaught in the east, the Slavs and Bulgars began raids south of the Danube. Internal unrest reached its extreme limits, in the capital there was an intense struggle between the parties of "green" and "blue" (according to the colors of the chariot teams). Finally, the strong memory of the Roman tradition, which supported the idea of ​​the need for the unity of the Roman world, constantly turned minds to the West. To get out of this state of instability, a powerful hand was needed, a clear policy with precise and definite plans. This policy was pursued by Justinian I.

The national composition of the empire was very diverse, but starting from the 7th century, Greeks made up the majority of the population. Since then, the Byzantine emperor began to be called in Greek - "basileus". In the 9th-10th centuries, after the conquest of Bulgaria and the subjugation of the Serbs and Croats, Byzantium became, in essence, a Greek-Slavic state. Based on the religious community around Byzantium, an extensive "zone of orthodoxy (Orthodoxy)" was formed, including Russia, Georgia, Bulgaria, and most of Serbia.

Until the 7th century, the official language of the empire was Latin, but there was literature in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, Georgian. In 866, the "Thessalonica brothers" Cyril (c.826-869) and Methodius (c.815-885) invented the Slavic letter, which quickly spread in Bulgaria and Russia.

Despite the fact that the whole life of the state and society was permeated with religion, secular power in Byzantium was always stronger than church power. The Byzantine Empire has always been distinguished by stable statehood and strictly centralized administration.

By its political structure, Byzantium was an autocratic monarchy, the doctrine of which was finally formed here. All power was in the hands of the emperor (basileus). He was the supreme judge, directed foreign policy, legislated, commanded the army, and so on. His power was considered divine and was practically unlimited, however, (paradox!) It was not legally hereditary. The result of this was constant unrest and wars for power, ending in the creation of another dynasty (a simple warrior, even from the barbarians, or a peasant, thanks to his dexterity and personal abilities, could often take a high position in the state or even become an emperor. The history of Byzantium is full of such examples).

In Byzantium, a special system of relations between secular and ecclesiastical authorities, called Caesaropapism, developed (the Emperors, in essence, ruled the Church, becoming "popes." The Church became only an appendage and instrument of secular power). The power of the emperors was especially strengthened during the infamous period of "iconoclasm", when the clergy were completely subordinate to the imperial power, deprived of many privileges, the wealth of the church and monasteries were partially confiscated. As for cultural life, the result of "iconoclasm" was the complete canonization of spiritual art.

Byzantine culture

In artistic creativity, Byzantium gave the medieval world high images of literature and art, which were distinguished by the noble elegance of forms, figurative vision of thought, refinement of aesthetic thinking, and depth of philosophical thought. The direct successor of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, in terms of expressiveness and deep spirituality, Byzantium stood ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe for many centuries. Since the 6th century, Constantinople has been turning into a glorified artistic center of the medieval world, into a "palladium of sciences and arts." It is followed by Ravenna, Rome, Nicaea, Thessalonica, which also became the focus of the Byzantine artistic style.

The process of artistic development of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had epochs of ups and downs, periods of the triumph of progressive ideas and gloomy years of domination by reactionaries. There were several periods, more or less prosperous, marked by a special flourishing of art:

Time of Emperor Justinian I (527-565) - "golden age of Byzantium"

and the so-called Byzantine "renaissances":

The reign of the Macedonian dynasty (mid-IX - late XI century) - "Macedonian renaissance".

The reign of the Komnenos dynasty (end of the 11th - the end of the 12th centuries) - "the Komnenos' renaissance".

Late Byzantium (since 1260) - "Paleologian Renaissance".

Byzantium survived the invasion of the Crusaders (1204, IV Crusade), but with the formation and strengthening of the Ottoman Empire on its borders, its end became inevitable. The West promised help only on the condition of converting to Catholicism (the Ferraro-Florentine Union, indignantly rejected by the people).

In April 1453, Constantinople was surrounded by a huge Turkish army and two months later taken by storm. The last emperor - Constantine XI Palaiologos - died on the fortress wall with a weapon in his hands.

Since then, Constantinople has been called Istanbul.

