Abstract on the history of economic exercises

Why should I study the history of economic science?

In order to deeper the logic and structure of modern economic thinking (after all, modern economic theory consists of several theories, which reflect different era and cultural traditions, various types of scientific thinking).

Knowledge of the history of economic science allows you to compare the judgments of contemporaries with the already vested, give them their own adequate assessment.

The history of economic science is part of the treasury of world culture, knowledge contributes to a more complete and real perception of reality.

The history of economic science may be made on the basis of two approaches:

Relativistic The approach considers the economic theories of the past from the point of view of their historical conditionality;

Absolutist Considers the development of the theory as continuous progress from erroneous judgments to the truth, in the limit to the absolute truth.

Economic science has passed a long way from economic thought (in the ancient world) to economic teachings (in the ancient period and the Middle Ages) and further to economic theory.

The emergence of economic thought

Ancient documents fixing economic relations can be considered laws.

Ancient Babylon .

The laws of King Hammurapi (1792 - 1750 BC) - slave-ownership relations, money circulation, debt obligations, rent, remuneration of mercenaries.

Ancient indium .

" Laws Manu "(VI B BC) - the rights and relationship of property, in later treatises - a description of the state and economic device, the rules for sale, sales of workers, pricing.

Ancient China .

Confucius work (551-479 BC) - views on physical and mental labor, slave relations; Treatise "Guan-Tzu" (IV-III centuries BC. E) - about trade, taxes, agriculture and craft, financial;

the teachings of Xun-Tzu (313-238 BC) - about taxation, against "exorbitant shares on the complaints and markets that slow down the exchange."

Economic doctrine of the world of antiquity

Ancient Greece .

Xenophon (430-355 BC. E) - "On income", "Economy" - gave the start of the scientific economy. Divated the economy in the industry (C / x, handicraft, trade), for the first time spoke about the feasibility of division of labor.

Plato (427-347 BC. E) developed ideas about the division of labor, the specialization of labor and the characteristics of different activities.

Aristotle (384-322 BC. E) - "Politics", "Ethics" - Explores Economy. Processes in order to detect patterns. The main direction of economy. Development should be the naturalization of economic life (natural economy as an ideal - a closed economic system, the work of slaves is applied, wealth is a set of produced in this farm, a way to achieve wealth - the seizure of new territories and slaves with the subsequent organization of their labor). The development of exchange and trade is contrary to the ideal type of development, although they are an integral part of life. Aristotle deeply analyzed the monetary processes and phenomena. It is thanks to the development of this problem that Aristotle himself considered the dead-end direction of economic development, his name entered the history of economic. Science as one of its founders and the first economic scientist.

Ancient Rome .

The problems of agriculture, the organization of slaves, land ownership paid attention to:

Varon (116-27 BC) - "On agriculture";

Mark Portions Caton (234-149 BC) - "On agriculture";

Mark Tully Cicero (106-43 BC);

Pliny senior (123-79 BC) - "Natural History";

Columella (I B. BC) - "On agriculture" - an agricultural encyclopedia of antiquity.

Economic thought in the I millennium AD. Economy and religion

The transition from the slave-owner building to the feudal, from the pagan religion to monotheism, from the excuse of slavery to its condemnation. Revolutionary changes does not occur. The strongest influence on the economy. Review has a church. The commandments are interpreted as the rules of economic behavior.

The Bible testifies that the economic truths were known to people in ancient times. The books of the Old Testament contain advice, wishes, aid of an economic sense. In the book of Nehemiah, it is directly mentioned about serves and pledge. You can find both instructions from the arsenal forms and methods of economic management.

The gospel (New Testament) has played a huge role in the formation of the Code of Economic Morral, the opposition to the principles of the compassion, naked profit, although it does not contain systematized views on the economy itself. The books of the New Testament contain ideas close to socialist and even communist.

In Islam, too, you can also find confirmation of how religious beliefs affected the economy. Principles. So, Mohammed preached the spirit of moderation, dismounting wealth, mercy; Set the rules of inheritance of property and distribution of funds in the form of a sunset (this kind of tax form is a mandatory alms).

Mercantilism

The term (from Ital. Mercante - a merchant, merchant) introduced the English. Economist Adam Smith. This is a system of efficiency. Views, cat. It was widespread in Europe in the second millennium of our era. Representatives of mercantilism - English. William Stafford and Thomas Mann, Fr. Antoine Monkeyen, Schotl. John Lo, Ial. Gaspar Scarufi and Antonio Gevonezi - considered money (at that time it was noble metals) as the main component of material well-being. The source of wealth is foreign trade. The concept of active trading balance was introduced - excess of export over the importation. In addition, mercantilism for the first time determined the government's management functions by economic policy leading to the enrichment of the nation is protectionism (Support for domestic merchants in foreign markets, restrictions for foreigners in the internal market).

Early mercantilism there was an era of great geographical discoveries, and his central idea was the idea of \u200b\u200b"monetary balance". Economy. Government policy during this period wore a pronounced fiscal character. Successful tax collection could be provided only by creating such a system in which individuals were forbidden to export precious metals beyond the state. Foreign merchants were obliged to spend the whole revenue to acquire local goods, the emission of money was declared a state monopoly. Total: impairment of money, price increase for goods, weakening the economic positions of the nobility.

Late mercantilism The ideas of trade balance adhered. It was believed that the state becomes the richer than the more difference between the cost of exported and imported goods. Therefore, the removal of finished products was encouraged and the export of raw materials and imports of luxury goods were restricted, and the development of intermediary trade was stimulated for which the export of money abroad was allowed. High import duties were established, export prizes were paid, privileges were granted to trade companies.

Outcome: confrontation between countries, mutual restrictions on trade, decay of industrial-oriented industries.

Already in the XVIIIV. Logically completed mercantilism became the brake of economic development and entered into a contradiction with the real needs of economic systems in Europe. Many concepts and principles of this doctrine are widely used in modern theory and practice.

PhysiCrats

The term (power of nature) introduced Adam Smith. The founder of the teachings was Francois Kene (1694-1774), the largest representatives - Viktor de Miraboy (1715-1789), Dupont de Neumur (1739-1817), Jacques Turgo (1727-1781). Physiocirates wealth considered not money, but "works of the Earth"; The source of richness of society is agricultural production, not trade and industry. The increase in wealth occurs due to the "pure product" (this is the difference between agriculture products and products used for its production during the year). The idea of \u200b\u200bgovernment non-interference in the natural course of economic life.

Francois Kene (1694-1774) - "Economic Table" (1758) - Table of Crucity of Braverues. Kene divides society for three main class - farmers, land owners and "non-free class" (not occupied in C / X). The process of distribution and redistribution of a pure product takes place in the following stages:

farmers rented the land owners for money, harvests are grown;

owners are buying products from farmers and industrial. artisans products;

farmers are purchased prom. Products from industrialists;

industrialists are purchased from Farmers -\u003e Money for rent land.

Jacques Turgo (1727-1781) attempted the practical implementation of a physiocratic concept. He conducted a number of reforms aimed at reducing the role of the state in the economic life of France. Natural duties replaced with money tax, reduced state expenses, have abolished shopping corporations and guilds, introduced the taxation of the noble class (they had not paid before). Turgo developed Kene's teachings in his work "reflections on creating and distributing wealth" (1776). According to the Türgo, the net product can be made not only in C / X, but also in industry; The class structure of society is more complex - inside each class there is differentiation. In addition, he laid the scientific basis for the analysis of s / n employees; Formulated the "Law of the Reduction of Land Product", the cat. In modern economy. Theories are interpreted as a law of decreasing performance.

Although the practice of physiocrats was unsuccessful, the theoretical contribution of this school is difficult to overestimate.

Classic School

The direction originated in the XVII century. And bloomed in the XVIII - beginning. XIX centuries. The classics put in the center of research work as creative strength and cost as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value. They also developed an idea of \u200b\u200bthe surplus value, profits, taxes, land rental. Source of wealth - the sphere of production.

William Petty (1623-1687) is the first representative and progenitor of the classical school, it owns scientific developments in the field of taxation and customs duties.

Adam Smith (1723-1790) - the father of the economy - "research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples" (1776) - the wealth of the nation is embodied in the products that it consumes. The ratio between the number of products consumed and the population depends on labor productivity (which in turn is determined by the division of labor and the level of accumulation of capital) and the proportions of society division into a productive and non-production class. Than this ratio is more, the higher the level of material well-being. So The growth of wealth depends on the level of capital accumulation and methods of its use. Smith was a supporter of the mechanism of market self-regulation and non-interference policy from the state. The main attention paid to the study of patterns and conditions for the growth of production.

David Riccardo (1772-1823) - "began political economy and taxation" (1817) - made a significant contribution to the development and clarification of various specific problems of economic theory. It was proposed the theory of "comparative costs" (comparative advantages), which became theoretical basis of free trade policy (Frituers). The essence: in the absence of restrictions on foreign trade, the country's economy should specialize in the production of less costly goods - this will lead to efficient use of resources and will provide a higher production.

Thomas Maltus (1766-1834) - "Experience on the Law of Population" (1798) - affecting demographic problems, tried to identify the patterns of changes in the population. Having done people with the ability to limitless reproduction, nature through economic processes imposes on human limitations that regulate the increase in numbers.

John Stewart Mill (1806-1873) - "Principles of Political Economy" (1848) - in the XIX. Encyclopedic textbook on economic theory. Mill has systematized the work of the predecessors, taking into account the new level of knowledge, and also laid the foundations of a number of fundamental concepts and regulations, expressed many valuable ideas.

In the second half of the XIX century. In economic theory, two directions were distinguished - the direction of economic analysis, subsequently received a generalized name marxism, and the so-called marginal theorywhich then turned into the largest neoclassical school.

Utopic Socialism and Communism

Socialist and communist ideas of ripe in society, starting from the XVI century. But the most fertile soil for them was formed by the end of the XVIII - the beginning of the XIX centuries, when unseemless features of the current capitalist system were fully manifested: the accumulation of capital in the hands of a few, deepening private property, the polarization of wealth, the plight of the proletarians.

Many scientists performed for utopian socio-political and economic systems based on the principles of collectivism, justice, equality, fraternity.

Utopism It was back in the XV century. Thomas Mor wrote a "utopia", containing a description of the perfect building. Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639) imagined the "City of the Sun", in which there was an ideal community. Gabriel Bonno de Maby (1709-1785) spoke about social justice, considering major economic evil to large farming. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - defended the right of the people for the violent elimination of injustice in his writings "reasoning about the start and grounds of inequality ...". Swiss Jean Charles Leonar Simond de Sismondi (1773-1842) saw in political economy science on improving the social mechanism for the sake of people's happiness; introduced a new understanding of the term "proletariat" as a poor, oppressed layer of workers.

Utopic Socialism. The prerequisite death of the capitalist system, the Socialists insisted on the need to change the public system in the name of creating a new public formation (NF). Basic ideas: High security of people in a team, equality, fraternity, centralized leadership, planning, world equilibrium. Socialists offered to liquidate the market system, replacing it with total government planning.

Claude Henri Saint-Simon (1760-1825) - NOF - industrialism, bourgeoisie and proletaria form a single class; Mandatory work, unity of science and production, scientific planning of the economy, distribution of social product.

Charles Fourier (1772-1837) - NOF - harmony, the primary cell of the future Society saw the "phalange", in the cat. combined industrial and agricultural production; Mental and physical work is not opposed.

Robert Owen (1771-1858) - NOF - communism, offered to create self-governing "settlements of community and cooperation", devoid of classes, exploitation, private property, etc. Building a system in a peaceful way, by distributing the ideas of equality and social justice.

Communism (scientific Socialism).

Karl Marx (1818-1883) - developed its own system of views on theoretical economy (political economy). Based mainly on a classic school, he, however, significantly changed many of its provisions. It is unlikely to have competitors among theoretical economists. Developed a number of special theoretical issues characteristic of the economy of that period - the theory of economic cycle, income, wages, simple and expanded production, land rental.

The most fully his theory is set forth in "Capital" (1867,1885,1894). Labor costs that determine the amount of cost are not individual, but socially necessary, i.e. equal to the amount of hours of working time, cat. It is required on average for the production of goods at a given level of production. So Only the hired labor force (proletariat) produces the cost. Excessive value (surplus value) is assigned to the owner of capital - an entrepreneur, the capitalist - this is where the process of gradual accumulation of capital is underway, which is actually the result of the assignment of foreign labor fruits. When making decisions, the capitalist is guided by maximizing the magnitude of the surplus value. The one who extracts the highest possible surplus value, exploiting hired work, survives in the business world, the rest lose their competitive positions. So And the proletariat, and capitalists are hostage systems. The process of functioning of the capitalist economy leads to the collapse of the entire system.

Will remain only by way social revolution on global scale Eliminate the system of private property as the main obstacle to the development, proceed to public regulation of economic life based on the principles of equality of all people and justice.

The ideas of Marx were supplemented and several processed by Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) and V.I. Lenin (1870-1924). This theory received the name of communism, or Marxism-Leninism. Marx and Engels was written by the "Manifesto Communist Party" (1948) - the abolition of private ownership of land and means of production, the introduction of collective ownership, the centralization of money, capital, transport in the hands of society, the same labor duty for everyone, economic planning.

Foother than Leninist ideas I.V. Stalin, apparently, finally broke with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe world revolution, reformulated the problem on the phased creation of a communist society across a separate state-wa based on its own strength.

In the works of the founders of Marxism there is no more or less detailed study of the question of specific mechanisms for the economic functioning of a socialist or communist economic system.

Marginalism

The school refers to the "pure theory." Representatives of marginalism (from fr. Marginal - limit) - Austrians K. Menger, E. Bem-Baberk, Englishman U. Jevons, America. J.B. Clark, Swiss V. Pareto.

The value of the goods is not established in production, but only during the exchange process, and depends on the subjective psychological characteristics of the perception of the value of the goods by the buyer (if it does not need it, I am not ready to pay a high price). The usefulness of the goods depends on the system of needs. The needs system is ranked by the criteria of the need. The law of decreasing utmost utility (every next product of this species has an inclusive and less utility for the consumer) became the fundamental principle of marzhinalism. The price depends on the utmost utility (PP) and should fall as the stock price increases.

Two options for margin analysis - cardinalism (PP can be measured in youtiles) and ordinalism (just to measure only the relative values \u200b\u200bof PP of different goods).

