Western Europe: a new development stage - knowledge hypermarket. What are the creeds of the era of the Reformation do you know? That they were in common of which creeds of the Reformation era do you know what

New reality, the formation of a humanistic look at the world affected the religious foundations of a medieval worldview.

The last 70 years of the Avignon captivity of dads, forced to transfer their residence to France, significantly weakened the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in secular states. Only in 1377, thanks to the failures of France in the Century War, Pope Gregory XI managed to return the residence of the head of the Church in Rome. However, after his death in 1377, French bishops elected their dad, and Italian - her. The church cathedral, convened in 1409, lowered both dads and elected his candidate. Lhappa did not recognize the solutions of the cathedral. So the Roman Catholic Church was simultaneously three chapters. Schism,i.e. the split of the Church, which lasted until 1417, significantly weakened its influence in the largest countries of Europe - England, France and Spain.

In the Czech Republic,which was part of the Roman Empire, a movement arose for the creation of a national church with a more democratic order of service, its holding in Czech. Founder of this movement, Professor of the University of Prague Jan Gus (1371-1415),at the church cathedral in Constance was accused of heresy and burned on a fire. However, his followers in the Czech Republic, whom the knight was headed Jan Jizz (1360-1430),we climbed the armed struggle. The gusites demanded that the clergy comply with the ascetic standards of life, they posed the Roman Catholic clergymen in committing mortal sins. Their requirements have been widely supported the peasantry and townspeople. Gusites captured almost all the territory of the Czech Republic and spent secularization(confiscation) of church lands, which mostly passed into the hands of secular feudalists.

In 1420-1431 Rome and Empire made five crusades against the hussites declared by heretics. However, the Crusaders failed to achieve military victory. Gusites detachments applied counterdasters through the territory of Hungary, Bavaria, Brandenburg. At the Basel Cathedral of 1433, the Roman Catholic Church went on concessions, recognizing the right to the existence of a church in the Czech Republic with a special order of service.

Growing over Ya. Gus did not stop the spread of skeptical sentiment against the Roman Catholic Church. The very serious challenge was the doings of the monk of the Order of Augustine, Professor of the University in Wittenbach (Germany) M. Luther (1483-1546).He opposed the sale indulgencethose. Weave sins for money, which was an important source of church income. Luther argued: this deprives the meaning of repentance, which should contribute to the spiritual cleansing of a person.

The Word of God, considered Luther, is stated in the Bible, and only the Holy Scripture, which is accessible to every person, opens the path to revelation, the salvation of the soul. Resolutions of cathedrals, statements by the Fathers of the Church, rites, prayers, worshiping icons and holy relics, according to Luther, are not related to true faith.

In 1520, Pope Lion X removed Luther from the Church. Imperial Reichstag, in 1521 considered Luther's views, condemned it. However, the number of supporters of Lutheranism increased. In 1522-1523. In Germany, the rods broke out, which demanded the reform of the Church, the secularization of its land possessions.

In 1524-1525german lands were covered Peasant warwhich began under religious slogans. In the environment of the rebels, ideas were especially popular anabaptists.They denied not only the official, catholic, church, but also the sacred writing, believing that every believer can get the revelation of the Lord, contacting him with a soul and heart.

The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe uprising that covered Swabia, Württemberg, Franconia, Thuringia, Alsace and the Alpine Land of Austria, was to establish the kingdom of God on Earth. As one of his spiritual leaders believed T. Munzer (1490-1525),the path to this kingdom lies through the overthrow of the monarchs, the destruction of monasteries and castles, the triumph of full equality. The main requirements were the restoration of community land tenure, the abolition of duties, reform of the church.

Neither Luther nor residents of cities supported the demands of the rebels. The troops of German princes defeated poorly organized peasant armies. When the uprising is suppressed, about 150 thousand peasants died.

This victory significantly increased the influence of the princes, and less than those considered with the opinion of the Roman Catholic Church and the emperors. In 1529, many princes and free cities made a protest against the prohibition by the imperial Reichstag New, Lutheran, faith. In the possessions of the protesters (Protestant) princes, monasteries and Catholic temples were closed, their lands switched to the hands of secular ruler.