The fall of Byzantium was a huge blow to the Orthodox (and Christian in general) world. Disregarding politics and economics, Christian theologians saw the main reason for its death in that decline in morals and in that hypocrisy in matters of religion that flourished in Byzantium in the last centuries of its existence. So, Vladimir Solovyov wrote:

"After many delays and a long struggle with material decay, the Eastern Empire, long dead morally, was finally just before

the revival of the West, demolished from the historical field. ... Proud of their orthodoxy and piety, they did not want to understand that simple and self-evident truth that true orthodoxy and piety require that we somehow conform our lives to what we believe and what we honor - they did not want to understand that the real advantage belongs to the Christian kingdom over others only insofar as it is organized and governed in the spirit of Christ. ... Finding itself hopelessly incapable of its high purpose - to be a Christian kingdom - Byzantium lost the inner reason for its existence. For the current, ordinary tasks of state administration could, and even much better, be performed by the government of the Turkish Sultan, which, being free from internal contradictions, was more honest and stronger and, moreover, did not interfere in the religious field of Christianity, did not compose dubious dogmas and malicious heresies, but also did not defend Orthodoxy by massacre of heretics and solemn burning of heresiarchs at the stake.

One of the largest empires in history, Byzantium had a huge influence on the sea and land, in trade and the development of production, in religion and culture.

The fall of the Byzantine Empire led to changing the political map of Europe and Asia, became the impetus for the search for new trade routes that led to geographical discoveries. How long did Byzantium last, and what caused its collapse?

In contact with

Rise of the Byzantine Empire

The reason for the emergence of Byzantium was the collapse of the Great Roman Empire, which ended with the division into Western and Eastern. Theodosius I was the last ruler of the Roman Empire. Under his rule, Christianity became the only religion in the empire. Before his death, the emperor carried out division into Western and Eastern empires, each of which he gave to his sons Honorius and Arcadius.

The Western Empire was able to exist for less than a century and fell under the onslaught of the barbarians in the second half of the 5th century.

Rome lost its greatness for many hundreds of years. The eastern part, centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey), became a powerful successor, called the Byzantine Empire.

Date of foundation of Constantinople falls on the year 330, when Emperor Constantine moved the capital to the place where the Greek colony of Byzantium was located.

Later, Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Empire and the richest city of the Middle Ages. The Byzantine Empire lasted for over 1000 years(395-1453), while the term of the Roman Empire itself is 500 years.

Attention! Historians began to call Byzantium the formed empire after its collapse in the 15th century.

The power of the Byzantine Empire was based on trade and handicraft production. Cities grew and developed, providing the production of all necessary goods. The sea trade route was the safest, because wars did not stop on land. Trade between East and West carried out through Byzantium, thanks to which its ports reached their greatest prosperity, which fell on the 5th-8th centuries.

The multinational population brought its cultural diversity, but the ancient heritage was taken as the basis, and the Greek language became the main one. Most of the population were Greeks, so the name "Greek Empire" appeared in the west. Believing myself heirs of the Romans, the Greeks began to call themselves "Romans", which means Romans in Greek, and their empire Romania.

Rise of Byzantium

The period of the highest power of the empire falls on the reign of Justinian in the middle of the VI century. The possessions of the empire reached the maximum limits in their history, which was possible due to military campaigns. Byzantine territory grew after the accession of the southern part of Spain and Italy, the countries of North Africa.

The empire approved Roman law and the norms of the Christian religion. The document was called the Code of Laws, becoming the basis for the laws of the European powers.

During the reign of Justinian, the most majestic Hagia Sophia in the world was built with splendor of frescoes and mosaic vault. The monumental imperial palace of Justinian towered over the Sea of ​​Marmara.

The absence of barbarian raids contributed to the cultural development and growth of the power of the Byzantine Empire. Greco-Roman cities continued to exist with palaces, snow-white columns and statues. Crafts, science, trade flourished there. was borrowed experience of Roman urban planning, worked plumbing and terms (baths).

Important! State symbols during the period of the Byzantine Empire were absent or only developed.