In theoretical plan, but not in practical, this principle is quite productive. For the first time, an attempt was made with the help of a mathematical apparatus to set out the main economic ideas and give science a strictly evidential form. Marginalism made a great contribution to the development of science, stimulating interest in the analysis of consumer psychology, developing and applying a number of mathematical constructions.

Neoclassicism

Neoclassica, or neoclassical synthesis combined the positions of classics and marginists.

Alfred Marshall (1942-1924) - "Principles of Political Economy" (1890) - founder of the direction. I used a functional approach (all economic phenomena are not among themselves in the causal - this is the principle of casualness, but in functional dependence). The problem is that the price is determined, and in how it changes and what functions performs. Task eq. Sciences to explore the actual mechanism of market economy and understand the principles of its functioning. The essence of the market mechanism, by Marshall: the price of the transaction is the result of the agreement between the seller and the buyer. The price of the seller in its minimum value is the cost of goods; The price of the buyer in the maximum value is equal to the utmost utility of the goods. As a result of the bargaining, a certain equilibrium price is established, which becomes the price of the goods. So The price of the seller is formed according to classical laws, and the buyer - on marginal canon. The new thing is that the price is the result of a quantitative relationship between the values \u200b\u200bof supply and supply in this market. The price of the transaction and the amount of demand is in the inverse dependence: the higher the price, the lower demand; With the value of the proposal - in direct dependence: the higher the price, the higher the offer. With equality of demand and supply values, the price becomes an equilibrium market price.

Market or price mechanism is able without interference from outside to adjust the price level in the markets. Violation of the market mechanism may occur due to state intervention, as well as with monopolistic trends in the market, when the seller, regardless of the buyer, forms market prices.

Joan Robinson, E. Chamberlin - studied the mechanism of pricing on the market, depending on the degree of its monopolization; They proposed the theory of imperfect competition.

To neoclassicism is closely adjacent t. N. Neoliberalism. The basic principle was laid by A. Smith: minimization of government offices for the economy, providing manufacturers, entrepreneurs, maximally freedom of action.

Friedrich Hayek (1899-1992) - an ardent supporter of liberalization of the economy, free market relations; Nobel laureate 1974. He devoted his works to proof of the superiority of the market system on a mixed and even more centralized "team" economy. Attached great importance to the mechanism of market self-regulation through free market prices. "Road to slavery" (1944) - any rejection of economic. Freedom of market pricing inexorably brings to dictatorship and econ. slavery.

Ludwig von Erhard - developed methods of practical application of the ideas of neoliberalism to economic systems - "Welfare for All" (1956) - developed the concept of market economy and built his own model of a consistent transition to such a farm, based on the idea of \u200b\u200badaptation to the developing situation.

Joseph Schupeter (1883-1950) - "Theory of Economic Development" (1912) - in the modern economy, the main driving force is free entrepreneurship. The scientist has become a bristle innovation in the economy, considering the decisive factor in its dynamics - an update (the emergence of new productions of production, technological processes, materials, raw materials, mastering new markets). It believed that interest in the case was playing a huge role, the desire for success, will to win, the joy of creativity.

Keynesianism

In the main industrialized countries of the world, there was an absolute drop in production, the growth of unemployment, the mass bankruptcy of firms and universal discontent. The world began to spread the communist and national socialist ideas that predicted the collapse of the capitalist system. The neoclassical doctrine did not offer recipes for improving the situation, rejecting the formulation of the question of a long crisis in the market type economy and advising not to interfere in this process.

John Meinard Keynes (1883-1946) - "The overall theory of employment, percentage and money" (1936) - justified the need and determined the specific directions of the regulatory impact on the economy from the state. Outlined his theory extremely difficult language, without the slightest attempt to make his text to the clear public. According to Keynes, the laws of the macro - and microeconomics do not coincide (the production-proposal of a separate goods may increase continuously when the production capabilities of the economy are generally limited to labor resources). For the first time, it was noted that the average income of citizens in developed countries is much higher than the minimum required level, and with income growth there is a trend towards savings, and not consumption. So Demand consists only of consumer spending of the population, the total amount of it falls the faster, the faster income grow. If savings depend on income, then investment ultimately - from the price of money, bank interest rates for loans. If the volume of investment exceeds the volume of savings, then inflation occurs, otherwise unemployment. State economic policy should be aimed at maintaining sustainable solvent demand. Keynes described effect of acceleration - government investments revitalize business activity through an increase in private investment in conjugate projects; multiplicative effect growth in demand and suggestions (one pulls the other); In one, I looked at the role of a territy factor in the EC process. development.

The main task of the State Save Macroeconomic Equilibrium through the impact on aggregate demand. Keynesianism has become theoretical basis of the system of state anticyclic regulation. The proposed concept is effective in practical terms, but does not always make it cope with inflation and unemployment.

Economic theories of the post-war period

After World War II, Keynesianism took the dominant positions in economic theory. But already in 50-60 years. Basic postulates were refuted or questioned by a number of new schools and flows.

\u003e\u003e Monetarism - the theory, emanating from the ideas about the decisive effect of money supply during prices, inflation and the course of economic processes. Therefore, monetarists reduce the management of the economy to state control over the money supply, money emission.

Milton Friedmen - Nobel Laureate 1976 - "US Monetary History 1867-1960." (together with A. Schwartz) - in long-term periods, large changes in the Ek-KE are associated with the money supply and its movement. All the largest eq. The shocks are explained by the consequences of monetary policy, and not the instability of the market ekt. The demand for money is the most important motivator. The rejection of social programs as ineffective investment. A huge role of freedom; The state should be as little as possible and carefully interfere in market relations (because the results of the intervention are unpredictable in the long term).

The theory of economics offers (A. Laffer, J. Gilder) - it is necessary to stimulate the intensification of the supply of products, and not subject the cumulative demand for state regulation. Derailization (flexilization) will lead to the fact that the markets will restore their effectiveness and react to the increase in production volumes. So It is necessary to recreate the classic mechanism of capital accumulation and revive freedom of private entrepreneurship. Specific measures - anti-inflationual: reduction of tax rates on population income and corporate profits, reducing the state budget deficit by reducing government spending, consistent policy of privatization of state ownership. Based on this theory, entered world history as conservative type reformers: M. Tatcher, R. Reagan, K. Tanaka.

The theory of rational expectations (J. Mut, T. Lucas -n. L. 1996, L. Repepping) - began to develop only in the 70s. Consumers make a decision on current and prospective consumption, based on forecasts of the future price level for consumption. Consumers tend to maximize utility and learned to adapt to changes in the economy (they are able to predict them), their rational behavior is reduced to zero. Areas. Therefore, the government should create stable, predictable market consumption rules, refusing a discrete stabilization policy of Keynesian type.

Institutionalism - Social institutions (state-in, trade unions, large corporations) decisively affect the ek-ku. The direction is based on the works of Tornstone Weblen.

John Kennene Galbreit - the processes of an economic organization, management come to the foreground. The defining role in the management belongs to the technostructure - layer of managers, the cat. Guided by the absentee interests. Does not see obstacles to the merger, convergence of capitalist and socialist systems. This idea is supported by the prominent economies of Walt Rostow (USA) and Jan Tinbergen (Nobel Laureate, the Netherlands).

New institutionalism - was developed in the last quarter of the 20th century, relies on a neoclassical theory; The works of the Nobel Prize of the Nobel Prize of R. Kowuza, D. Norta, D. Buchenna.

Economic thought in Russia

Russian scientists contributed to the development of individual issues of economic science.

XVII century - Education of the All-Russian market, the emergence of manuff.

A. Ordin-Nashokin (1605-1680) - spoke for strengthening the centralized state, developed a program of exercise the EC. Russian politicians, wrote a "new-track charter", aimed at protecting Russian trading people.

I.T. Posochekov (1652-1726) - "Book about scarce and wealth" (1724). How to increase wealth? - Attract all the able-bodied population, work "with a profit", cost-effective, follow the principle of strictest savings. The primary task of the state is to take care of the good of the people. Urged to export from Russia not raw materials, but industrialists; Do not import products, cat. can be made independently; Observe the balance of import and export. He played for the industrial development of Russia. Based on the legitimacy of serfdom, recommended to limit the peasant mantards, to consolidate land nodes behind the peasants. He offered to replace the pillow to submit a pacemaker, ratified for the introduction of tithe in favor of the Church.

XVIII - XIX. inin.

V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750) - "The idea of \u200b\u200bmerchant and crafts" - supported the development of industry, trading, merchants in Russia, advocated a policy of protectionism.

M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765)

N.S. Mordvinov (1754-1845), M.M. Speransky (1772-1839) - representatives of the Russian classical school; Economic program of the advanced part of the Russian nobility.

A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) is the stimulating role of trade for industrial. development of Russia; about prices and their connection with utility; about the types of contracts under trade transactions; about the stimulating and deestimulating role of taxation; About the content of sale, purchases, mena, services, concessions, loan, lottery, redemption, bargaining; About loans, percentages and their norm.

A.A. Chuprov (1874-1926) - the founder of Russian statistics; Author of work on political economy, economic statistics, C / x, money circulation and prices.

Marxist ideas of scientific socialism were analyzed and discussed

MA Bakunina (1814-1876), G.V. Plekhanov (1856-1918), PB Struve (1870-1944), V.I. Lenin (1870-1924).

XX century.

M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky (1865-1919) - the first proclaimed the need to connect the labor theory of value with the theory of utmost utility. The greatest contribution was made to the theory of markets and crises, analysis of the development of capitalism and the formation of socialism, the development of the social foundations of cooperation.

V.A. Bazarov (1874-1939), E.A. Preobrazhensky (1886-1937) - related to scientists to economists and practitioners who were trying to build the theory of socialist planned economy, based on the possibility of interaction between the planned and market economy.

A.V. Chayans (1888-1937) - a representative of the organizational and industrial direction in the Russian economy. Thoughts, theorist of family-peasant economy. More than 200 scientific works. His scientific ideas about the development of peasant farm in Russia, the cooperation was diverged with the Stalinist plants on the forced collectivization of the village.

N.D. Kondratyev (1892-1938) - in the global economy is known as one of the creators of the theory of large cycles, long waves. Conducted major research in the field of economic dynamics, conjuncture, planning. In 1927 He made a sharp criticism of the five-year plan project, defending the idea that promising plans should contain non-specific quantitative indicators, but general directions of development.

V.S. Nemchinov (1894-1964) - known for its work in the field of statistics and mathematical modeling of economic processes. "Statistics like science" (1952). A significant part of its research is devoted to the problem of developing productive forces and analysis of economic phenomena with the use of mathematical methods.

L.V. Kantorovich (1912-1986) - the laureate of the Nobel Prize in the economy of 1975 (together with the Americans, etc. Cupmans), the creator of linear programming. Laid the foundations of the mathematical theory of optimal planning and resource use. His works are used in macroeconomic studies.

A.I. Anchushkin (1933-1987) - known for its works in macroeconomic forecasting.

Economic science is clearly lagging behind practical queries of modernity, but, nevertheless, moves forward, enriching humanity with new theoretical and applied knowledge of the economy. The Nobel Prize in the economy is awarded annually since 1961. New economic thoughts are developing, designed to fully and deeper to explain the observed and foresee future economic events.

He examines, under the influence of what conditions, the views on economic reality are changing, as the interpretations of basic categories evolve, the methods of economic research is improved.

When you first get acquainted with the history of economic teachings, it seems that it is impossible to comprehend it, since the number of ideas, authors, theories and unusually large, but gradually becomes obvious that new ideas and revolutionary breakthroughs are not so much. Economic theory is fairly easy to systematize.

History Economic exercises represents the level of knowledge of economic science, helps to understand the logic, the relationship of economic categories, laws, concepts.

Acquaintance with various directions in economic science allows you to fully understand the relationship of theoretical views and concepts with the conditions and reasons for their occurrence, the needs of economic practice, the interests of various, peoples, countries. It is important to understand the sequence, the causes of the evolution of scientific provisions, ideas, their connection with the changes in economic practice.

Studying the history of economic exercises allows you to allocate two types of analysis: positive and regulatory.

• Positive economic theory - Part of the economic science, which studies the facts and dependencies between these facts.
• Regulatory theory Does judgments about whether or bad economic conditions or politics, these judgments have a recommendatory nature, they say what the world should be.

Economic science was divided into theoretical (positive) and practical (regulatory) at the end of the XIX century. During the occurrence and development of the historical school, which asked the direction of development of the applied part.

The authors of the most significant economic theories are laureates of the memory of A. Nobel, which since 1969 is awarded for achievements in the field of economic sciences. A course of the history of economic exercises are being studied the most bright of them.

The subject of the course of the history of economic exercises is the process of occurrence, development and change of economic ideas and views as changes in the economy, science, technology and the social sphere occurring. These ideas are studied in the theories of individual economists, theoretical schools, currents and directions.

Consisted hundreds of years to have formed today directions of economic thought: Neoclassical, Marxist, Neokensian, Institutional and Neo-Register, Neoliberal. The amount of knowledge on the history of economic exercises is an integral part of the universal, including economic culture.

Directions and stages of economic thoughts

The structure of the course of economic exercises offered on this site consists of the introductory and three main sections. Her novelty, in contrast to the publications of the Soviet period, and even a number of works of recent years is, primarily in the refusal of the criterion of class socio-economic formations (slave-owned, feudal, capitalist) and in advance of the position of specific qualitative transformations in the economy and economic theory from the time of darannaya economy before the liberal era ( unregulated), and then socially oriented or, as else often say, adjustable Market Economy.

Here, however, two circumstances should be explained. First, the epochs of the Torun and Market Economy are intended to distinguish on the basis of the prevalence in the society of natural-economic or commodity-money. And, secondly, the epochs of the unregulated and regulated market economy should not be distinguished because there is state intervention in economic processes, and according to whether the state provides conditions for the demonopolization of the economy and social control over the economy.

We now describe the short sequence and the essence of the directions and stages of the development of economic thoughts.

Economic exercises of the era of the Darancle Economy

This era includes the periods of the ancient world and the Middle Ages, during which natural-economic public relations prevailed, and reproduction was predominantly extensive. The economic thought was expressed in this era, as a rule, philosophers and religious figures. The level of systematization of economic ideas and concepts achieved by them did not provide sufficient prerequisites for the separation of theoretical constructions of that time to an independent branch of science specializing in economics.