The seizure of church lands and submission to the Church by secular ruler became inevitable. For these purposes, in 1555, a religious world was concluded in the empire, the principle of "whose power, that and faith" was adopted. He was supported even the faithful Catholicism of the princes.

The weakening of the positions and the influence of the Catholic Church was observed not only in Germany. Swiss church reformer, France Jean Calvin (1509-1564)created a doctrine that was gained great popularity in cities, especially in the environment of entrepreneurs. According to his views, if a person is lucky in life, in earthly affairs, in particular in trade and entrepreneurship, this is a sign indicating about God's favor. Moreover, a sign that, subject to righteous behavior, he will gain salvation of the soul. Calvinism rigidly regulated the daily life of a person. So, in Geneva, who made Calvin's views, entertainment, music, wearing fashionable clothes were prohibited.

Powered with the Catholic Church and England. The reason for this was the conflict between the dad and the king Heinrich VIII (1509-1547).Without receiving the resolution of Rome for divorce, he achieved in 1534 from the parliament of the adoption of the law, according to which a new institution was established in England, anglicanchurch. The chapter she was proclaimed the king. He passed the right to hold the reforms of the Church, to eradicate heresy, to prescribe priests. The monasteries were closed, the lands of the church were confiscated, the worship service began in English, the cult of saints and norms were abolished, requiring the clergy of adherence to celibacy.

The Catholic Church could not resist the ideas of the Reformation. The new tool of her politics became order of Jesuit,based Ignatius Loiol (1491-1556).The Order was built on the principles of tough discipline, its members gave vows of nonstusting, celibacy, obedience and unconditional obedience to dad. The basic principle of the Order was that any actions are justified if they serve as a true religion, i.e. Roman Catholic Church. Jesuits penetrated the structure of power, Protestant communities, sought to weaken them from the inside, detecting heretics. They created schools where preachers were preparing, capable of eleumous with supporters of the Reformation.

Called B. 1545 Tident Cathedralreaffirmed the main dogmas of the Catholic Church, condemned the principle of freedom of religion, tightened the requirements for compliance with the Catholic priests of the norms of righteous life. This cathedral laid the beginning of counter-reformation - the struggle of the Catholic Church for maintaining its influence. The extent of the activities of the Inquisition increased. So, it was regarded as the heretical teaching of the Polish astronomer N. Copernicus (1473-1543),proven that the Earth is not the center of the Universe. Inquisition sentenced him to burn his follower D. Bruno (1548-1600),who refused to renounce ideas expressed by him. A wave of persecution of witches, sorcerers, people accused of aiding unclean strength, heretical views rose.

Questions and tasks:

1. Name the prerequisites for the transition to manufactory production.

2. What types of manufactory do you know? What were their advantages over the medieval shops?

3. Determine the consequences of the spread of manufactory production in Europe.

4. Call the main features of the Renaissance man's worldview.

5. List the factors promoted the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe.

6. What are the creeds of the Reformation era do you know? What was in common in them, what is special? Why did the secular authorities of many countries support the reformation?

7. What significance had a counter-reformation? How has the policy of the Roman Catholic Church changed?

ReformationOne of the largest events of the World History, the name of which is denoted by a whole period of the new time, covering the XVI and the first half of the XVII century ("Reformation period", -). Although very often an event is called more definitely religious (or church) reformation, but in reality it was much wider importance, being an important point in both religious and political, cultural and social history of Western Europe.

The most term reformationwhich in the XVI century They began to denote almost exclusively church transformations, carried out at the time, initially, in the century, was attached at all to all kinds of state and public transformations; For example, in Germany, before the start of the reformation movement, the projects of such transformations were in a large way, which carried the names "Reformation of the Sigismund", "Reformation of Friedrich III", and so on.