The ruling Palaiologos dynasty for the last two centuries had the imperial flag of Byzantium in purple. In its center was a double-headed golden eagle. The emblem meant the division of the Roman Empire into two parts, because the eagle appeared two heads instead of the usual one like a Roman eagle. According to another version, the two-headedness was interpreted as a union of secular and spiritual power.

Empire at the end of existence

By the end of the 14th century, the existence of the Byzantine Empire was threatened by the Ottoman state. For salvation, diplomacy was involved, negotiations were held in the West to unite churches in exchange for military aid from Rome. A preliminary agreement had been reached as early as 1430, but there were still contentious issues.

After the signing of the union in 1439, the Byzantine Church recognized the competence of the Catholic in controversial issues. But the document was not supported by the episcopate of Byzantium, headed by Bishop Mark Evgenikos, which caused a split into the Orthodox and Uniate diocese, which began to coexist in parallel, which can be seen even today.

The church schism had a great influence on the history of culture. Metropolitans, supporters of Uniatism, became the bridge for the transmission of ancient and Byzantine culture to the West. Greek authors began to be translated into Latin, emigrant intellectuals from Greece were given special protection in the new place. Vissarion of Nicaea, who became a cardinal and Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, gave the Republic of Venice the entire personal library, numbering over 700 manuscripts. It was considered the largest private collection in Europe and served as the basis for the Library of St. Mark.

By the end of its existence, the Byzantine Empire had lost most of its lands and former power. The territory of Byzantium was limited to the outskirts of the capital, which were subject to the power of the last emperor Constantine XI.

Despite the fact that the map of the empire was gradually shrinking, Constantinople until the last hour perceived as a powerful symbol.

The emperor was looking for allies among his neighbors, but only Rome and Venice offered little real help. The Ottoman power controlled almost all of Anatolia and Balkan Peninsula, tirelessly expanding the borders in the east and west. Several times already the Ottomans attacked the Byzantine Empire, each time recapturing new cities.

Strengthening the influence of the Turks

The Ottoman state, created in 1299 from the fragments of the Seljuk Sultanate and Anatolia, was named after the first Sultan Osman. Throughout the XIV century, it increased its power on the borders of Byzantium, in Asia Minor and in the Balkans. Constantinople received a small respite at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, when confrontation with Tamerlane. After the next victory of the Turks, a real threat loomed over the city.

Mehmed II called the capture of Constantinople by the Turks the goal of his life, for which he carefully prepared. A 150,000-strong army armed with artillery was prepared for the offensive. The Sultan took into account the shortcomings of past companies when he was deprived of the fleet. Therefore, a fleet was built for several years. The presence of warships and a 100,000-strong army allowed the Turks to become masters in the Sea of ​​​​Marmara.

Ready for the war company 85 military and 350 transport courts. The military power of Constantinople consisted of 5,000 local residents and 2,000 Western mercenaries, supported by only 25 ships. They were armed with several cannons, an impressive supply of spears and arrows, which was extremely insufficient for defense.

The powerful fortress of Constantinople, surrounded by the sea and the Golden Horn, was not easy to take. The walls remained invulnerable for siege machines and guns.

Offensive

The beginning of the siege of the city falls on April 7, 1453. Representatives of the sultan handed over to the emperor a proposal to surrender, to which the ruler offered to pay tribute, cede his territories, but keep the city.

After receiving a refusal, the Sultan ordered the Turkish army to storm the city. The army had a high determination, motivation, rushed to the offensive, which was the complete opposite of the position of the Romans.

The stake was placed on the Turkish fleet, which must block the city from the sea to prevent the arrival of reinforcements from the allies. It was necessary to break through the fortifications and enter the bay.

The Byzantines repulsed the first attack by blocking the entrance to the bay. Despite all attempts, the Turkish fleet was unable to approach the city. We must pay tribute to the courage of the defenders, who fought on 5 courts with 150 ships of the Turks, defeating them. The Turks had to change tactics and transport 80 ships overland, which was done on April 22. The Byzantines were unable to burn the fleet due to the betrayal of the Genoese who lived in Galata and warned the Turks.

Fall of Constantinople

Chaos and despair reigned in the capital of Byzantium. Emperor Constantine XI was offered to surrender the city.