This era completes a special stage in evolution and economics, and economic thought. From the point of view of the history of the economy, this stage in Marxist economic literature is called the period of the initial accumulation of capital and the origin of capitalism; On a non-scrambled position - this is the period of transition to a market management mechanism. From the point of view of the history of economic thoughts, this stage is called mercantilism and is also treated in two ways; In the Marxist version - as a period of the emergence of the first school of the economic theory of capitalism (bourgeois political economy), and on a non-scramble version - as the period of the first theoretical concept of a market economy.

The morbotilism in the depths of natural economy became the stage of large-scale (national) testing of protectionist measures in the field of industry and foreign trade and understanding the development of the economy in emerging entrepreneurial activities. And since the countdown of its time, the mercantilist concept begins in fact since the XVI century, the beginning of the separate development of economic theory as an independent industry of science is most often about this line.

In particular, at the dawn of its historical ascent, the economic science, based on mercantilistic postulates, promoted the feasibility of the state regulatory impact through economic motives and transactions so that the "new" relationships who later received the name "market", then "capitalist", spread to All aspects of public relations of the state.

Economic teachings of the era of an unregulated market economy

The temporary framework of this era covers the period from about the end of the XII century. Up to the 30s. XX century, during the theories of leading schools and directions of economic thought dominated the motto of complete "Laissez Faire" - the phrase, meaning the absolute non-interference of the state into a business life, or that the same, principle of economic liberalism.

In this era, the economy due to the industrial coup has made a transition from the stage of manufacturing to the so-called industrial stage of its evolution. Having reached its apogee at the end of the XIX - early XX century, the industrial type of management was also undergoing high-quality modification and found signs of a monopolized type of farming.

But it is precisely marked types of farm, due to the predominance of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe self-regulatory economy of free competition, predetermined the peculiarity of the postulates and the historically established sequence of domination in the economic science of this era at the beginning of the classical political economy, and then neoclassical economic theory.

Classical political economy occupied "team heights" in economic theory of almost about 200 years - from the end of the XVII century. For the second half of the XIX century, laying, essentially, the foundations for modern economic science. Her leaders, in many respects legitimately condemned the protectionism of mercantilists, thoroughly opposed the anti-focused reform concepts of the first half of the XIX century. In the writings of their contemporaries, both among the supporters of the transition to the society of social justice on the basis of recreation of the leading role in the farm of the small-handed production and ideologues of the utopian socialism, who called on to universal approval by humanity the advantages of such a socio-economic structure of the Company, in which there will be no money, private property , exploitation and other "evil" of the capitalist present.

At the same time, the "classics" was completely unreasonably missed from the field of view the significance of the search for the relationship and the interaction of the factors of the economic environment with the factors of the national historical and social properties, insisting on the inviolability of the principles of "clean" economic theory and without taking seriously sufficiently successful developments in this direction in the works Authors of the so-called German historical school in the second half of the XIX century.

Changed at the end of the XIX century. The classical political economy of the neoclassical economic theory became its succession, primarily due to the preservation of "loyalty" to the ideals of "clean" economic science. At the same time, it clearly exceeded its predecessor in many theoretical and methodological aspects. The main thing in this connection was to introduce into the toolkit of economic analysis based on the mathematical "language" of marginal (limit) principles that attached the new (neoclassical) economic theory of a greater degree of reliability and contributing to the separation in its composition of the independent section - microeconomics.

Economic teachings of the Epoch of the Adjustable (Socially Oriented) Market Economy

This era - the epoch of the newest history of economic exercises - originates from the 20-30s. XX century, i.e., since the antitrust concepts and the ideas of social control of the society over the economy, which shed light on the failure of the LANSEZ FAIRE principle and targeting the development of the economy through state intervention in the economy, fully identified themselves. At the heart of these measures, there are significantly more advanced analytical constructions provided for in the entire combination of factors of social relations of economic theories in the principal synthesis.

In this regard, they are in mind, firstly, the new one who has established to the 30th GG. XIX century The socio-institutional direction of the economic thought, which in the designated three of its scientific currents is often simply called American institutionalism, and secondly, the evidence-effective substantiations of the functioning of market economic structures in 1933 in the conditions of imperfect (monopolistic) competition and, finally, thirdly , also originated in the 30s. Two alternative destinations (Keynesian and neoliberal) theories of state regulation of the economy, which gave the status of an independent one after the section of economic theory - macroeconomics.

As a result, over the past seven-eight decades of the completed XX century. The economic theory was able to make a number of fundamentally new and extraordinary scenarios of possible options (models) of the national economy of states in the consensus of the consequences of the consequences of the consequences of the consequences of the modern scientific and technological revolution. The economic science of our days is similar to the development of the most reliable "recipes" on the way to the erasure of social contrasts in a civilized society and the formation of a truly new way of life and thinking in it.

For example, now scientists-economists in many countries in the designation of the past and future state of society do not resort more to opposition to each other (in any case, explicitly) former antipodes of economic theory - "capitalism" and "socialism" and, accordingly, "capitalist" and "socialist Theories. " Instead, the universal distribution in economic literature receive theoretical surveys about the "market economy" or "market economic relations".

Finally, it should be noted that the solution of the history of economic exercises proposed in this teaching and methodological manual is a resolution of a two-way task, namely, to substantiate that deideologized principles of periodization of areas and stages of the evolution of economic thought as the time of the prehistory of the market economy and market economic theory And today's realities in the theory and practice of an adjustable (socially oriented) market and that the criterion of the progress of science and truth should never be "universal agreement", nor the "consent of the majority".

M.: 2002. - 784 p.

The paper discusses the history of the economic thought of the XIX and XX centuries. With a focus on modern flows, starting with marginalism and ending with the most recent concepts that are not covered in the literature. An attempt was made to analyze the development of economic science in the relationship of its various areas, taking into account the methodological, philosophical and social aspects of these theories, Russian economic thoughts in line with European.

The authors sought to take away from the concepts that existed in the past, those who most influenced modern views, as well as to show the diversity of approaches to solving the same problems of economic science and formulate the principles in accordance with which these problems were selected.

The textbook is intended for students, as well as for graduate students and teachers of economic universities.

Format: PDF.

The size: 2 5.5 MB

Download: drive.google

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 3.
Introduction 5.
Development of economic thought: historical context 7
Section I from sources to the first scientific schools 11
Chapter 1 World of the economy in the consciousness of prepalistic epochs 12
1. What is the economy? 13
2. Savings and Hrematics 15
3. Economy in religious worldview 18
Chapter 2 Crystallization of scientific knowledge: XVI-XVIII centuries 28
1. The first empirical generalizations 29
2. mercantilism 32.
The head of the formation of a classical school of political economy 42
1. Market mechanism, or idea "invisible hand 44
2. Theory of production, or the mystery of the wealth of peoples 48
Chapter 4 Classical School: Cost and Distribution Theory 57
1. Wealth of peoples: growth factors 57
2. Cost theory 60
3. David Ricardo on rent and the future of capitalism 70
Chapter 5 Classical School: Macroeconomic Theories 75
1. Money and product 75
2. SEA Law 81
3. Discussions about money and loan 89
Chapter 6 Classic School: Ideological Versions 95
1. split liberalism 96
2. Crops of capitalism 105
Chapter 7 Economic theory K. Marx 110
1. The principle of historicism 111
2. Continuation of the classical tradition 113
3. Political economy - production relations science 125
Chapter 8 Historical School in Political Economy 138
1. "Imes 138
2. Friedrich sheet - economist geopolitics 140
3. "Old" Historical School 147
4. "New" Historical School: Historical and Ethical Direction 148
5. "Young" Historical School: In Search of "The Spirit of Capitalism" 151
Chapter 9 Social Saving: The origins of modern ideas about the goals and ways of reforming the economy and socio-economic relations 160
1. Social Savings and Economic Science 160
2. French Solidarism and German Cateder Socialism 163
3. Henry George: Socio-Economic Problems through the Prism of the Ownership of Earth 167
4. Some aspects of the Social Doctrine of Catholicism 171
Section II The beginning of the history of modern economic thoughts: Marginalism 175
Chapter 10 Marginistical Revolution. 175.
General characteristics 176.
1. Methodological principles of marzhinalism 178
2. Marginistical theory of value and its advantages 180
3. How proceeded Marginalist revolution 181
4. Causes and consequences of Margin of the Ishpar Revolution 184
Chapter 11 Austrian School 186
1. Methodological features of the Austrian school 186
2. The doctrine of the benefits and exchange of Menger and the Bow-Baberka 188
3. Theory of alternative costs and imputations of Wizer 194
4. The theory of capital and percentage of Bohle Baberka 197
5. Dispute about the methods 201
Chapter 12 English Marginalists: Jevons and Edzhort 203
1. The theory of the utility of Jevons 205
2. The theory of the exchange of javels 206
3. Jevons Labor Offer Theory 209
4. Zevonx chain 210
5. The theory of the exchange of edzorta 210
Chapter 13 Theory of General Economic Equilibrium 214
1. Leon Walras and its place in the history of economic thought; Main works 214.
2. General equilibrium model, including production; The problem of the existence of the solution and the process "Tatonnement" 219
3. The theory of general equilibrium in the XX century: contribution A. Walda, J. von Neymanan, J. Hicks, K. Errow and J. Debre 224
4. Macroeconomic aspect of a general equilibrium model 231
Chapter 14 Economic Welfare Theory 237
1. General ideas about the subject 237
2. Modern approaches to the definition of public goods. Optimum Pareto 241
3. Pig's contribution to the development of welfare theory: the concepts of the national dividend and market imperfection; state intervention principles 243
4. Fundamental theorems of welfare. Optimality and control: the problem of market socialism 246
5. Attempts to solve the problem of comparing optimal states 249
6. A new look at the problem of intervention 251
Chapter 15 Alfred Marshall's Contribution to Economic Theory 255
1. Marshall place in the history of economic thought 256
2. Method of partial equilibrium 259
3. Analysis of utility and demand 260
4. Cost analysis and suggestions 265
5. The equilibrium price and the effect of time factor 266
6. Elements of welfare theory 269
Chapter 16 In search of the model "Monetary Economy": K. Vixellia. Fisher 272.
1. Knut Vixel - economist-theorte and publicist 274
2. Cumulative Process Concept 277
3. General equilibrium theory and percentage concept I. Fisher 281
4. Money theory I. Fisher 284
Chapter 17 Marginal Income Distribution Theory: J.B. Clark, F.G. Weekestide, K. Vixel 290
1. Prehistory 290.
2. Theory of limit performance 291
3. Product exhaustion problem 296
Chapter 18 Theory of Entrepreneurial Function and Profit 299
1. Entrepreneurial profit - factor or residual income? 299.
2. Entrepreneurship as a risk of risk or uncertainty: R. Cantillon, I.Tyunn, F. Knight 300
3. Entrepreneurship as coordination of factors of production: J.-B. Say 304.
4. Entrepreneurship as innovation: I. Schoventer 305
5. Entrepreneurship as arbitration transactions: I. Kirzner 309
Chapter 19 American Institutionalism 312
1. Dichotomy T. Weble 313
2. Statistical institutionalism U.K. Mitchell 320.
3. Legal institutionalism J.R. Commons 322.
4. Updated institutionalism J.K. Galbrait 326.
Section III Russian thought from the sources before the start of the Soviet period 330
Chapter 20 Russian Variations of the First Political Economy Schools 331
1. Russian mercantilism 331
2. Fiction in Russia 337
3. "Two opinions about the external bargaining": Frittime and Protecting 338
4. Classical political economy in the assessment of liberal and revolutionary Westernity 340
Chapter 21 Economic Romanticism 344
1. The question of the peasant community: Slavophilism and "Russian Socialism" 344
2. Dedicular intelligentsia and the ideology of political economy 348
3. Labor theory of value and "Capitalistic pessimism" 351
4. Concept of "People's Production" 355
Chapter 22 "Legal Marxism" and revisionism 359
1. Marxism as the doctrine of the capitalist development of Russia 359
2. Polemics about the national market: Criticism of Publication 361
3. Threaters about value: criticism of Marxism 366
4. The emergence of revisionism and its penetration to Russia 368
5. Agrarian question 370
Chapter 23 Theory of Financial Capital and Imperialism 374
1. Leninism-Marxism without revision 374
2. Financial Capital Theory and Imperialism 377
3. The concept of "Material Prerequisites of Socialism" 381
Chapter 24 Ethical and Social Direction: M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and S.N. Bulgakov 384.
1. Russian economic thought at the turn of centuries 384
2. M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky: Ethical Principle and Economic Theory 390
3. S.N. Bulgakov: In search of the Christian Economic Worldview 400
Chapter 25 Formation of the Doctrine of Planning Economy 410
1. Marxism about Scientific Planned Society 410
2. Project "Universal Organizational Science 416
3. Model "Unified Factory" and its adjustment 421
Chapter 26 Economic Discussions of the 1920s on the nature of the planned economy 427
1. Market, Plan, Equilibrium 427
2. Genetics and Teleology in discussions on the methods of building economic plans 433
Chapter 27 Organizational and Production School 440
1. Circle A.V. Cheyanova: Agronomas - Cooperators -Tellis 440
2. Statistics and dynamics of labor peasant farm 444
3. Tragedy "Liquidation 452
Chapter 28 Economic views N.D. Kondratyeva 458.
1. Economic science on a fracture 458
2. Brief description of Kondratyev's scientific heritage. Methodological approach to the general theory of economic dynamics 461
3. The theory of long waves and discussion around it 466
4. Problems of regulation, planning and forecasting 473
Section IV Modern Stage: from Keynes to this day 479
Chapter 29 J.M. Keynes: New theory for the changed world 481
1. The value of J.M. ideas Keynes for modern economic science 481
2. The main stages of life, scientific and practical activities 483
3. Moral philosophical position and economic ideas 487
4. From the quantitative theory of money to the monetary theory of production 490
5. "General theory of employment, percentage and money": methodological, theoretical and practical innovations 495
6. Cane's theory and its interpretation of J. Hicks 504
7. Development and rethinking of Keynes 507 heritage
Appendix 1 Responses to "General Theory" 514
Appendix 2 Curve Phillips 516
Appendix 3 Study of the type of functions of the model of type ISLM 517
Chapter 30 Problems of Uncertainty and Information in Economic Theory 520
1. Prehistory 521.
2. Theory of expected utility 523
3. Economic information theory - search theory 533
4. Asymmetry of information 535
Chapter 31 Economic Growth Theory 537
1. Basic topics of growth theory 537
2. Prehistory 537.
3. Model Haroda-Domar 541
4. Neoclassical model of growth R. Solow 546
5. Post-Octanesian concepts of economic growth. Model Caldore 551.
6. New Growth Theories 552
Chapter 32 Economic Theory Proposition 554
1. Conservative Call Keynes 554
2. Economy offers. Theoretical Basics of Concept 556
3. Laffer curve and its rationale 559
4. Empirical estimates of the most important dependencies. From theory to practice 561
Appendix 1 Dynamics of the norm of cumulative savings of the private sector in the USA 566
Chapter 33 Monetarism: Theoretical Basics, Conclusions and Recommendations 567
1. General characteristics of the concept 567
2. Evolution of monetarism and its variety 570
Appendix 1 block diagram of the Saint Louis model 584
Appendix 2 Data on the rates of prices and the level of US unemployment in 1960-1997 585
Chapter 34 "New Classic": Tradition Recovery 587
1. "New Classic" in the context of current issues of theory and practice 587
2. Hypothesis of rational expectations 590
3. The equilibrium cyclic process of Lucas 593
4. Macroeconomic model of "new classics" and the impact of monetary policy for the economy 597
Appendix 1 to the question of the ratio of expected and occurring events 602
Chapter 35 F. Hayek and Austrian Tradition 603
1. F. Hayek and the economic thought of the XX century. 603.
2. The main provisions of philosophy and methodology of F. Hayek and their importance for economic theory 606
3. Economic theory as a coordination problem 611
4. The contribution of Haijek to the development of price theory, capital, cycle and money 615
5. Principles and borders of Economic Policy 618
Chapter 36 Evolutionary Economics 621
1. Evolutionary principle in the history of economic science 623
2. Modern approach to the application of the evolutionary principle in the economy of 630
3. Main destinations and discussion issues of evolutionary economy 634
Chapter 37 Behavioral Economic Theory 639
1. General characteristics 639
2. Model of limited rationality - methodological basis of behavioral theory 641
3. Models of variable rationality 645
4. The behavioral theory of the company - University of Mellone Carnegie School 647
5. Behantic consumption theory - Michigan School 651
Chapter 38 New Institutional Theory 653
1. Methodological features and structure of new institutional theory 654
2. Property rights, transaction costs, contractual relations 659
3. Cone theorem 664
4. Theory of Economic Organizations 668
5. Economy Right 676
6. Public selection theory 680
Chapter 39 Public Choice Theory 688
1. Ideological foundation of the theory of public selection 688
2. Providing public goods in a direct democracy of 690
3. Problems of choice in a representative democracy 695
4. Theories based on the concept of public selection 703
Chapter 40 "Economic Imperialism" 719
1. Economic theory of discrimination 722
2. Theory of Human Capital 725
3. Economic Crime Analysis 728
4. Economic analysis of competition in the political market 730
5. Family economy 731
6. "Economic Approach" as a research program 736
Chapter 41 A few words about the 740 methodology
1. What is a methodology and what caused interest in it today? 740.
2. From the history of methodological discussions: from disputes about the subject and tasks to the problem of the criterion of the truth of theory 742
3. "Utipical Look": Epishemological Function of Value Orientation and the Language of Theory as a way of belief 752
Chapter 42 Unity and Diversity of Modern Economic Theory 756
1. The main current and alternative to 756
2. Specialization of individual directions of economic theory 760
3. Institutional factors determining the structure of economic theory 761
4. National, Cultural and Other Features of Economic Thought 762
Name Pointer 764.