Starting the history of the Reformation from the XVI century, we do some mistake: religious movements, the combination of which is the reformation, arose even earlier. Already reformers XVI century. They were aware that they had predecessors who sought to be the same, as they, and at present there are a whole literature on the predecessors of the Reformation. Separate XVI in reformers. From their predecessors, it is possible only from a purely conditional point of view, because those and others play the entire same role in the history of the age-old struggle with the Catholic Church in the name of cleaner religious principles. Since the protests against the damage of the Catholic Church began, and reformers appeared. All the difference was in a larger or less success of their sermon. Reformers XVI century. It was possible to turn whole nations from Rome, which their predecessors could not achieve.

Both in the Reformation Epoch and in the previous period, the reformation idea itself developed in the three main directions.

One can be called the direction Catholic, as it sought to reform the church, holding more or less firm church legend. This direction originated at the end of the XIV century, in the century an attempt to reform the "Church in Chapter and Members" through Councils (see Gallicanism), convened in the first half of the first half. In Pisa, Constanta and Basel. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe reform of the church through the cathedrals did not die after the failure of these attempts. With the beginning of the Reformation, she revived, and in the middle of the XVI century. There was a tried cathedral for reform (see).

Another direction that appeared not to the sacred legend, and mainly on the sacred writing, can be called biblical or evangelical. It is treated in the pre-formation era of such phenomena as the Waldense sect formed in the XII century. In the south of France, the preaching of the Wicklif in England in the XIV century, the Czech gousity of the end of the XIV and the first half century, as well as the single predecessors of the Reformation, like Lesel, Wessel, Goha, etc. in the XVI century. In addition, the biblical or evangelical area belongs to orthodox Protestantism, i.e., the teachings of Luther, Zwingli, Calvina and less significant reformers that put the sacred writer's reform.

The third direction is a mystical (and part of both rationalistic) sectarianism, which, on the one hand, more decisively than Protestantism broke the connection with the sacred tradition and often, except for the external revelation given in the Holy Scripture, believed in the revelation of the internal (or in general to a new revelation), And on the other, it was connected to social aspirations and almost never stood into large churches. This area includes, for example, in the XIII century. Sermon "Eternal Gospel", many mystical teachings of the Middle Ages, as well as some sects of that time (see sectarianism). In the reformation era, the mystical direction was represented by Anabaptists or Crosses, Independents, Quakers, and a sectarianism of rationalistic antitrinitarianism and Christian deishes was distinguished from the mystrial sectarianism of this epoch.

Thus, in the reformal motion of the XVI and XVII centuries. We distinguish three directions, of which each has its own antecedents in the outcome of the Middle Ages. This allows us, contrary to the purely protestant historians of the Reformation, connecting it exclusively with the direction of biblical, to speak, on the one hand, on the reformation of the Catholic (the term is already consumed in science), on the other - on the Reformation of the Sectant. If the Catholic Reformation was a reaction against Protestantism and sectarianism, in which the spirit of the Reformation was aggregated, the Protestant Reformation was also accompanied by a reaction against the Reformation of sectarian.

Reformation and humanism

Medieval Catholicism has not satisfy the spiritual needs of many individuals and even large or smaller groups of society, which, often not noticing, sought new forms of religious life. The inner decline of Catholicism (the so-called "damage of the church") was in perfect contradiction with a more developed religious consciousness and its moral and mental requests. The epoch, who directly preceded the Reformation, is unusually rich in the works of the attribunacle and satirical literature, in which the main object of indignation and ridicule were ruled by the morals and ignorance of clergy and monks. The papacy, dropping itself in public opinion in the XIV and BB. Depravity of the Avignon yard and the scandalous exposures of the greatest collapse, also made the subject of attacks in the literature. Many works of the then journalism, directed against the Catholic clearing, received historical fame ("praise nonsense" Erasm, "letters of dark people", etc.). The most developed contemporaries were indignant to the superstition and abuse of religion, rooted in the Roman Church: exaggerated ideas about the papal authorities ("Dad not only a simple person, but also God"), indulgens, pagan traits in the cult of Virgin Mary and Saints, excessive development of rituality due to Internal content of religion, Piae Fraudes ("pious deceptions"), etc. Cathedral reform of the church concerned only its organization and moral discipline; Protestantism and sectarianism also affected the most farewell, with the entire ritual side of religions.