At dawn on May 29, the Turkish army launched an assault, which became the last. The first attacks were repulsed, but then the situation changed. After taking the main gate, the fights moved to the city streets. Fighting like everyone else in battle under unknown circumstances, the emperor himself fell. The Turks completely took over the city.

On May 29, 1453, after two months of stubborn resistance, Constantinople was captured by the Turks. The city fell along with the Great Eastern Empire under the pressure of the Turkish army. For three days the Sultan gave the city to the plunder. The wounded Constantine XI was cut off his head, and then put it on a pole.

The Turks in Constantinople did not spare anyone, they killed everyone they met. Mountains of corpses filled the streets, and the blood of the dead flowed straight into the bay. The Sultan entered the city after the cessation of violence and robbery on his decree, accompanied by viziers and an escort of the best detachments of the Janissaries, Mehmed II proceeded through the streets. Constantinople stood plundered and defiled.

The Church of St. Sophia was rebuilt and turned into a mosque. The surviving population was granted freedom, but there were too few people left. I had to announce in the neighboring cities, where the inhabitants came from, and gradually Constantinople was again filled with population. The Sultan kept supported Greek culture, the church.

The Greeks received the right of self-government within the community, headed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, subordinate to the Sultan. He left continuity with Byzantium and the title of Roman emperor.

Important! According to historians, with the arrival of the Sultan to Byzantium, the Middle Ages ended, and the flight of Greek scientists to Italy became a prerequisite for the Renaissance.

Why Byzantium fell

Historians have been arguing about the reasons for the fall of the Byzantine Empire for a very long time and put forward various versions about the factors that all together destroyed the empire.

Here are some of the causes of death:

• According to one version, Venice contributed to the fall, wanting to eliminate a trading competitor in the eastern Mediterranean.
• Other evidence says that the Egyptian sultan gave a large bribe to the Venetian Signoria in order to secure his possessions.
• The most controversial is the question of the involvement of the papal curia and the Pope himself who wanted the reunification of the churches.
• The main and objective reason for the death of the Byzantine Empire was internal political and economic weakness. Crusaders attacks, court intrigues with the change of emperor, Byzantine hatred of merchants who arrived from the Italian republics, religious strife, causing hatred for Catholics and Latins, led to this. All this was accompanied by riots, pogroms and massacres with many victims.
• military superiority and cohesion of the Turkish army The Ottoman Empire began to seize new territories in the southeast of Europe, expanding its influence also to Asia, the Caucasus and the north of the African continent. The Byzantine Empire existed for more than a thousand years, but could not resist the onslaught of the Turkish army, since it no longer had its former greatness.

On May 29, 1453, the capital of the Byzantine Empire fell under the blows of the Turks. Tuesday May 29 is one of the most important dates in the world. On this day, the Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, created back in 395 as a result of the final division of the Roman Empire after the death of Emperor Theodosius I into the western and eastern parts. With her death, a huge period of human history ended. In the life of many peoples of Europe, Asia and North Africa, a radical change occurred due to the establishment of Turkish rule and the creation of the Ottoman Empire.

It is clear that the fall of Constantinople is not a clear line between the two eras. The Turks had established themselves in Europe a century before the fall of the great capital. And by the time of the fall, the Byzantine Empire was already a fragment of its former greatness - the emperor's power extended only to Constantinople with its suburbs and part of the territory of Greece with the islands. Byzantium of the 13th-15th centuries can be called an empire only conditionally. At the same time, Constantinople was a symbol of the ancient empire, was considered the "Second Rome".