History of economic exercises: studies. Manual for university students

V.S. Autoonov, O.I. Ananin, N.A. Makashev et al.

Preface 3.
Introduction 5.
Development of economic thought: historical context 7

Section I from sources to the first scientific schools 11
Chapter 1 The world of the economy in the consciousness of prepalistic eras
1. What is the economy?
2. Savings and Hrematics
3. Economy in religious worldview
Wealth
fair price
Sin of usury
Recommended literature
Chapter 2 Crystallization of scientific knowledge: XVI-XVIII centuries.
1. First empirical generalizations
Law Grayshem
The dependence of the price level on the amount of money in circulation
2. mercantilism
general characteristics
The increment of scientific knowledge
John Lo
Recommended literature
Chapter 3 Formation of a classic school of political economy
1. The mechanism of the market, or the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "invisible hand"
LOK: Labor theory of property
Adam Smith: answer Mandevil
2. Theory of production, or the mystery of the wealth of peoples
W. Petty: "Labor - Father ... Wealth, Earth - His Mother"
Buagilber and Cantilong I
PhysiCrats
Recommended literature
Chapter 4 Classical School: Cost and Distribution Theory
1. Wealth of peoples: growth factors
Adam Smith and Soviet Statistics
Factor of thrift
Factor productivity factor.
2. Theory of value
About "Cost" and "Values": Terminological Departure
The world of "natural prices"
How to measure cost?
Menage value commensity.
Measuring of wealth in time.
What determines the level of relative prices?
Profit and percentage in classical political economy
Smith Formula Prices
3. David Ricardo on rent and future capitalism
Classical landery theory
Income distribution model
Recommended literature
Chapter 5 Classic School: Macroeconomic Theories
1. Money and product
Income as expense
Concept of capital
Capital and money
Theory of Wage Fund
Yum: Price and cash flow mechanism
2. SEA law
"Markets" and "Sales Markets"
Critics Saya: Sissondi and Malta
Thomas Maltus
Dogma Smith, or the first secret of the law of SEI
Demand for money, or the second mystery of the law of Saya
3. Discussions about money and loan
"Flock Law" and the doctrine of real bills
Henry Tornton
Control of monetary and banking schools
Recommended literature
Chapter 6 Classic School: Ideological Versions
1. The split of liberalism
Frituers
The origins of liberal reformism: Jeremiah Bentam
John Stewart Mille
2. Critics of capitalism
Socialists Ricardians
Saint-Simonists against private property
P.-H. Prudon: "Property is theft!"
Recommended literature
Chapter 7 Economic Theory K. Marx
1. The principle of historicism
2. Continuation of the classical tradition
Theory of surplus value
Theory of reproduction
Marx Capital Structure
Simple reproduction
Extended reproduction
On the nature of the average rate of profit
On unified regulations of surplus value and profits
The law of the trend of the average rate of profit to a decrease
Fundamentals of the theory of economic crises
3. Political Economy - Science of Production Relationships
Alienation of labor
Goods as a real attitude
Capital and transformed forms of surplus value
Capital as a real attitude
Fate capitalism
Recommended literature
Chapter 8 Historical School in Political Economy
1. "Izma"
2. Friedrich sheet - economist geopolitics
3. "Old" Historical School
4. "New" Historical School: Historical and Ethical Direction
5. "Young" Historical School: In Search of "The Spirit of Capitalism"
Recommended literature
Chapter 9 Social Savings: the origins of modern ideas about the goals and ways of reforming the economy and socio-economic relations
1. Social Savings and Economic Science
2. French Solidarism and German Cateder Socialism
3. Henry George: Socio-Economic Problems through the Prism of Land ownership
4. Some aspects of the Social Doctrine of Catholicism
Recommended literature

Section II The beginning of the history of modern economic thoughts: marginity
Chapter 10 Marginistical Revolution. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Methodological principles of marzhinalism
2. Marginistical theory of value and its advantages
Cardinalism and Ordinalism
3. How proceeded by the marzhinalist revolution
4. Causes and consequences of the marginal revolution
Recommended literature
Chapter 11 Austrian School
1. Methodological features of the Austrian school
2. The doctrine of the benefits and exchange of Menger and Bow-Baberka
"The foundations of the doctrine of national economy"
Exchange doctrine.
3. Theory of alternative costs and implantation of a visitor
Concept of alternative expenses
Theory of imputed
4. The theory of capital and percentage of Bohle Baberka
5. Disgrace on methods
Recommended literature
Chapter 12 English Marginalists: Jevons and Edzhuort
1. Jaevons utility theory
2. Dressing theory of Jaevons
3. Jevonz's Labor Offer Theory
4. Chain of Jevons
5. The theory of the exchange of edzhort
Recommended literature
Chapter 13 Theory of General Economic Equilibrium
1. Leon Walras and its place in the history of economic thought; Main works
2. General equilibrium model, including production; The problem of the existence of the solution and the process "Tatonnement"
The problem of money integration
3. The theory of general equilibrium in the XX century: contribution A. Walda, J. Background Neymanan, J. HS K. Errow and J. Debre
4. Macroeconomic aspect of a general equilibrium model
Recommended literature
Chapter 14 Economic Welfare Theory
1. General ideas about the subject
2. Modern approaches to the definition of public goods. Optimum by Pareto
3. The contribution of the League to the development of welfare theory: the concepts of the national dividend and market imperfection; Principles of state intervention
4. Fundamental welfare theorems. Optimality and control: the problem of market socialism
5. Attempts to solve the problem of comparing optimal states
6. New look at the problem of intervention
Recommended literature
Chapter 15 The contribution of Alfred Marshall to economic theory
Marshall place in the history of economic thought
2. Method of partial equilibrium
3. Analysis of utility and demand
Curve demand
Elasticity of demand
Consumer Surplus
4. Cost analysis and suggestions
5. The equilibrium price and the effect of time factor
Market day
Long-term period
Very long periods
The influence of the demand and costs of the formation of the equilibrium price
6. Elements of welfare theory
State intervention and public well-being
The problem of monopoly
Recommended literature
Chapter 16 In search of the model "Monetary Economy": K. Vixel and I. Fisher
1. Knut Vixel - economist-theorte and publicist
2. The concept of the cumulative process
3. General equilibrium theory and percentage concept I. Fisher
4. Money theory I. Fisher
Recommended literature
Chapter 17 Marginal Income Distribution Theory: J. B. Clark, F.G. Wicksteid, K. Vixel
1. Prehistory
2. Theory of limit performance
"The distribution of wealth"
Statistics and dynamics
Overall assessment of Clark distribution theory
3. Product exhaustion problem
Recommended literature
Chapter 18 Theory of Entrepreneurial Function and Profit
1. Entrepreneurial profit - factor or residual income?
2. Entrepreneurship as a risk of risk or uncertainty: R. Cantillon, I. Tunen, F. Knight
3. Entrepreneurship as coordination of factors of production: J.-B. Say
4. Entrepreneurship as innovation: I. Schoventer
"Theory of Economic Development"
Entrepreneurial function
Entrepreneurial income
5. Entrepreneurship as arbitration transactions: I. Kirsner
Recommended literature
Chapter 19 American Institutionalism
1. Dichotomy T. Weble
2. Statistical institutionalism W. K. Mitchell
3. Legal institutionalism J.R. Commons
4. Updated institutionalism J.K. Galbreit
Recommended literature

Section III Russian thought from the sources before the beginning of the Soviet period
Chapter 20 Russian Variations of the First Politheconomy Schools
1. Russian mercantilism
2. Fiction in Russia
3. "Two views of the external bargaining": Frittime and Protectionism
4. Classical political economy in the assessment of liberal and revolutionary Westernity
Chapter 21 Economic Romanticism
1. Question about the peasant community: Slavophilism and "Russian Socialism"
2. Dedicular intelligentsia and ideology of political economy
3. Labor theory of value and "capitalist pessimism"
4. Concept of "National Production"
Recommended literature
Chapter 22 "Legal Marxism" and revisionism
1. Marxism as the doctrine of the capitalist development of Russia
2. Polemics about the national market: Criticism of Publication
3. Polemics about value: criticism of Marxism
4. The emergence of revisionism and its penetration into Russia
5. Agrarian question
Recommended literature
Chapter 23 The Theory of Financial Capital and Imperialism
1. Leninism-Marxism without revisionism
2. Theory of Financial Capital and Imperialism
3. The concept of "material prerequisites of socialism"
Recommended literature
Chapter 24 Ethical and Social Direction: M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and S.N. Bulgakov
1. Russian economic thought at the turn of centuries
2. M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky: Ethical principle and economic theory
3. S.N. Bulgakov: In search of a Christian economic worldview
Recommended literature
Chapter 25 Formation of the Doctrine of the Planning Economy
Marxism about Scientific Planned Society
2. Project "Universal Organizational Science"
3. Model "Unified Factory" and its adjustment
Chapter 26 Economic Discussions of the 1920s on the nature of the planned economy
1. Market, Plan, Equality
2. Genetics and Teleology in discussions on the methods of building economic plans
Recommended literature
Chapter 27 Organizational and Production School
1. Circle A.V. Cayanova: Agronomas - Cooperators - Theorists
Statistics and dynamics of labor peasant farm
Recommended literature
Chapter 28 Economic views N.D. Kondratieva
1. Economic science on a fracture
2. Brief description of Kondratyev's scientific heritage. Methodological approach to the general theory of economic dynamics
3. Theory of long waves and discussion around it
4. Problems of regulation, planning and forecasting
Recommended literature