The reasons for dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church lay, however, not in one damage it. The epoch, directly preceding the reformation, was the time of the final education of Western European nationalities and the emergence of national literature. Roman-Catholicism denied the national beginning in church life, but it has ever more and more felt. In the era of the great split, the nation was divided between the Roman and Avignon dads, and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Cathedral reform was closely related to the idea of \u200b\u200bindependence of national churches. In the Konstantsky Cathedral, the votes were filed by nations whose interests papacy was then skillfully disconnected the conclusion of concordates with separate nations. Nationality, especially exploited by Kuria, especially and were unhappy with Rome - (Germany, England). The idea of \u200b\u200bnational independence was in the course of the spiritual, who did not think about the disappearance from Rome (Gallikanism in France, "Church of the People" in Poland XVI century). The desire to read the Holy Scriptures and to make worship in his native language also played a role in the National Opposition of Rome. Hence the deeply national nature of the reformation of the XVI century.

The national aspirations also took advantage of the state power, which has taken care of the church and the desired independent existence. The question of the reform of the church gave the occasion to the states to interfere in church affairs and expand their power in the spiritual sphere. Viklikif and one time Gus enjoyed the patronage of secular power. Cathedrals of the first half in. Could be realized only through the innovative sovereign. The reformers themselves XVI century. Clause to secular power, inviting her to take the case of reform in their hands. The political opposition against the church relied on social, on the dissatisfaction of the secular estates by the privileged position of the clergy. The navalism with envy looked at the power and wealth of the clearing and was not against the secularization of church property, hoping to get rich at her expense, as it happened in the Reformation Epoch. In addition, it often protested against the wide competence of the church courts, against the severity of the tithe, etc., the citizens also occurred with the clergy of permanent clashes on legal and economic soil. In total, the peasants were more dissatisfied, over which the power of the bishops, the Abbatov, the Kapitulov, who owned settlements and serfs. Both the aristocratic and democratic opposition against the clergy played a prominent role in the origin of the reformation movement in different countries. From a fundamental point of view, all this opposition is not in the name of the divine, and in the name of the human principle of distinctive nationality, an independent state and an independent society could justify themselves in a different way.