Background of the fall

In the XIII century, one of the Turkic tribes - kayy - led by Ertogrul-bey, squeezed out of nomad camps in the Turkmen steppes, migrated westward and stopped in Asia Minor. The tribe assisted the Sultan of the largest of the Turkish states (it was founded by the Seljuk Turks) - the Rum (Koniy) Sultanate - Alaeddin Kay-Kubad in his struggle with the Byzantine Empire. For this, the Sultan gave Ertogrul a fief of land in the region of Bithynia. The son of the leader Ertogrul - Osman I (1281-1326), despite the constantly growing power, recognized his dependence on Konya. Only in 1299 did he take the title of sultan and soon subjugated the entire western part of Asia Minor, having won a number of victories over the Byzantines. By the name of Sultan Osman, his subjects began to be called Ottoman Turks, or Ottomans (Ottomans). In addition to wars with the Byzantines, the Ottomans fought for the subjugation of other Muslim possessions - by 1487, the Ottoman Turks asserted their power over all the Muslim possessions of the Asia Minor peninsula.

The Muslim clergy, including the local orders of dervishes, played an important role in strengthening the power of Osman and his successors. The clergy not only played a significant role in the creation of a new great power, but justified the policy of expansion as a "struggle for faith." In 1326, the Ottoman Turks captured the largest trading city of Bursa, the most important point of transit caravan trade between the West and the East. Then Nicaea and Nicomedia fell. The sultans distributed the lands seized from the Byzantines to the nobility and distinguished soldiers as timars - conditional possessions received for service (estates). Gradually, the Timar system became the basis of the socio-economic and military-administrative structure of the Ottoman state. Under Sultan Orhan I (reigned from 1326 to 1359) and his son Murad I (reigned from 1359 to 1389), important military reforms were carried out: the irregular cavalry was reorganized - cavalry and infantry troops convened from Turkish farmers were created. The soldiers of the cavalry and infantry troops in peacetime were farmers, receiving benefits, during the war they were obliged to join the army. In addition, the army was supplemented by a militia of peasants of the Christian faith and a corps of Janissaries. The Janissaries initially took captive Christian youths who were forced to convert to Islam, and from the first half of the 15th century - from the sons of Christian subjects of the Ottoman Sultan (in the form of a special tax). Sipahis (a kind of nobles of the Ottoman state, who received income from the Timars) and the Janissaries became the core of the army of the Ottoman sultans. In addition, subdivisions of gunners, gunsmiths, and other units were created in the army. As a result, a powerful state arose on the borders of Byzantium, which claimed dominance in the region.

It must be said that the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states themselves accelerated their fall. During this period, there was a sharp struggle between Byzantium, Genoa, Venice and the Balkan states. Often the belligerents sought to enlist the military support of the Ottomans. Naturally, this greatly facilitated the expansion of the Ottoman state. The Ottomans received information about the routes, possible crossings, fortifications, the strengths and weaknesses of the enemy troops, the internal situation, etc. The Christians themselves helped to cross the straits to Europe.

The Ottoman Turks achieved great success under Sultan Murad II (ruled 1421-1444 and 1446-1451). Under him, the Turks recovered after a heavy defeat inflicted by Tamerlane in the Battle of Angora in 1402. In many ways, it was this defeat that delayed the death of Constantinople for half a century. The Sultan suppressed all the uprisings of the Muslim rulers. In June 1422, Murad laid siege to Constantinople, but could not take it. The lack of a fleet and powerful artillery affected. In 1430, the large city of Thessaloniki in northern Greece was captured, it belonged to the Venetians. Murad II won a number of important victories in the Balkan Peninsula, significantly expanding the possessions of his power. So in October 1448, the battle took place on the Kosovo field. In this battle, the Ottoman army opposed the combined forces of Hungary and Wallachia under the command of the Hungarian general Janos Hunyadi. The fierce three-day battle ended with the complete victory of the Ottomans, and decided the fate of the Balkan peoples - for several centuries they were under the rule of the Turks. After this battle, the crusaders suffered a final defeat and no longer made serious attempts to recapture the Balkan Peninsula from the Ottoman Empire. The fate of Constantinople was decided, the Turks got the opportunity to solve the problem of capturing the ancient city. Byzantium itself no longer posed a great threat to the Turks, but a coalition of Christian countries, relying on Constantinople, could bring significant harm. The city was practically in the middle of the Ottoman possessions, between Europe and Asia. The task of capturing Constantinople was decided by Sultan Mehmed II.