Section IV Modern Stage: From Keynes to this day
Chapter 29 J.M. Keynes: New theory for the changed world
1. The value of J.M. ideas Keynes for modern economic science
2. The main stages of life, scientific and practical activities
3. Moral and philosophical position and economic ideas
4. From the quantitative theory of money to the monetary theory of production
5. "General theory of employment, percentage and money": methodological, theoretical and practical innovations
6. Cane's theory and its interpretation of J. Hicks
7. Development and rethinking of the heritage of Keynes
Appendix 1 Responses to "General Theory"
Appendix 2 Curve Phillips
Appendix 3 Study of the type of ISLM model functions
Recommended literature
Chapter 30 Problems of Uncertainty and Information in Economic Theory
1. Prehistory
2. Theory of expected utility
Usefulness: Raising Cardinalism
Probability concepts
Anomalies
3. Economic information theory - search theory
4. Asymmetry of information
Recommended literature
Chapter 31 Theory of Economic Growth
1. The main topics of growth theory
2. Prehistory
3. Model Haroda Domar
1. Fundamental growth equation
Guaranteed growth
Natural growth
4. Neoclassical growth model R. Solow
"Golden Rule"
5. Post-Octanesian concepts of economic growth. Caldora model
6. New growth theories
Recommended literature
Chapter 32 Economic Supreme Theory
1. Conservative Call Keynes
2. Economy offers. Theoretical foundations concept
3. Laptre curve and her substantiation
4. Empirical estimates of the most important dependencies. From theory to practice
Chapter 33 Monetarism: Theoretical Basics, Conclusions and Recommendations
1. General characteristics concept
2. The evolution of monetarism and its varieties
Global monetarism
Econometric studies
Model of nominal income
Attempt to a structural approach
Phillips curve and its interpretation by monetarists
Unorthodox monetarism
Recommended literature
Chapter 34 "New Classic". Tradition restoration
1. "New Classic" in the context of actual problems of theory and practice
2. Hypothesis of rational expectations
3. The equilibrium cyclic process R. Lucas
4. Macroeconomic model of "new classics" and the impact of monetary policy on the economy
Appendix 1 to the question of the ratio of expected and occurring events
Recommended literature
Chapter 35 F. Hayek and the Austrian Tradition
1. F. Hayek and Economic Thought XX V.
2. The main provisions of philosophy and methodology F. Hayek and their importance for economic theory
3. Economic theory as a coordination problem
4. Hayek's contribution to the development of price theory, capital, cycle and money
5. Principles and borders of economic policies
Recommended literature
Chapter 36 Evolutionary Economics
1. Evolutionary principle in the history of economic science
2. Modern approach to the application of the evolutionary principle in the economy
3. Main destinations and discussion issues of evolutionary economy
Recommended literature
Chapter 37 Behavioral Economic Theory
1. General characteristics
2. Model of limited rationality - methodological basis of behavioral theory
3. Models of variable rationality
4. The behavioral theory of the company - University of Mellone Carnegie School
5. Behantic consumption theory - Michigan School
Recommended literature
Chapter 38 New Institutional Theory
1. Methodological features and structure of new institutional theory
2. Property rights, transaction costs, contractual relations
3. The Couza Theorem
4. Theory of Economic Organizations
5. Right economics
6. Public Choice Theory
Recommended literature
Chapter 39 Public Choice Theory
1. ideological foundation of the theory of public selection
2. Providing public goods in a direct democracy
Equilibrium in voluntary exchange models
Cost of the voting process
3. Problems of choice in the context of representative democracy
Theorem on "Median Voter"
Bimodal distribution of preferences
Scheme of interaction of the subjects of the political market
4. Theories based on the concept of public selection
Theory of constitutional selection
Constitutional and post-constitutional stages of the contract
Theory of Endogenous Definition of Economic Policy
Optimal lobbying costs
Definition of economic policies political party
Society Losses due to the survey of political rent
Economic theory of political institutions
Recommended literature
Chapter 40 "Economic Imperialism"
1. Economic theory of discrimination
2. Theory of Human Capital
New theory of consumption
3. Economic Crime Analysis
4. Economic analysis of competition in the political market
5. Family economics
6. "Economic Approach" as a research program
Recommended literature
Chapter 41 a few words about the methodology
1. What is a methodology and what caused interest in it today?
2. From the history of methodological discussions: from disputes about the subject and tasks to the problem of the criterion of the theory
3. "Non-Posy Look": Epistemological Function of the value orientation and language of the theory as a way of belief
Recommended literature
Chapter 42 Unity and Diversity of Modern Economic Theory
1. The main current and alternative
2. Specialization of individual directions of economic theory
3. Institutional factors determining the structure of economic theory
4. National, Cultural and Other Features of Economic Thought
Recommended literature

Series "Higher Education"
Founded in 1996

HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT

Moscow
Infra-M.
2000

Institute "Open Society"

BBK65.02Y73.
UDC (075.8) 330.1
And90.
The educational literature on humanitarian and social disciplines for higher education and secondary special educational institutions is prepared and published with the assistance of the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) within
Programs "Higher Education".

The views and approaches of the author do not necessarily coincide with the program position. In particularly controversial cases, an alternative point of view is reflected in the prefaces and afterwords.
Editorial Council: V.I. Bakhmin, Ya.M. Berger, E.Yu. Geniyev, G.G. Dilgensky, V.D. Shadrikov.
And90 The history of economic exercises / Ed. V. Avtonovova, O. Ananin, N. Makasheva: studies. benefit. - M.: Infra-M, 2000. - 784 p. - (Series "Higher Education").
ISBN 5-16-000173-5
The paper discusses the history of the economic thought of the XIX and XX centuries. With a focus on modern flows, starting with marginalism and ending with the most recent concepts that are not covered in the literature. An attempt was made to analyze the development of economic science in the relationship of its various areas, taking into account the methodological, philosophical and social aspects of these theories, Russian economic thoughts in line with European.
The authors sought to take away from the concepts that existed in the past, those who most influenced modern views, as well as to show the diversity of approaches to solving the same problems of economic science and formulate the principles in accordance with which these problems were selected.
The textbook is intended for students, as well as for graduate students and teachers of economic universities.
ISBN 5-16-000173-5 BBK65.02Y7
B.C. Autonoms
O.I. Ananin,
S.A. Afonans
GD Globli
R.I. Beleptic,
ON THE. Makasheva, 2000.
Infra-M, 2000

Preface

Studying the history of ideas
With the need preceded
liberation of thought.

J.M. Keynes.

The thought of Keynes, made to the epigraph, determines the topsacking of this book. Free thought is not a consequence of the coincidence, this is the result of the long and constant efforts of many people in its formation, cultivation and protection against those who are trying to limit it or "send" it to the right direction. The history of ideas is a school of thought; To go through this school - it means not only to expand our knowledge, but also to strengthen the freedom of thought.
The basis of this book was a course of lectures, which since 1995 is read by the Department of Institutional Economics and Economic History at the State University - Higher School of Economics (GU-HSE). As teachers of the history of economic thought, we always wanted to have a study guide at our disposal, giving a broad, foreseeable picture of the evolution of economic thought, modern on its concept and free from ideological conjuncture. This desire served as the main motive in the preparation of this publication.
Laying such a course of lectures, and then the study manual inevitably puts a number of complex problems of methodological and meaningful character to the authors. First of all, the question arises how, as part of a very compact training course, calculated, as a rule, on one or two semesters, quite fully and holistically present the picture of the whole history of economic thought. The solution to this issue is often seen in excessive reduction in text: the presentation is reduced to the transfer of dates and facts from the life of the largest economists and is very conditional, and sometimes the unusable description of their theories. At the same time, the logic of their thoughts, the features of the perception of the same problems with different authors, the nature of the evolution of various scientific traditions and their impact on economic policies and public views - all of this remains beyond the course. With this approach, the course itself loses its meaning in many ways, and the student aims to the cramp.
There is a problem of reflection of the newest theories. In most of the educational historical and scientific literature, the evolution of economic thought is traced only until the middle of the XX century, while its newest stage is presented, at best, fragmentary information. This is also characteristic of the most authoritative translation textbooks M. Blagoga "Economic Thought in Retrospective" and T. Negyshi "History of Economic Theory" (we note that the book of nongens is a master's tutorial, not intended for undergraduate, and the work of Bulgu is heterogeneous in difficulty and sometimes difficult to perceive). The desire to bring outlined material to modernity is an important positive feature of the three-volume university courses edited by prof. A.G. Hoodocormov (M., 1989-1998), but its format is not agreed with the prevailing university practice, oriented for relatively short - one or two semester - training courses, and the temporary framework of the publication of this publication could not but affect its conceptual unity.
As for the problems of a meaningful nature, they are largely due to the need to combine natural to the history of the chronological approach with problematic-thematic, allowing more objectively to reflect the diversity of scientific traditions of economic thought. Any work of this type implies a certain selection, and not only the selection of scientific schools, names and concepts themselves, but also the definition of the perspective of their consideration. We are aware that such a selection cannot be quite objective. He inevitably bears imprint of intellectual traditions, which are followed by the authors, their scientific addies and interests. It remains to hope that in this case we are talking about academic subjectivism reflecting the research experience of its authors actively involved in scientific life.
The main distinguishing features of the proposed training manual can be reduced to two moments: first, the authors sought to rely on their work on the original sources and give the modern interpretation of the past and real economic science, taking into account the latest achievements of the world historical and scientific thought; At the same time, it was not at all about the "adjustment" of old ideas under modern theories - from our point of view, the historian of economic science should be, among other things, the keeper of its intellectual "gene pool", conscious of the value of the diversity of its scientific traditions and research programs, within which Different scientific tasks may be solved, different, sometimes disseminated, subject areas and their analytical techniques and methods; Secondly, the book contains more broadly than in other works in Russian works of this genre, the palette of modern economic theory: in the fourth part of it, along with traditional topics (monetarism, theory of economic growth, institutionalism), the reader will find the chapter on such rapidly developing The directions of modern scientific thought, as economic theories of information, evolutionary economic theory, behavioral economic theories.
The authors hope that this book will find an interested response in Russian universities and will promote the prestige of the historical and scientific component of economic education.
The curricula of various universities disseminate the history of economic teachings in an unequal place, and this cannot but affect the method of applying this manual in the educational process. In the Higher School of Economics, this subject occupies two semesters at the second-third courses of undergraduate (only 96 hours, including: lectures - 64 hours, seminars - 32 hours). The structure of the lecture course correlates with the structure of this manual as follows:

I semester
Section I (16 hours): Chapter 1 - 8.
Section II (18 hours): Chapters 10-11, 12 (together with 17), 13-16, 18-19.

II semester
Section III (6 h): Chapter 21 (along with 22), 24, 28.
Section IV (24 hours): chapters 29-36, 38 (together with 37), 40-42.

Of course, this is just one of the possible options for building a two-semer learning course. The presence of a number of additional chapters in the study manual, which has not included in the original lecture course, leaves the departments and teachers a certain freedom of maneuver when forming a specific curriculum on it. Thus, the structure of the manual allows noticeably strengthening the section of the course dedicated to the history of Russian economic thoughts, more fully submit separate sections of economic science (for example, the history of monetary theories, micro or macroeconomics, etc.), adjusted to the audience profile the spectrum of the trends in modern Economic thought.
For universities in which the history of economic exercises is studied during one semester (32-36 hours), it can be recommended that the following basic course structure can be recommended:

Section I (10 hours): chapters 2-5, 7.
Section II (12 hours): chapters 11.12 (together with 17), 13-15, 19.
Section III (2 h): Chapter 28.
Section IV (8 h): Chapters 29, 30 (or 36), 33 (together with 34), 38.

In any case, the sections and chapters not included in the Basic Course Program can be used in determining students' written work, to prepare special courses, as well as material for independent student studies.
To what extent to the authors and editors managed to achieve the goals set - to judge the reader. In any case, we are grateful to students of the Faculty of Economics of the GU-HSE 1995-1999., Whose interest or passivity, questions at lectures and answers on the exams served as an unchanged tankon, according to which the final version of the text of the book was united.
Many of our colleagues, who, in the role of official or informal reviewers, have found significant assistance in the work on the manuscript, which attentively read our texts carefully and paid our attention to certain miscalculations and omissions. All of them, regardless of which the authors managed to take advantage of their comments - our sincere thanks!
Finally, the fact that this book was published in the current cost-effective non-easy time, the authors are obliged to financial support for the Open Society Institute, which accompanied this project at all stages of its implementation.
Collective authors:
head Division IMEMO RAS, CHL-Corr. Wounds, dock. ECON. Sciences, prof. GU-HSE B.C. Autoons - preface, ch. 10-12, 15, 17, 18, 30, 31,37.42;
head Department of Gu-HSE, head. Sector IE RAS, k.e.n. O.I. Ananyin - Introduction, Ch. 1-7;
head Department of Inion RAS, Dokk. ECON. Sciences, prof. GU-HSE N.A. Makasheva - ch. 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, 24, 28, 29, 32-36, 41;
Art. Researcher IMEMO RAS, Cand. ECON. Sciences S.A. Afonians - ch. 39;
Associate Professor of the Department of GU-HSE, Ph.D. GD Glovel. 8, 19-27;
Lead Researcher IMEMO RAS, Cand. ECON. Sciences R.I. Koelestnikov - ch. 38, 40.
In the preparation of the nominal pointer, I.U. took part Sagitis.

V. Autonomov
O. Ananin
N. Makashev

Introduction

Just as the earth's crust has arisen from the layers of various geological periods, and modern economic science is the result of the words of different historical eras, each of which brought his observations, offered her topics, formulated its concepts and theories.
Turning to science, we every time - voluntarily or unwittingly - relate to her capabilities with their current problems. From the piggy banks of economic knowledge, we allocate what we consider it important, leaving all the other aside. Over time, many edges of the accumulated knowledge dick and are forgotten, their authentic meaning is lost. As a result, we sometimes do not notice the complexity in those phenomena that we were given and therefore seem simple and banal; And vice versa - give the universal nature of the facts and dependencies, by nature, private and random. The task of the history of economic thought is to restore the lost meanings of our knowledge. Contrary to the common opinion, the history of science is more than more than Kunstkamera, which keeps the memory of the misconceptions of the old days. This is a way better, i.e. It is fuller and deeper, mastering that the modern science is accumulated in the arsenal.