Reformation in Germany

Reformation in Switzerland

R. in German Switzerland began simultaneously with R. German. Here, the teachings of Zwingli, spread and in Western Germany, did not receive such meaning there, which fell to the share of the Augsburg confession. Between both R. was a great difference: in comparison with Luther, theologian and mysticism, Zwingli was rather a humanist and rationalist, and the Swiss cantons, as opposed to most of the German lands, were republics. On the other hand, in both countries, a religious question was solved in the one or the other side by each principality, each Canton separately. In parallel with the case of church reform and under its banner and in Switzerland, purely political and social issues were solved. The Swiss Union, which emerged at the end of the XIII and the beginning of the XIV century, was gradually; The initial cantons (Schwitz, Uri, Unterwalden), and for them and those who were the oldest members of the Union (Zug, Bern, Lucerne, Glarus), enjoyed some privileges in it relatively to the subsequently joined. To the same favorable conditions, the cantons belonged to, by the way, Zurich. The political inequality of individual parts of the Swiss Union caused mutual displeascies. Another sick place of Swiss life was a meritorium; It made demoralization and in the ruling classes, and in the folk mass. Patricate, in the hands of which was power, enjoyed pensions and gifts of the sovereigns, who were looking for the Union with Switzerland, and traded his fellow citizens. Often, because of this, he was divided into hostile parties, as a result of the intrigue of foreign governments. On the other hand, in mercenaries, the serve to serve foreign sovereigns, disregard for labor developed, a passion for a light profit, an inclination to robbery. Finally, there was no guarantee against the Swiss mercenaries to fight in hostile armies. Church and political reforms were united in Switzerland in this way: the public elements who wanted change, namely the younger cantons and democratic classes of the population, while the old cantons (Schwitz, Uri, Unterwalden, Tsug, Lucerne, with Freiburg and Valis) and Patrician oligarchy fell on the protection of the old church and the former political device. Zwingley spoke immediately in the role and church, and the state reformer, he found an extremely unfair state of affairs, in which old cantons, small and ignorant, had the same meaning as large, powerful and educated cities; At the same time, he made a sermon against the mercenaries (see Zwingli). The reform Zwingli was adopted by Zurich, and from there it was distributed to other cantons: Bern (1528), Basel, St. Gallen, Shafgauzen (1529). In the Catholic Cantons, the persecution of Zwinglian began, the resistance of Catholics was suppressed in the evangelical. Both sides were looking for allies abroad: in 1529, the old cantons concluded an alliance with Habsburgs and with the Dukes of Larring and Savoy, reformed - with some imperial cities of Germany and with Philip Hessian. It was the first example of international treaties, which were based on religious relations. Zwingley and Philip Hessen had an even wider plan - to form a coalition against Karl V, which would include France and Venice. Zwingley saw the inevitability of the armed struggle and said that he should beat if you don't want to be broken. In 1529, the hostile parties were concluded between hostile parties (in Kappele). "Since the Word of God and Faith is not such things to be forced," the religious issue was provided to the free discretion of individual cantons; In the possessions that were under common allied management, each community had to solve the issue of his religion; The reformat preaching in the Catholic cantons was not allowed. In 1531, a civil war broke out in Switzerland: Zurihetsi were defeated at Cappel, and Zwingley himself fell in this battle. Under the agreement of 1529, the Catholic cantons were forced to abandon foreign unions and pay military costs; Now this condition was supposed to be subordinate to the reformed, but the ruling decision retained its strength. Zwingley did not have time to give their reform completely complete species. In general, Zwinglian R. received a more radical character than R. Lutheran. Zwingley destroyed everything that was not based on St. Scripture; Luther kept everything that St. Scripture did not directly contradicted. This was expressed, for example, in a cult, which is much easier in Zwingleanism than in Lutherancy. Much freer than Luther, Zwingli interpreted and St. Scripture, applying techniques that were in the go in humanistic science, and recognizing broader rights for the human mind. The basis of the church device was laid by Zwingleanism the principle of community self-government, unlike the Lutheran Church, submitted to the princely consistory and office. The purpose of Zwingli was to call for the primitive forms of the Christian community; For him, the Church is a society of believers who do not have a special spiritual authority. The rights belonging to the dad and hierarchy Catholicism were transferred to Zwingley not on princes, like Luther, but to the whole community; He even gives her the right to displace the secular (election) power if the latter requires something to be nasty God. In 1528, Zwingley established the Synod, in the form of periodic collections of the clergy, for which deputies from parishes or communities were allowed, to complain about the doctrine or behavior of their shepherds. Synod was also solved by various issues of church life, and new preachers were tested and appointed. Such an institution was established in other evangelical cities. Allied evangelical congresses were also formed, as she had little to get into the custom to solve general questions with meetings of the best theologians and preachers. This synodally representative department was excellent from the consistor and bureaucratic, established in the Lutheran principalities of Germany. However, in Zwingleania, secular power, in the face of urban councils, received actually broad rights in religious affairs, and religious freedom was not recognized as a separate person, and for a whole community. It can be said that Zwinglyanskaya R. transmitted to the Republican state the same rights over a separate person who transferred Lutheran to the monarchical state. Zurich authorities, for example, not only introduced the Zwinglian dogma and worship, but also forbade preaching against the items adopted by them; They armed against the anabaptist sermons and became exile, imprisonment and even executions to pursue the sectors. Further development received the Swiss R. in Geneva, where Protestantism penetrated from German cantons and where he caused a whole political revolution (see Geneva). In 1536-38 and 1541-64. Calvin lived in Geneva (see), who gave a new organization of the local church and made the main stronghold of Protestantism from Geneva. Hence Calvinism (see) has spread to many countries.