Byzantium. By the 15th century, the Byzantine state had lost most of its possessions. The entire 14th century was a period of political setbacks. For several decades, it seemed that Serbia would be able to capture Constantinople. Various internal strife were a constant source of civil wars. So the Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos (who ruled from 1341 - 1391) was overthrown from the throne three times: by his father-in-law, son and then grandson. In 1347, an epidemic of "black death" swept through, which claimed the lives of at least a third of the population of Byzantium. The Turks crossed over to Europe, and taking advantage of the troubles of Byzantium and the Balkan countries, by the end of the century they reached the Danube. As a result, Constantinople was surrounded on almost all sides. In 1357, the Turks captured Gallipoli, in 1361 - Adrianople, which became the center of Turkish possessions on the Balkan Peninsula. In 1368, Nissa (the suburban residence of the Byzantine emperors) submitted to Sultan Murad I, and the Ottomans were already under the walls of Constantinople.

In addition, there was the problem of the struggle between supporters and opponents of the union with the Catholic Church. For many Byzantine politicians, it was obvious that without the help of the West, the empire could not survive. Back in 1274, at the Council of Lyon, the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII promised the pope to seek reconciliation of the churches for political and economic reasons. True, his son, Emperor Andronicus II, convened a council of the Eastern Church, which rejected the decisions of the Council of Lyon. Then John Palaiologos went to Rome, where he solemnly accepted the faith according to the Latin rite, but received no help from the West. Supporters of the union with Rome were mostly politicians, or belonged to the intellectual elite. The open enemies of the union were the lower clergy. John VIII Palaiologos (Byzantine emperor in 1425-1448) believed that Constantinople could be saved only with the help of the West, so he tried to conclude a union with the Roman Church as soon as possible. In 1437, together with the patriarch and a delegation of Orthodox bishops, the Byzantine emperor went to Italy and spent more than two years there without a break, first in Ferrara, and then at the Ecumenical Council in Florence. At these meetings, both sides often reached an impasse and were ready to stop the negotiations. But, John forbade his bishops to leave the cathedral until a compromise decision was made. In the end, the Orthodox delegation was forced to yield to the Catholics on almost all major issues. On July 6, 1439, the Union of Florence was adopted, and the Eastern churches were reunited with the Latin. True, the union turned out to be fragile, after a few years many Orthodox hierarchs present at the Council began to openly deny their agreement with the union or say that the decisions of the Council were caused by bribery and threats from Catholics. As a result, the union was rejected by most of the Eastern churches. Most of the clergy and people did not accept this union. In 1444, the pope was able to organize a crusade against the Turks (the main force was the Hungarians), but near Varna the crusaders suffered a crushing defeat.

Disputes about the union took place against the backdrop of the country's economic decline. Constantinople at the end of the 14th century was a sad city, a city of decline and destruction. The loss of Anatolia deprived the capital of the empire of almost all agricultural land. The population of Constantinople, which in the XII century numbered up to 1 million people (together with the suburbs), fell to 100 thousand and continued to decline - by the time of the fall, there were about 50 thousand people in the city. The suburb on the Asian coast of the Bosporus was captured by the Turks. The suburb of Pera (Galata), on the other side of the Golden Horn, was a colony of Genoa. The city itself, surrounded by a wall of 14 miles, lost a number of quarters. In fact, the city has turned into several separate settlements, separated by vegetable gardens, gardens, abandoned parks, ruins of buildings. Many had their own walls, fences. The most populous villages were located along the banks of the Golden Horn. The richest quarter adjacent to the bay belonged to the Venetians. Nearby were the streets where people from the West lived - Florentines, Anconians, Ragusians, Catalans and Jews. But, moorings and bazaars were still full of merchants from Italian cities, Slavic and Muslim lands. Every year, pilgrims arrived in the city, mainly from Russia.

The last years before the fall of Constantinople, preparations for war

The last emperor of Byzantium was Constantine XI Palaiologos (who ruled from 1449-1453). Before becoming emperor, he was despot of the Morea, the Greek province of Byzantium. Constantine had a sound mind, was a good warrior and administrator. Possessed the gift of evoking the love and respect of his subjects, he was greeted in the capital with great joy. During the short years of his reign, he was engaged in preparing Constantinople for a siege, seeking help and alliance in the West and trying to calm the confusion caused by union with the Roman Church. He appointed Luka Notaras as his first minister and commander-in-chief of the fleet.