Development of economic thought: historical context

To restore the authentic meaning of a scientific idea or concept, it is important to understand the conditions that caused it to life, in other words, to understand the historical context in which it originated and received a public response. The task is complicated by the fact that the economic thought belongs simultaneously to three different areas of human activity: the world of the economy, the world of science and the world of ideology. And each of these worlds sets its special historical context, creates relatively independent impulses to the development of economic ideas.
The world of the economy serves as an object of economic knowledge, i.e. Determines that it is subject to understanding and research. So, the economy XX century. As an object of study, it is highly different from the farm ancient society. An important feature of economic science is connected with this, distinguishing it from most areas of natural science - physical laws, such as the Archimeda law, are not subject to time: the body, immersed in the liquid, behaves today in the same way as a hundred, thousand and a million years old Back. Thus, the world of the economy is irreversibly a changeable historical and economic context of the development of economic thought.
The world of science dictates, as, i.e. With what tools and methods, the process of knowledge is carried out. Each era produces its special ideas about which knowledge should be considered scientifically justified, which research methods - effective. In a new time, science leaders had a decisive influence on such ideas - at different times they were mathematics, astronomy, physics. The practice of these sciences became the norm, the standard of scientific relationship, and the public authority of other branches of knowledge often depended on their ability to follow the adopted standard. The leaders from the sciences borrowed methods of analysis, ways of argument - up to the style of the presentation of scientific treatises. In other words, the world of science absorbs the "Spirit of the Epoch" and serves as the historical and cultural context of the evolution of economic thought.
The world of ideology and politics determines which purposes should be the knowledge of which attitudes and criteria should be guided by the selection of a specific subject of research. The diversity and complexity of the world around us are such that the subject area of \u200b\u200balmost any branch of science is inexhaustible, and, accordingly, the process of its knowledge is infinite. On the contrary, every specific study, the activities of a separate scientist inevitably "are finite - on topics, aspects of its consideration, solved objectives. Almost this means that in science there are always mechanisms for the selection of the subject and the problems of research. It is natural that such mechanisms cannot but reflect those presented in Economic and political interests, ethical installations and social ideals. The role of the latter is especially great in social studies: the desire to comprehend the prospects for social development, to outline politically significant public strategies - it doesn't matter conservative, reformist, revolutionary or utopian - often provided for the development of public, including Economic, thoughts more powerful influence than just the desire to explain the current public reality. Hence the importance for the history of economic thought of its historical and ideological context.
The combination of these contexts forms a medium in which the main characters of our history are operating - people, authors of new economic observations, generators of new ideas and theories. Which contexts are more important, what less - each of them defines in its own way, depending on the circumstances of life, personal beliefs and addictions. It is here that the source of the personal, unpredictable began in the history of economic thought.
With the allocation of the economy to a separate branch of knowledge with its textbooks, departments, journals, research centers and scientific societies, in other words, as the professionalization and institutionalization of this type of activity, another important factor in the development of economic thought is incorporated in the case - the factor of the scientific community. The development of science ceases to be the case of single enthusiasts. Within the framework of the scientific community, professional communication becomes more regular, new ideas and data on research results are rapidly applied, the focus of scientific research is intensified. Accordingly, the selection of ideas applying for novelty and professional recognition becomes more rigid. The scientific community rejects the claims of amateurs and graphomans that do not speak the basics of special knowledge. This reduces the level of information "noise" in the channels of professional communication, but sometimes has a negative effect, making it difficult to perceive ideas, truly original, bringing to well-established approaches. In short, there is another context of the development of economic thought - an incomplete, requiring new ideas in the dispute with previously proven truths passed a novelty, originality and significance.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted by http://www.allbest.ru/

Reviewer - Semenkova T.G., Dr. ECON. Sciences, prof. Financial Academy under the Government of the Russian Federation

Titova N.E.

History of economic teachings: course of lectures. - M.: Humanit. ed. Center Vlados, 1997. - 288 p. ISBN 5-691-00008.

The purpose of the course of lectures is to master students of the historical heritage and ideological wealth of scientists of various eras in the field of economic thought. The study of the concepts and theories of individual schools and directions that existed in the past and existing in the present in economic science makes it possible to consolidate and deepen the knowledge gained in the course of economic theory.

For students of economic universities, as well as for independently we study the history of economic exercises.

T4306020900 - 29.

Without announced.

ISBN 5-691-00008

© N.E. Titova, 1997.

© "Humanitarian Publishing Center Vlados", 1997

All rights reserved

Introduction

The history of economic exercises occupies a large place in the system of economic sciences. Complementing the economic theory, it is at the same time a certain independent burden. The importance of the history of economic exercises and in the economic education system, in the preparation of economists, in the formation of their qualifications.

The following definition of science is adopted in the literature: the history of economic teachings is studied by the historical process of the emergence and development of the main systems of economic views of scientists of various historical periods. It follows from this that the analysis of the emergence and development of economic exercises covers the entire historical process of social development, all historical epochs starting from a slave-owned society.

The roots of economic theories go to the nature of the economic system that constitutes the basis of the development of society. "Economic conditions," F. Engels emphasized, - no matter how much other influence on them - political and ideological, - are ultimately still decisive and form that red thread, which permeates all the development and one leads to his understanding "*

The connection of economic exercises with the economy of society is the most direct. Their role in public development is very large. Economic exercises do not passively reflect the processes committed in the economy, and have a certain impact on them, contributing to public development, accelerating or, on the contrary, slowing it. It is well known that many concepts (for example, neoclassical or Keynesian) were the basis of state economic programs.

Economic exercises are investigated in dynamics in the process of historical development. At the same time, it is necessary to emphasize that the history of economic teachings is converted into modernity. This is determined by the special relevance and even the topical issues considered by it, which is one of the important features of the subject of the history of economic exercises. An analysis of the economic exercises of past epochs is not self-sufficient, is carried out not for the sake of studying the most historical process. The knowledge of the historical past contributes to a better understanding of the sources of the present.

In the course of lectures on the history of economic exercises, the entire process of the evolution of economic science is considered. The analysis of the classical school, Western European economic exercises, Russian economic thought occupies a big place. *

In the domestic economic literature, the economic concepts of well-being practically did not investigate. Meanwhile, in the West, there are long-standing special textbooks in the West, * any textbook on microeconomics and macroeconomics includes the "Welfare Economics" section. ** "Welfare State" in Europe is considered the official goal of public policy.

The problem of individual and social welfare is a fundamental, comprehensive socio-economic and philosophical problem that occupies a significant place in historical and economic, philosophical, sociological, statistical and other studies. The concept of welfare A. Smith, L. Valras, K. Menger, V. Pareto, J. Gobson, A. Bergson, K. Errow, A. Pig, P. Samuelson, J. Galbreit, W. Rostow, K. Price , E. Hansen, Murdal, J. Bucanene, G. Jentes, J. Sismondi, N.G. Chernyshevsky et al. Many of the economists considered the welfare and ways to achieve its achievement in society by the subject of political economy, rightly believing that the economic activity and activities of the state should be the intention of the individual and society.

I. Economic teachings of the ancient world

economic teaching school

When studying the I-th section, the course of the history of economic exercises it is necessary to take into account its specifics caused by a very extensive period of history, an abundance of material reflecting the process of the development of economic thought in the ancient world. Slavery originated in the East in the IV Millennium BC. For countries of the Ancient East, patriarchal slavery is characterized. The greatest development of slavement reached the antique period in ancient Greece and in ancient Rome from the I millennium BC. According to IV. AD Its flourishing falls on the V c. BC. The ancient slavery, the name of the classic, was the most mature form of slavement, when slaves constituted the main productive strength of society.

In a slave-owned society, an international ideology has been formed, economic thought developed. The dominant position was occupied by the ideology of slave owners.

Lecture 1. Economic Thought of Babylonia, China, India

In the territory of Ancient Asia, large foci of civilization has been formed, a slavement has reached a significant development, the first slave-owned states arose. Numerous historical monuments make it possible to judge the emergence and development of economic ideas. This gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe history of ancient Babylonia. On the beginning of the formation of a early grade Society, such as the laws of the king of Eshnunna (XX century BC) are indicated. They were interpreted by economic issues. The most significant monument of the Babylonian kingdom is the Code of King Hammurapi (1792-1750 BC), which has widely reflecting the economic foundations of society, the most important trends of its development. The Code of Chammurapi laws gives an idea that the division of society on slaves and slave owners was recognized at that time natural and eternal, the slaves were equated with the property of slave owners. Chammurapi laws reflected care about strengthening and protecting private property. The attempt on it was punishable by the death penalty and return to slavery. The historical monument indicates that the founding of the economy of the Babylonian kingdom was the natural economy. Keeping the position of the community, although the decomposition already thoroughly touched it. The royal power took care of the protection of the interests of the community and small producers. The laws of Hammurapi reflected the development of commodity-money relations, measures that contributed to the expansion of trade transactions.

A large place in the history of the social thought of the Ancient China of the period under consideration occupies Confucianism - the teaching created by Confucius (Kun Futszi), who lived in 551-479. BC. Economic views of Confucius are systematized by one of his followers of Men-Tzu (372-289 BC). They had a great influence on China's economic thought. In the economy of the country, there were significant shifts associated with the decomposition of the primitive-commodity and the formation of slavery. The agriculture declined, community relationships were destroyed, the property differentiation was increased, the positions of private slaveholding facilities were strengthened.

Confucius One of the first created the doctrine of the natural right, on which his philosophical and socio-economic concept was based. He proceeded from the fact that the public device is based on the Divine Beginning. It determines the fate of a person and public order. The division of society on the "noble", which make up the highest estate, and "commoners" ("low"), whose sat down by physical work, Confucius considered natural. The relationship between slave owners and slaves he did not only reduce forced. Confucius urged to raise the "trust" of slaves to the exploiters, advised the "noble" to seek the slaves.

The Decision of Confucius is aimed at ensuring the stability of the formated slave-building, strengthening the authority of the state, the widespread use of traditional forms and rites for these purposes. He matched for strengthening the authorities of the Supreme Ruler of China.

Economic views of Confucius, being a product of their era, were contradictory. The idealization of the antiquity, fixing the patriarchal-community relationships got along with him with the development of rules regulating the relationship between slaves and slave owners. First of all, he represented the position of the hereditary slave-owned aristocracy, as well as the lowest, serving layer of slave owners. His slavement was combined with the preservation of old patriarchal orders, relations of blood kinship. In the context of the aggravated social contradictions, Confucius was looking for ways to achieve social "equality" while maintaining slave-ownership orders, smoothing class conflicts. Confucianism justified the conservatism of the public device, established for many years in Chinese society.

Confucianism found its development in the views of Men-Tzu, who connected social inequality with the "Heavenly Will", justified the opposite of mental and physical labor. At the same time, Men-Tzu was against the tightening of the slave-owned oppression, ratified for the restoration of community land tenure, defended the community, the economic interests of the peasants. Contribuability, peculiar to the socio-economic concept of Confucianism, received a further deepening from Man-Tzu.

With the criticism of Confucianism, Mo Tzu and his supporters (MOES) were made. They preached the natural equality of people, denied the data, the privileges of the nobility. Mystone substantiated the need for all the development of production to meet the needs of the entire population, the universal participation of people in physical work, the development of a free initiative of small producers. Constating the idea of \u200b\u200b"universal mutual love," the idea of \u200b\u200b"universal mutual love", the mystical people did not understand her illusory.

One of the significant monuments of the history of economic ideas in China is the "Guan-Tzi" treatise, belonging to Peru of unknown authors. It refers to IV-III century. BC. Showing concern about the peasantry, the authors proposed to limit their compulsory workforce, to protect against speculators and realmists. In order to strengthen the economic situation of the peasants, the authors of the treatise offered to change the tax system, raise the prices of bread. The care of improving the welfare of the people they pinned the state to which they had to actively interfere with economic affairs, eliminate the causes that prevent the well-being of the people, create grain reserves for price stabilization, take measures to overcome adverse nature conditions, etc.

The collision of two trends in socio-economic life: the desire to preserve the patriarchal-communal principles, on the one hand, the growth and strengthening of slavement positions - on the other, the struggle of the classes standing for them for a long time determined the most important issues of the economic thought of ancient China. Big sharpness reached the problem of the relationship of natural and commercial economy.

Studying the history of the economic thought of ancient India, it should first of all pay attention to the economic ideas contained in the oldest monuments - the Vedas, which are a collection of prayers, hymns, spells. They were created in the I millennium BC. And they reflected the launched decomposition of the primitive community, the formation of slavement. By the beginning of the I millennium, there is an emergence of such works of the ancient Indian epic containing economic ideas as "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". The first teaches about the wars of the Bharata tribe, the second - about the frames of the frame.

The development of economic thought was reflected in literary and religious monuments. Among them are the famous "laws of Manu", which were made throughout the centuries. They contain a rich material about the socio-economic conditions of India III Millennium BC, express the mouth of the priests (Brahmanov) economic views of the slave owners. "Laws Manu" is a set of prescriptions sent to people by the "divine legislative". They established the forms of transformation of a free person in a slave (DAS), his opposite position in society was fixed. "Laws Manu" reflected the existence of hereditary castes. The Brahmanical Concept of Economic Policy, justified in them, assigned a significant role to the state, which was entitled to ensure revenues, regulation of economic activity, the operation of the public and others.

The outstanding monument of the history of the economic thought of the ancient India is the Treatise "Arthasaster", the author of which was the adviser to King Chandragoupe I Brahman - Kautilla (end IV - the beginning of the III century. BC). * "Arthasaster" was created as instruction for the king, But in its content and the meaning far went beyond the scope of the councils. This is an extensive economic work, covering a wide range of issues and indicating the maturity of the economic thought of India of the time. "Arthasaster" characterizes the socio-economic and political structure of the country, contains a rich material illustrating the development of economic ideas.

"Arthasaster" tells about social inequality, justifies and enshrines him, confirming the legality of slavery, dividing society to the caste. The basis of the country's population was Arias who were divided into four castes: Brahmanov, Kshatriyev, Vaishiyev and Sudr. Brahmins and Kshatriya possessed the greatest privileges. The author showed care to strengthen the position of Arii. It was indicated that "for arions should not be slavery." If the Arias for some reason became slaves, then such a state was considered as temporary, measures were envisaged to release them. The treatise paid great attention to the regulation of slavery that retained the features of the patriarchal. Recommended measures limiting the development of slavery, warning aggravation of class conflicts. The Indian slave could have property, had the right to receive an inheritance, the right of self-digging at the expense of his property.

In "Arthasastre" described in detail the state of the country's economy, the main occupations of the population. The main industry was agriculture, dependent in much irrigation. Along with those developed crafts, trade. The treatise has been most importantly assigned to the construction, maintenance of irrigation systems, which qualified as the basis of the crop. The damage caused by the irrigation system was considered as a grievous atrocity. "Arthasaster" contains rich information about public division and exchange. The learning doctrine was an integral part of the entire exercise on the conduct of the national economy.

"Arthasaster" paid great attention to the interpretation of the economic role of the state. It was typical for the economic thoughts of the countries of the Ancient East, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe active intervention of the state into economic life into the regulation of social relations. Moreover, the treatise directly put on the royal power of concern for the implementation of many business affairs, including the colonization of the Okrain, maintaining irrigation systems, the construction of wells, the creation of new villages, the organization of spinning-weaving production with the involvement of a specific contingent of workers (widow, orphans, beggars, disabled, Processing penalty, etc.). The economic policy of the Tsarist administration, the tax system, the maintenance of the royal economy, the main sources of income, etc. was described in detail.