Reformation in Prussia and Livonia

Beyond Germany and Switzerland R. Previously all was adopted by the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order (see), Albrecht Brandenburg (see), who in 1525 secularized ordinance possessions, turning them into the secular duchy of Prussian (see), and introducing Lutheran R. From Prussia R. penetrated the livonia (see).

Reformation in Scandinavian countries

In the 20s of the XVI century. Lutheranism began to be approved in Denmark (see) and Sweden. And there, and here R. was connected to political coup. The Danish king of Christians II, under the rule of which all Scandinavian states were connected, with extreme displeasure, looked at the independence and power of the Danish Church and conceived to take advantage of R. in the interests of royal power. Being related to Kurfürst Saxon and find sympathy in the circle of persons who were on the side of Luther, he sent the rector of one of Copenhagen schools to Wittenberg, with the instructions to choose preachers for Denmark. Soon after that, arrived in Copenhagen Lutheran preachers and began to distribute a new teaching. Christians II issued a decree, forbidden to pay attention to Pappa Bulla against Luther (1520), and even invited to Copenhagen Carlstadt. When the uprising occurred in Denmark and the Christians were deprived of power, elected in his place (1523), under the name of Friedrich I, the Duke of Schleswig-Golucket, pledged to not allow Luther's preaching churches; But already in 1526, the new king opened against himself the displeasure of the clergy by non-compliance with the posts and issuing his daughter to marry the Duke of Prussian, who had just changed faith and the secularized possession of the Teutonic Order. In the Sejm in Odense (1526-27), Friedrich I invited the clergy to receive a statement in the spiritual Senal and the pleate of Pope not from Pope, but from the Archbishop of Denmark, and make money to the state treasury, before sending to Roman Chicken; The nobility added to this requirement not to give up the land on bail or to the use of churches and monasteries. Bishops, for their part, expressed the desire to be given to them the right to punish retreating from Catholic dogmas. The king did not agree to this, saying that "faith is free" and that it is impossible to "make anyone else to believe in one way or another." Soon, Friedrich I began to appoint to the Episcopal posts to him. In 1529, Protestantism was established in the capital itself. Frederick I managed to take advantage of the mood of the parties to become Mr. Position. He began to give liably possession of the nobles of the monasteries, who raped the monks from them, but at the same time did not give a lot of will with new preachers, fearing the mood of the lower classes of the population, continuing to Christian II. So the full introduction of R. was prepared in Denmark, held after the death of Friedrich I. In Sweden, Gustav Vaz was erected to the throne of the people's movement, when the Swedes had already appeared their preachers of Lutheranism - Oli and Lawrence Petersen and Lavrent Atherson. Gustav Vaz, who thought about the secularization of church lands, began to provide the patronage of Lutherans, began, besides the dad, to appoint to bishop places and instructed Swedish reformers to make the Bible translation. In 1527, he convened in Westeros by the Sejm, with representatives of the urban and peasant class, and demanded, first of all, the increase in state treasury. Having met the opposition, he announced that he was repeated from the throne. Between the estates began to be laid; The case ended in that they agreed to innovations, which King demanded, sacrifting him by the clergy. Bishops were imputed to the duty to help the king of money and give him his castles and fortresses; At the disposal of the king, all church property remained for the remuneration of spiritual persons; The royal official was delivered over the monasteries, who was supposed to take over income from their estates in the treasury and determine the number of people. For their promotion, the noblemen was rewarded with church and monastic Lena, who were departed from them after 1454. At first, the king was content with part of the income from the church lands, but then he imposed heavier fees on them, starting, at the same time, to appoint priests in addition to the bishops and banned the latter ( 1533) Make any reform in the church without its consent. In conclusion, he introduced a new system of the church device in Sweden, establishing the position of the royal order and superintendant in Sweden, with the right to appoint and replace the spiritual persons and the audit of church institutions, not excluding the bishops (the position of the bishops was preserved, but they were limited by consistory; bishops remained and members of the Seima). R. was introduced in Sweden with peaceful means, and no one was for faith of execution; Even very rarely subjected to removal from posts. When, however, severe taxes aroused displeasure in the people, some spiritual faces and nobles took advantage of this to raise the rebellion, but he was soon depressed. From Sweden, Lutheranism passed into Finland.