Sultan Mehmed II received the throne in 1451. He was a purposeful, energetic, intelligent person. Although it was initially believed that this was not a young man sparkling with talents, such an impression was formed on the first attempt to rule in 1444-1446, when his father Murad II (he handed over the throne to his son in order to move away from state affairs) had to return to the throne to solve the problems that appeared. problems. This calmed the European rulers, all their problems were enough. Already in the winter of 1451-1452. Sultan Mehmed ordered the construction of a fortress at the narrowest point of the Bosporus Strait, thereby cutting off Constantinople from the Black Sea. The Byzantines were confused - this was the first step towards the siege. An embassy was sent with a reminder of the oath of the Sultan, who promised to preserve the territorial integrity of Byzantium. The embassy was left unanswered. Constantine sent messengers with gifts and asked not to touch the Greek villages located on the Bosphorus. The Sultan ignored this mission as well. In June, a third embassy was sent - this time the Greeks were arrested and then beheaded. In fact, it was a declaration of war.

By the end of August 1452, the fortress of Bogaz-Kesen (“cutting the strait”, or “cutting the throat”) was built. Powerful guns were installed in the fortress and a ban was announced on passing the Bosphorus without inspection. Two Venetian ships were driven off and a third sunk. The crew was beheaded, and the captain was impaled - this dispelled all illusions about Mehmed's intentions. The actions of the Ottomans caused concern not only in Constantinople. The Venetians in the Byzantine capital owned a whole quarter, they had significant privileges and benefits from trade. It was clear that after the fall of Constantinople, the Turks would not stop; the possessions of Venice in Greece and the Aegean were under attack. The problem was that the Venetians were bogged down in a costly war in Lombardy. An alliance with Genoa was impossible; relations with Rome were strained. And I didn’t want to spoil relations with the Turks - the Venetians conducted profitable trade in the Ottoman ports. Venice allowed Constantine to recruit soldiers and sailors in Crete. In general, Venice remained neutral during this war.

Genoa found itself in roughly the same situation. Concern was caused by the fate of Pera and the Black Sea colonies. The Genoese, like the Venetians, showed flexibility. The government appealed to the Christian world to send aid to Constantinople, but they themselves did not provide such support. Private citizens were given the right to act at their own discretion. The administrations of Pera and the island of Chios were instructed to follow such policy towards the Turks as they thought best in the circumstances.

The Ragusans, the inhabitants of the city of Raguz (Dubrovnik), as well as the Venetians, have recently received confirmation of their privileges in Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor. But the Republic of Dubrovnik did not want to jeopardize its trade in the Ottoman ports either. In addition, the city-state had a small fleet and did not want to risk it if there was no broad coalition of Christian states.

Pope Nicholas V (head of the Catholic Church from 1447 to 1455), having received a letter from Constantine agreeing to accept the union, in vain turned to various sovereigns for help. There was no proper response to these calls. Only in October 1452, the papal legate to the emperor Isidore brought with him 200 archers hired in Naples. The problem of union with Rome again caused controversy and unrest in Constantinople. December 12, 1452 in the church of St. Sophia celebrated a solemn liturgy in the presence of the emperor and the entire court. It mentioned the names of the Pope, the Patriarch, and officially proclaimed the provisions of the Union of Florence. Most of the townspeople accepted this news with sullen passivity. Many hoped that if the city held out, the union could be rejected. But having paid this price for help, the Byzantine elite miscalculated - the ships with the soldiers of the Western states did not come to the aid of the dying empire.