The Treatise "Arthasaster" gives an idea of \u200b\u200bhow Indian economic thought interpreted the main issues of socio-economic relations, the economic life of a typical country for the countries of the Ancient East of the early workers.

Lecture 2. Economic teachings of ancient Greece

The greatest role in the history of economic teachings of ancient Greece was played by the works of famous thinkers of Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle.

Xenophon was born in Athens in 430 BC. (Died in 355 BC), belonged to a rich slave-owned aristocracy. He is a student of the famous ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. In their political views, he acted as a supporter of the Aristocratic Sparta and the opponent of Athenian democracy.

The economic views of Xenophon are set out in the work of "Domostroy", prepared as a guide for the conduct of slave-ownership. Determining the subject of the housekeeping, he described it as a science on jurisdiction and enrichment of the economy. The main branch of the slave economy Xenophon considered agriculture, which he qualified as the most worthy type of occupation. According to Xenophon, "agriculture-- Mother and feeding of all arts" the main goal of economic activity he saw in ensuring the production of beneficial things, i.e. Consumer values. Ksenfont crafts treated negatively, considered them a class suitable for slaves only. Not included in the category of decent activities of free Greek and trade. At the same time, in the interests of the slaveholding economy, Xenophon allowed the use of commodity-money relations.

"Domostroy" contained numerous tips to slave owners in the field of economic activity. Their will be the leadership of the economy, the operation of slaves, but in no way physical work of Xenophon expressed contempt for physical work, qualifying it as a lesson, suitable only for slaves. Giving advice on the rational management of the economy and operating slaves, he taught to handle slaves as animals.

XENFONT One of the first among the thinkers of antiquity paid great attention to the issues of division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon as an important condition for increasing consumer value production. He closely approached the principle of manuff division of labor. Xenophon first pointed to the relationship between the development of labor separation and the market. In his opinion, the dismemberment of professions depended on the volume of the market.

Xenophon is an ideologist first of all the natural slave-ownership. At the same time, he considered the development of trade, money circulation for this farm. They saw one of the sources of enrichment and advised to use the xenophon to use money as a necessary means of circulation and the concentrated form of wealth. Condeming money as trading and usury capital, he recommended accumulating them as a treasure.

Xenophon has an understanding of the dual purpose of the thing: as a consumer value, on the one hand, and exchange costs on the other. Being an ideologue of a natural economy, he did not attach a special meaning of exchange value. The value of things was made dependent on utility, and the price was directly explained by the movement of supply and demand.

Economic ideas occupied a significant place in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427-347 BC). The most famous of his work "Politics or State". The socio-economic concept of Plato received a concentrated expression in the project of the ideal state. Plato considered the state as a community of people generated by nature itself, for the first time expressing the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inevitability of state division (city) into two parts: on the rich and poor.

Plato paid a lot of attention to the problem of division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon. In his concept, the born inequality of people justified. Delivery on free and slaves He interpreted as a normal condition given by nature itself. Slaves were considered as the main productive force, and their exploitation - as a means of enriching slave owners. Free citizens could only be the Greeks. Barbars, foreigners turned into slaves.

The main branch of the farm Platon considered agriculture, but approvingly belonged to the remodes. He saw the economic basis of the state in a natural economy, based on the operation of slaves. With the natural division of Labor, Plato associated the need for sharing he allowed small trade, which was called upon to serve the division of labor. However, in general, the trade was especially large, Plato referred to trade arrived very negative. In his opinion, trade should be carried out mostly foreigners, slaves. For the free Greek, trading, he considered unworthy and even shameful.

In the ideal state of Plato, free people were divided into three estates: 1) philosophers designed to manage the state; 2) warriors; 3) landowners, artisans and small merchants. Slaves did not turn on in any of these classes. They equated to inventory, were considered as speaking implements of production. Philosophers and warriors constituted the highest part of society, which Plato showed special care. He assumed to provide them with common consumption, which gave the reason to interpret it as a "aristocratic communism".

The greatest contribution to the economic thought of ancient Greece was made the greatest thinker of antiquity Aristotle. He was born in 384 BC. In the doctor's family (died in 322 BC). As a student of Plato in the Academy, Aristotle did not share, however, Platonovsky idealism. Showing oscillations between materialism and idealism, he walked to materialism. Aristotle is known as the educator of the heir to the throne in Macedonia famous Alexander Macedonsky. In the future, he founded the philosophical school of Lickey in Athens, engaged in scientific and pedagogical activities, was the author of numerous works on natural science topics, philosophy, logic, economy, literature, history, etc. His political views are stated in the work "Politics" and other works. He is an opponent of aristocratic, oligarchic power, a supporter of a slave-owner democracy. Aristotle justified the division of people on slaves and free, perceiving it as natural. In his opinion, freedom was only Ellini. As for foreigners (barbarians), they could only be slaves by their nature. Citizens of Greece he divided by five groups (classes): 1) agricultural class, 2) class of artisans, 3) shopping class, 4) hired workers, 5) military. Slaves constituted a separate group that did not turn into a civil community. Slavery Aristotle associated with the natural division of labor, believing that slaves are in nature and are capable only to physical work. The slave was equated to other things belonging to free, included in their property. Slaves, according to Aristotle, should have been provided to all types of physical labor.

An outstanding merit of Aristotle in the development of economic thought is its attempt to penetrate the essence of economic phenomena, reveal their patterns. In this, Aristotle differed significantly from its predecessors (Xenophon, Plato), putting the beginning of economic analysis, which manifested itself in the approach to the definition of the subject of economic science, in learning exchange, forms of value, etc.

Being a supporter of a natural economy based on the operation of slaves, Aristotle considered economic phenomena from the point of view of the greatest benefit. Everything that matches the interests of strengthening the economy was taken as natural and fair. On the contrary, everything that loosened and deposited the economy was related to the discharge of unnatural phenomena. From this point of view, wealth and its sources were evaluated, means of meeting the needs of society. Natural phenomena Aristotle attributed to the economy, which revealed the sources of "true wealth", consistent with consumer values. The economy ensured the study of the ways to strengthen the natural economy; Opportunities to expand the production of consular costs. This corresponded to maintaining the moderate sizes of wealth, whose supporter was Aristotle, rejected excessive accumulation of money, enrichment due to the form of treatment, speculative trade, usury, etc. He allowed changing the trade, since it did not violate the prevailing role of consumer value, and attributed it to the economy.

Aristotle's unnatural phenomena associated with an excessive development of the sphere of circulation and included in the chrematics, which was considered as the art of "make money", to create wealth that did not have borders. He rejected a large, speculative trade, aimed at the accumulation of money wealth, condemned usury. Being a supporter of economic management on the basis of the economy, the great thinker of antiquity strongly opposed what was related to the hirology.

Ingenious guess expressed Aristotle about the exchange, exchange value. He understood that the exchanged goods without the identity of their entities could not relate to each other as commensurate values. In his opinion, the exchange cannot have places without equality, but equality - without commensurability. In the exchange, all the crafts and art are equalized, and the consumer costs participating in it have something common, although such an equalization of Aristotle could not explain. The genius of Aristotle manifested itself in the fact that in the expression of the value of the goods, it opens up the attitude of equality. Only the historical boundaries of the society in which he lived, prevented him to disclose what is "in reality" is the attitude of equality.

It is of interest and how Aristotle considered the form of value. The money shape of the goods was taken as the development of a simple form of value. Although he could not scientifically explain the origin and essence of money, however, it is important that he tied them with the development of exchange, marked the beginning of the consideration of money functions as a measure of value and means of circulation. "In the history of economic exercises, the ancient Greek thinkers detect the same genius and originality," said K. Marx, as in all other areas. Historically, their views are formed therefore theoretical source points of modern science. "*

Lecture 3. Literature on the organization of slave-owner latifunds in ancient Rome

The economic thought of the ancient world has been further developed and completed in ancient Rome. She reflected the next stage of the evolution of slavery, the new forms of the organization of slave-ownership farms, characteristic of them more cruel operation of slaves, exacerbating the contradictions and strengthening of the struggle in the context of a decomposing slave-owned society. The most important problem of the ancient Roman literature remained the problem of slavery, its justification, organization and methods of conducting major slave-ownership farms (Latifundia). According to these issues, Caton Senior (234-149 to the NE), Varon (116-27 BC), Columnla (I in N. E.).

The rationale of the ancient Roman form of slavery, the methods of conducting large agricultural economy are detailed in the composition of the "land tenure" by Caton Senior, who was a major landowner Treatise Katon reflected the period of raising Roman slave-ownership production. Its ideal was mainly the natural economy, which ensuring primarily its needs. However, trade was not excluded, designed to realize some of the products and acquire something that could not be made on its own. A large place in the composition of the Caton was held by tips on the maintenance of slaves, the use of their labor, methods of operation. The author attributed slaves to the produces of production, recommended to contain them in rigor, depending on the adjustment, rationally exploit their work Caton considered it appropriate to acquire slaves at a small age, raising them in obedience, in the spirit, pleasing host. Providing possible perturbations and performances of slaves, Caton advised to maintain solutions in their medium, to inflate conflicts, disagreement between them, to be released in a timely manner from decrepit and patients. Slaves were brutally punished for the slightest misdeed. Food, clothing, the dwelling was to correspond to their position of speaking guns. All of these councils of Katon are aimed at ensuring the rational maintenance of a large slave-ownership.

Development of the problems of the Latifundic economy in I B to AD. continued the Roman scientist Varon. His views are stated in the treatise "about agriculture." He reflected, on the one hand, more developed forms of slavery, the highest degree of evolution of major slave economies; On the other hand, the new moments of the socio-economic situation associated with deepening contradictions, increasingly permeable the economies of the Roman slave-ownership state.

In his treatise, Varon expresses a serious alarm about the fate of the slaveholding. He reproaches the slave owners in the fact that they moved away from affairs, live in cities, passing the Latifundy manager. The author is looking for ways to strengthen the economy not only in the development of agriculture, but also cattle breeding, in the use of agronomic science, growth in the intensity of production, improving the operation methods of slaves, in the use of material interest, etc. His worries are associated not only with the preservation of the natural nature of slave-owned latifunds, but also with the increase in their profitability, the growth of the production efficiency of Varon pays great attention to turning into slaves, methods of their operation. He belonged to one of the three types of agricultural tools: speaking. Two other types of guns in its classification were silent (inventory) and emitting inseparal sounds (working cattle).

The crisis of slavement reflected in its essay "about agriculture" Columella. In an extensive treatise, consisting of 12 books, the state of slave-owned latifunds is considered in detail. Columella wrote about the extremely low productivity of slave labor, that slaves bring the greatest harm to the fields, they do not relate to work, to the content of livestock, inventory, steal, deceive landowners, etc. A picture drawn by Columella testifies to the decline of agriculture, that the economy of a slave-owned society was already in a state of crisis, which continued to deepen. According to Columella, "Latifundy was killed by Italy."

In search of an exit from the crisis, the Roman scientist prefers more productive work of free producers, sets the question of refusing to work, the use of colons.

One of the pages of the history of the economic teachings of ancient Rome is connected with the Grakhovsky agrarian movement, expressed the interests of landless and small-earth peasantry in the struggle against the latifundists. He was headed by the Brothers Tiberius (163-132 BC) and Guy (153-121 BC) Grakhkha. Referring to the restriction of major land tenure and endowed land and small-earth peasants, they assumed to implement such a reform within the framework of the slave-ownership and in such a way to strengthen it.

In the ancient Rome of the big scope reached the struggle of slaves for his liberation. Their requirements are generalized advanced during the uprisings. The main ones were the destruction of slave-owned latifunds, exemption from slavery. The brightest pages of anti-workers are connected in ancient Rome with the largest rise in slaves under the leadership of Spartacus (74-71. BC).

II. Economic theories during the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages Epoch covers a large historical period in Western Europe - with V c. Before the bourgeois revolutions of the XVII-XVIII centuries, in Russia - from the IX century. Before the reform of 1861 in a number of Asia and Africa, feudal relations were preserved in the XX century.

The economic thought of Western Middle Ages developed together with the evolution of society.

Studying the economic teachings of the Middle Ages, it should be primarily to pay attention to the economic ideas contained in the documents and used to substantiate legal norms. This includes the records of the usual law and the so-called "truth" of individual tribes, economic regulations of feudal estates, workshop statutes, economic legislation of cities, etc.

Lecture 4. Economic ideas in Western Europe and Russia

The Economic Thought of Middle Ages is closely related to the economic policies of states designed to maintain feudal order, its stabilization of the defenders of the feudalists has negatively related to trade and usury. The natural economic limitations of production was considered an advantage and issued for social virtue.

Due to the fact that the Church in the Middle Ages played an exceptional role, the economic thought in some cases was checked into a religious shell, took the theological design.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe economic ideas of the early Middle Ages (VI - X centuries) gives an old record of the judicial customs of the francs "Salic Pravda", compiled at the beginning of the VI century. N. E.

Holding a list of fines for all sorts of crimes, it characterizes the economic views of the francs: a communal peasantry on the one hand, and serve people or warriors - on the other. In her prescriptions, agriculture acts as a natural franc activity. Cities and industry did not pay much attention. Commerce problems are completely absent.

The "Salic True" defended the position of the community, the sustainability of community land tenure, the priority of community ownership over private. At the same time, community principles of economic life combined in it with recognition of slavery, Coluntia of major land tenure and royal power as legitimate phenomena.

The "Salic Pravda" reflected the decomposition of the generic system, the resulting process of feudalizing the differentiation of the Frankish society and the interests of the servant of the aristocracy, which grouped around the king.

After three centuries, the economic issues of the medieval estate were reflected in the "Capitulian about Villach" (the law on the estates), published in Carlo Great. It was fixed in the fortress dependence of the peasants, the task of economic policy was reduced to the approval of serfdom.

Economic views of canonists

The originality of the economic thought of Middle Ages is brightly affected by the economic teachings of Catholicism. In the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church strengthens its power. Possessing colossal wealth and land ownership, the churchmen justify the domination of serfdom and defend its position with the help of church rules, the so-called canons of the Church.