Reformation in England

In the footsteps of the Kings of the Danish and Swedish, the king of English soon went. Already in the late middle ages, there was a strong national, political and social opposition against the Church, manifested in parliament, but held back by the government, which tried to live in the world with Rome. In some circles, it happened from the XIV century. and religious fermentation (see Lollarda). Were in England at the very beginning of the XVI century. and real predecessors R. (for example, rolling; see). When R. began in Germany and Sweden, Henry VIII reigned in England, who was extremely hostile to the new "heresy"; But a quarrel with dad because of a divorce with his wife pushed him on the path R. (see Heinrich VII I). However, with Henrich VIII, the rejection of England from Rome did not accompanounce any clear idea about R. Church: there was no man in the country who could play the role of Luther, Zwingli or Calvin. People who helped Henry VIII in his church politics - Foma Cromwell and Cranemer, the first as Chancellor, the second as the Archbishop of Canterbury, were deprived of a creative idea and had a circle of persons who would clearly understand the goals and means of religious reform. The king himself first thought only about the restriction of papal authorities in legal and financial relations. The first attempts in this sense were made in 1529-1530, when the parliamentary statute was prohibited by the spiritual persons to acquire papal dispensations and licenses for the connection of several benefits and the residence is not at the place of their ministry. Soon, annata were destroyed and it was announced that in the case of a papal interdict, no one had to lead it into execution. Parliament, in 1532-33, determined that England is an independent kingdom, the king is the Supreme Head in the affairs of secular, and for religious affairs it is enough of her own clergy. The Parliament of the 25th year of the reign of Heinrich VIII decided that the opposing dad should not be considered a heretic, canceled the appeals to Pope and destroyed all his influence on the appointment of archbishops and bishops in England. Asked (1534) on this issue, Oxford and Cambridge universities replied that according to St. Scripture, the Roman bishop does not have any special power in England. The church assembly of the districts of Canterbury and York city was decided in the same sense; Similar statements were made by individual bishops, capitals, deans, priors, etc. In 1536, the parliament directly forbade, under the fear of punishment, to defend the papal jurisdiction in England. Instead of prayer for dad, a petition was introduced: "AB Episcopi Romani Tyrannide Libera Nos, Domine!" On the other hand, in 1531, Henry VIII demanded that he demanded that he was recognized as "the only patron and the Supreme Head of the Church and Clear in England." Convocation of the Canterbury District was confused by this requirement and only after a long fluctuations agreed to recognize the King of the tread, Mr. and even how much the law of Christ, the head of the Church. The new reservation adopted a new royal title and york conservation, which said first that in secular affairs the king of the already chapter, in the spiritual departure of his disgusting Catholic faith. In 1534, the parliament, the act of supremacy (Act of Supremacy), announced that the king is the only Supreme Supreme on Earth, the head of the Anglican Church and should enjoy all titles, honors, advantages, privileges, jurisdiction and income peculiar to this rank; He is provided with the right and power to produce visiting, reform, correct, tamper and deliver misuse, heresy, abuse and riots. So, in England R. began schism; At first, in addition to changes in the head of the Church, everything else - dogmas, rites, church device - continued to remain Catholic. Soon, however, before the king, recognized as the head of the Church, opened the opportunity to reform religion and produce the secularization of monastic property. The latter produced a whole coup in the gramale and social relations of England. A significant part of confiscated estates was distributed by the King of the new nobility, it created a whole class of influential church change defenders. Archbishop Cranmer, sympathetic to Lutherancy, wanted to produce respectively changes in the Anglican Church, but neither the king nor the highest clergy discovered this tendency. In the reign of Henry VIII, four orders were published on what his subjects should believe: these were first of all the "ten articles" of 1536, then "the instruction of a Christian", or the Episcopa Book of the same year, hereinafter "six articles" 1539 . And finally, the "necessary teaching