At the end of January 1453, the issue of war was finally resolved. Turkish troops in Europe were ordered to attack the Byzantine cities in Thrace. The cities on the Black Sea surrendered without a fight and escaped the pogrom. Some cities on the coast of the Sea of ​​Marmara tried to defend themselves, and were destroyed. Part of the army invaded the Peloponnese and attacked the brothers of Emperor Constantine so that they could not come to the aid of the capital. The Sultan took into account the fact that a number of previous attempts to take Constantinople (by his predecessors) failed due to the lack of a fleet. The Byzantines had the opportunity to bring reinforcements and supplies by sea. In March, all the ships at the disposal of the Turks are pulled to Gallipoli. Some of the ships were new, built within the last few months. The Turkish fleet had 6 triremes (two-masted sailing and rowing ships, three rowers held one oar), 10 biremes (single-masted vessel, where there were two rowers on one oar), 15 galleys, about 75 fusta (light, high-speed vessels), 20 parandaria (heavy transport barges) and a lot of small sailing boats, boats. Suleiman Baltoglu was at the head of the Turkish fleet. The rowers and sailors were prisoners, criminals, slaves and some volunteers. At the end of March, the Turkish fleet passed through the Dardanelles into the Sea of ​​Marmara, causing horror among the Greeks and Italians. This was another blow to the Byzantine elite, they did not expect that the Turks would prepare such a significant naval force and be able to block the city from the sea.

At the same time, an army was being prepared in Thrace. Throughout the winter, gunsmiths tirelessly made various kinds, engineers created wall-beating and stone-throwing machines. A powerful shock fist was assembled from about 100 thousand people. Of these, 80 thousand were regular troops - cavalry and infantry, Janissaries (12 thousand). Approximately 20-25 thousand numbered irregular troops - militias, bashi-bazouks (irregular cavalry, "turretless" did not receive a salary and "rewarded" themselves with looting), rear units. The Sultan also paid much attention to artillery - the Hungarian master Urban cast several powerful cannons capable of sinking ships (using one of them they sank a Venetian ship) and destroying powerful fortifications. The largest of them was dragged by 60 bulls, and a team of several hundred people was assigned to it. The gun fired cores weighing approximately 1200 pounds (about 500 kg). During March, the huge army of the Sultan began to gradually move towards the Bosphorus. On April 5, Mehmed II himself arrived under the walls of Constantinople. The morale of the army was high, everyone believed in success and hoped for rich booty.

The people in Constantinople were crushed. The huge Turkish fleet in the Sea of ​​Marmara and strong enemy artillery only added to the anxiety. People recalled predictions about the fall of the empire and the coming of the Antichrist. But it cannot be said that the threat deprived all people of the will to resist. Throughout the winter, men and women, encouraged by the emperor, worked to clear the ditches and strengthen the walls. A fund for contingencies was created - the emperor, churches, monasteries and private individuals made investments in it. It should be noted that the problem was not the availability of money, but the lack of the required number of people, weapons (especially firearms), the problem of food. All weapons were collected in one place in order to distribute them to the most threatened areas if necessary.

There was no hope for outside help. Byzantium was supported only by some private individuals. Thus, the Venetian colony in Constantinople offered its assistance to the emperor. Two captains of the Venetian ships returning from the Black Sea - Gabriele Trevisano and Alviso Diedo, swore an oath to participate in the struggle. In total, the fleet that defended Constantinople consisted of 26 ships: 10 of them belonged to the Byzantines proper, 5 to the Venetians, 5 to the Genoese, 3 to the Cretans, 1 arrived from Catalonia, 1 from Ancona and 1 from Provence. Several noble Genoese arrived to fight for the Christian faith. For example, a volunteer from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani Longo, brought 700 soldiers with him. Giustiniani was known as an experienced military man, so he was appointed commander of the defense of the land walls by the emperor. In general, the Byzantine emperor, not including allies, had about 5-7 thousand soldiers. It should be noted that part of the population of the city left Constantinople before the siege began. Part of the Genoese - the colony of Pera and the Venetians remained neutral. On the night of February 26, seven ships - 1 from Venice and 6 from Crete left the Golden Horn, taking 700 Italians.

To be continued…

"Death of an Empire. Byzantine Lesson»- a publicistic film by the abbot of the Moscow Sretensky Monastery, Archimandrite Tikhon (Shevkunov). The premiere took place on the state channel "Russia" on January 30, 2008. The host - Archimandrite Tikhon (Shevkunov) - in the first person gives his version of the collapse of the Byzantine Empire.

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