The end of the attitudes of the canonists was the Italian theologian Foma Akvinsky (1225-1275), which created an extensive essay of the "amount of theology". He stood out as a major representative of the Economic Thought of Middle Ages. The composition of Aquinas became a kind of encyclopedia of Catholicism. And this teaching is widely used by the Vatican.

Aquinity considered such economic problems as the property of trade, "fair price", "percentage.

The public division of labor, he described as a natural natural phenomenon and believed that it underlies the division of society to the estate. Aquinas argued that people are born differently by nature and, based on natural differences, made the conclusion that the peasants were created for physical work, and privileged classs must devote themselves to spiritual activities "in the name of the remaining rescue." Like antique thinkers, he put the intellectual work above physical and interpreted the last as a slave occupation.

Much attention F. Akvinsky paid private property. In it, he saw the basis of the economy and believed that a person from nature had the right to assigning wealth. Hence the property acquired to meet the necessary needs is the natural and necessary institution of human life.

An important place in the teachings of Aquinsky occupies the theory of "fair prices". The idea of \u200b\u200bfair price canonical theory inherited from antiquity. In the Middle Ages, both the peasant and the artisan had a more or less accurate idea of \u200b\u200blabor costs for the production of their goods and during the exchange determined their prices depending on the work spent on production. The law of value acted long before the emergence of the capitalist method of production. The price that was based on labor costs, i.e. The exchange of equivalents was considered a fair price.

On the one hand, Aquinity considers the "fair price" the correct prices corresponding to labor costs, and on the other, proves the legitimacy of the retreat from this price if it does not guarantee each participant in the decent rank of his existence.

Consequently, from the point of view of Aquinas, the fair was not equally considered, but the price of the same product for different classes.

With the theory of "fair prices", Aquinsky's reasoning about profits and interest is closely connected. Unconditionally justifying the receipt of land rent, he took a dual position in relation to profit and the percentage. Aquini was a supporter of the naturalization of economic life and, like its predecessors, was hostile to large trade, usury. One of the questions of his main essay, he dedicated the problem of the sinfulness of interest.

Profit received by merchants does not contradict, in his opinion, Christian virtue and should be considered as a fee for labor. The level of profit is normal if it provides the merchant family the opportunity to live its place in the estate hierarchy, respectively.

Righting tribute time, Aquinity makes attempts to find a compromise solution to the issue of chain challenge, which in the middle of the XIII century. It was forbidden and condemned by the Church. He treats him as a remuneration to the creditor for the risk of non-payment, for providing a deferment to the debtor in the payment of his debt or how to receive disinterested gifts from the debtor, as well as in the case of a debtor of viscous money in order to extract profits.

Economic ideas in the Middle Ages, in Russia. "Government" Yermolaya-Erasm.

The economic thought of the Russian state, as in other countries, has developed together with the development of society. For a long time, she existed in close connection with the religious views of people with moral concepts. Therefore, when studying the economic thoughts of ancient Russia, attention should be paid to the chronicles, contracts of diplomas, church literature. An important place among them is the "Russian True" - the first in the history of the Codex laws of the Russian state. Its content reflected that existed in Kievan Rus in the XI-XIII centuries. relations of production.

The end of XV is the beginning of the XVI century. - One of the important stages in the history of the Russian people. During this period, the process of eliminating the fragmentation of the country and the formation of a Russian centralized state is completed. This contributed to economic progress, the development of commodity-money relations. Along with the hereditary property, the boyar began to expand the estate, noble land tenure as a remuneration for the service. With the formation of a centralized state, the role of the local nobility has increased significantly.

The economic interests of the local nobility expressed in the XVI century. Yermolai is a priest of the Moscow Palace Church. Later he was touched into the monks under the name of Erasm. Most of his works are devoted to theological and moral topics, but also in them he covered current social issues. According to its political views, Yermolay-Erazm - an opponent of boyars of age.

Significant for its time, the work of Yermolaya-Yerazm called "the grunting king of the government and land", or in short, the "government" is the first special economic and political treatise in Russia, written in the 40th or early 50s of the XVI century. It contains a system of measures aimed at solving the actual tasks of that time.

A large place in the "government" is the question of the situation of the peasant masses. Erazm assigned to them as paramount importance in the life of society and paid attention to their heavy, distress. In an effort to facilitate the position of the peasants, he considered it necessary to free them from the monetary festivals of the landowner and from the fulfillment of the Jam Mantility, which he offered to shift to the population of cities. The subsidy of the landowners of the peasants, in his opinion, should only be carried out in the form of a natural range in the size of the fifth part of the product produced.

The size of ensuring the land and peasants ERASM was addressed to dependence on official advantages and performance of official debt. The non-hard wealth of the venel was rejected as unfair.

The "government" considered the issue of creating the economic basis of the Russian centralized state. Such the basis of Erazm saw in the objective land tenure of serve people. The reform proposed by him in the field of land tenure - the distribution of the Earth to the peasants and serve people - reflected first of all the interests of a new, progressive part of the society - serving the nobility, and was aimed at strengthening the state. In this sense, she had a progressive meaning.

The emergence of utopian socialism

In later, the Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries) in the economic thought of Western Europe there are significant changes caused by the deep process of the development of manufactory production. Great geographical discoveries, the robbery of the colonies accelerated the accumulation process of capital.

During this period, social utopias arise. One of the founders of utopian socialism was Thomas Mi (1478-1532), an outstanding humanist thinker, the politician of the Tudor England, executed for the opposition of Absolutism (refused to bring the oath to the king as the chapter of the Church). The son of a rich judge and a lawyer for education, Mor occupied high government positions.0 But despite this, he sympathized with the disasters of the masses.

Mor subjected to a sharp criticism of social order dominated in England, the methods of the initial accumulation of capital. He saw the root cause of the appearance of poverty in private ownership, he was opposed.

Mor was the first criticism of capitalism. Mora's views did not represent a special scientific theory. It was only dreams.

The Italian thinker Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), which came out of the poor peasantry medium, belongs to the number of early representatives of utopian socialism. He is known as an active participant in the fight for the liberation of Southern Italy from the oppaning monarchy oppression. Once in the hands of enemies, Campanella has spent the age of 27 in the caasemates. There he wrote his famous written "City of the Sun" (1623), in which a sharp criticism of the social structure of Italy of that time.

Campanella put forward a project of the ideal utopian state - the city of the Sun, the basis of which was the commonality of property. Reflecting the traditions of the economic thought of the Middle Ages, he focused on the farm of the natural type. The Society of Future was drawn to him as a set of agricultural communities, to the works in which all citizens are involved. Campanella recognized the personality of housing and family, universal labor, rejected the thesis that no one would work after the abolition of ownership. Consumption in the city of the Sun, he believed, will be public with the abundance of material goods, poverty will disappear. Relationships between people should be based on the principles of friendship, friendly cooperation and mutual understanding.

However, nevertheless, nor T. Campnell knew the real ways to a new society. They limited themselves to the description of the utopian state with unusual orders, which manifested itself with the historical limitations of their economic projects.

III. Economic theories during the birth of a market economy

Lecture 5. Mantilism as the first school of political economy

The first school of economic science was mercantilism (from the Italian word "mercant" - a merchant, merchant), who received distribution and held leading positions in the economic thoughts of many countries until the end of the XVII century.

Mantilism expressed primarily the economic policy of the state. Mercalistists represented the interests of commercial capital. His representatives practically solved the problems of the initial accumulation.

One of the main features of mercantilism was the identification of wealth with gold and silver. Mercitalests believed that gold and silver were in their nature money. It is incorrect because nature does not create money, as well as bankers and bills. Criticizing the position of mercantlestists that "gold in nature is its essence of money," K. Marx indicated that "the money is based on its essence of gold." This means that gold is unlike all other goods most suitable for the role of money.

The source of wealth of Mercantilists considered foreign trade. Such an interpretation was not accidental. It was an integral link of the entire concept of mercantlers.

Seeing the source of national wealth in foreign trade and profits from the alienation, mercantlers took care of the active foreign trade balance. Its implementation, as in general, the accumulation of money wealth has been associated with the active activity of the state that the system of administrative measures and economic policies should contribute to the influx into the country of gold and silver. For the implementation of this task, mercantlers put forward a whole system of activities recommended by the royal power, which should have interfere with economic life, promote active foreign trade.

In its development, mercantilism passed two stages. The first - early mercantilism (XVI B) associated with the assertion of the monetary system (monetarism). The second stage is a developed mercantilism called the manufactory system (XVII century).

The monetary system is characterized by the concept of money balance. Her prominent representative William Stafford (England). According to this concept, the task of accumulation of monetary wealth in the country was solved mainly by administrative measures that ensured the rigid regulation of money circulation, foreign trade. Monetarists, considering gold as a treasure, the absolute form of wealth, was looking for ways of inflows from abroad and hold within the country. The export of money outside of this state was categorically prohibited, the activities of foreign merchants were strictly controlled, the import of foreign goods was limited, high duties were established, etc.

The transition to the manufactory system did not lead to a change in the main dogmas of the mercantilistic concept, but caused significant changes in the accumulation methods. Mature mercantilism represented a more developed economy, which affected the economic doctrine. The most famous expressher was English economist Thomas Man. In France, developed mercantilism was represented by Colberism. In Italy, the concept of trade balance developed Antonio Serra.

Like monetarists, representatives of the manufactory system identified the wealth of nations with gold and its only source considered foreign trade. They were convinced of the omnipotence of money. According to Columbus, gold is an amazing thing! Who possesses them, the master of everything he wants. Gold can even souls open the road to heaven.

Representatives of developed mercantilism largely overcame the illusion of monetarists. Their economic theory is more justified. Instead of administrative accumulation methods, the importance of which fell to the fore the economic methods are put forward. Mercantilists abandoned the prohibition of gold exports outside the country, from the rigid regulation of money circulation. They outline measures to stimulate foreign trade, which should have ensured a constant influx of gold into the country. The main rules of foreign trade was considered to excess export over the importation. To ensure its implementation, mercantlers took care of the development of manufactory production, internal trade, growth not only exports, but also imports of goods, procurement of raw materials abroad, rational use of money. The growth of manufactory production and the activation of economic methods of accumulation did not exclude the administrative impact on the part of the state, although the nature of such an impact changed. In accordance with the concept of trade balance, the economic policy of protectionism was carried out in the interests of their own manuff and merchants. The ban on the export of raw materials was maintained, the import of a number of goods, especially luxury items, was established high import duties, etc. Mercantilists demanded that the royal power encouraged the development of the national industry and trade, the production of goods for export, supported high customs duties, built and strengthened the fleet, expanded the external expansion.

Mantilism in individual countries had its own characteristics. Its development was associated with the level of maturity of capitalist industrial relations, which determined the practical results of national mercantilistic theories.

The greatest development of mercantilism reached in England. His early stage was represented by William Stafford, the author of the book "Critical statement of some complaints of our compatriots" (1581). Developing the concept of monetarism, Stafford expressed anxiety about the popularity abroad. The task of accumulating money wealth, he proposed to solve mainly administrative measures, demanding from the state to prohibit the removal of coins, import of luxury objects, restrictions on the import of a number of other goods. Stafford spoke in favor of expanding the processing of English wool, the production of cloth.

Mature mercantilism is represented in England by the works of Thomas Mena (1571-1641), a classic representative of the manufactory system T. Men was at the same time, along with the major merchant of his time, one of the directors of the East India Company. Confessing the interests of the company from the attacks of opponents who criticized her for the export of coins, T. Men in 1621 spoke with a pamphlet "reasoning about trade in England with Ost-India." The concept of monetarists The author contrasted the theory of trade balance. In 1630, T. Men writes work "of England's wealth in foreign trade or balance of foreign trade as a regulator of wealth". This is his main work, in the very name of which the credo of developed mercantilism was formulated. T. Men considered the harmful rigid regulation of the money circulation, played for free removal of coins, without which it is impossible normal Development of foreign trade. He considered the main concern to ensure the rules: "Selling foreigners annually for a large amount than we buy from them." * Only with the help of active foreign trade, in his opinion, you can attract those "the only money that we have We remain and which we are enriched. "** Requires the abolition of the law" On the ISP "coins for foreigners, T. Men proceeded from the fact that The prohibition of the export of money inhibits the demand for English goods abroad, and an excess of money in the country contributes to price increases.

Similar documents

methodology added 07/29/2009


The subject and method of the history of economic exercises. The basis of the classification of modern economic views. The evolution of views on processes, patterns of formation and development of theories and schools. Methods of scientific knowledge. Economic thoughts of the ancient world.

examination, added 10/17/2011


Essence of the subject of the history of economic exercises. The main prerequisites for the emergence of economic thought in the states of the Ancient East. Analysis of the economic ideas of xenophon, Plato, Aristotle. Background of the emergence of Marxist economic theory.

cheat Sheet, added 12/06/2011


The subject of the history of economic exercises. The first economic schools: mercantlers and physiocrats. Sources of richness growth in accordance with the views of Smith and Ricardo. The provisions of the concept of utmost utility nominated by the economists of the Austrian school.

tutorial, added 12.02.2010


Analysis of the processes of the emergence, development and change of economic views of ideologues of various social groups, schools and flows. Turnstanding moments in the history of economic thought. Methods and techniques of historical vision of the development of economic theories.

cheat Sheet, added 01/18/2011


The emergence of economic knowledge in ancient society. The main flows of the economic thought of ancient China. Formation of the economy as science in the teaching of mercantilism, physiocration, English classical political economy. Development of economic theory in the XX century.

thesis, added 27.05.2010


Stages of the development of classical political economy. The historical process of the emergence, development and change of economic ideas and concepts presented in the theories of economists: Petty, Buagilbera, Kene, Smith, Ricardo, Say, Maltus, Mill, Marx.

abstract, added 07.05.2015


Consideration of the main economic exercises. Institutionalism as a direction in political economy. Studying the basics of Keynesian and classical economic theories, marginalism, mercantilism, the theory of business cycle and the transformation of capitalism and money.

presentation, added 04/07/2014


The subject and method of the history of economic exercises. Economic teachings of the ancient world and the Middle Ages. Mantilism is the first concept of a market economic theory. Economic views and reform concepts of opponents of political economy.

test, added 06.05.2011


The subject, method and value of the history of economic exercises. Features of the economic thoughts of the countries of the Ancient East, ancient China, ancient world and classical feudalism, early mercantilism. The overall characteristics of early utopian socialism.