and instruction of a Christian" or the royal book of 1544. With all its grave to Catholic dogmas and rites, Heinrich VIII was not, however, permanent in his decisions: he was under the influence of opponents of the papacy (Cromwell, Pharmaceutical), then under the influence of secret papists (bishop of the Winchester Gardiner, Cardinal Field), and according to this, his views were changed, always found the support of the obedient parliament. In general, before the fall of Cromwell (executed in 1540), the royal policy had a more anticatolic nature, but "six articles" were strongly inclined to the Catholic concepts and institutions, authorizing monastic vows - after the destruction of monasteries. "Six articles" were introduced with such cruelty that they were called "bloody." Papists and real Protestants were pursued. With the successor of Heinrich VIII, Eduard VI, the final establishment of the Anglican Church occurred, accounted for the existing, with light changes, as it received about 1550. The rule of the king was saved, but "six articles" were canceled and replaced with new "articles of faith" (1552), to which it should also be added to the "General Service Manager" approved by the Parliament. The dogmatic teachings of the Anglican Church was approximately with a craneman to Lutheran, but with the queen Elizabeth in it were made changes in the Calvinistic sense. In general, the Anglican Church wears traces of compromise between Catholicism and Protestantism. In a short-term (1553-1558), the reign of Maria Bloody was made attempt to restore Catholicism, accompanied by a new religious terror. Her sister Elizabeth restored the church of his father and brother. Puritanism began to develop in her reign (see), from which sectarianism (future intedendents) began to be distinguished in eight years). Thus, in England near the Royal R., R. People's River occurred. The Anglican Church, when creating herchin VIII and Eduard VI, as in its restoration of Elizabeth, the motives of non-religious properties played the first role, under the well-known conditions could be made national, i.e., find support in the people could be established in his life as a state church ; But she was not "cleared" enough to satisfy real Protestants, was not so imbued with internal religiosity, to act on the mind and sense of a separate person. It was created rather to meet the well-known needs of the state than to meet the spiritual requests of the individual. Meanwhile, England at the end was also will be found by the religious movement of the century. Those whom Catholicism no longer satisfy, had to choose between an alarcianism and puritanism, between the church, in the foundation of which the well-known interests, convenience, benefits, rear thoughts were laid, and the church, which with an extraordinary sequence developed in their teaching and carried out the word in its device God, as the XVI reformers understood him. In politically, the Anglicanskaya R., obliged to his origin crown, received the value of a factor that has increased royal power. In addition to the fact that the king was made by the head of the Church, R. replaced the political power of the clearing by eliminating from the upper chamber of the Abbatov, who stood at the head of the monasteries, and distributing the secularized estates of a secular aristocracy at the time and put it in a greater dependence on the king (for the economic consequences of secularization, see This word). In Puritanism, on the contrary, the freedom-loving spirit of Calvinism, which faded in neighboring Scotland and on the mainland with royal absolutism. A decisive collision between the episcopal church and puritanism occurred in England in the XVII century, during the struggle of Stuarts with parliaments. The history of the English revolution is closely related to the history of the English R.

All considered R., except Swiss, had a monarchical character. In the second half of the XVI century. The scene is Calvinism, which in Scotland and in the Netherlands will defeat the Catholic Church, adopting a revolutionary nature.

Reformation in Scotland

The royal power in the Middle Ages was here weak: the feudal aristocracy was distinguished by the special spirit of independence, and the easiest people were penetrated by a feeling of freedom. The stuart dynasty reigning here was in constant struggle with his subjects. The Scottish Revolutions of the Reformation Period were only a continuation of the former uprisings; But with the statement of Calvinism, the struggle of the Scottles with the Royal Power received the religious nature of the war of the elected people of God with idolatry states and was accompanied by the assimilation of political ideas of Calvinism. In 1542, the Scottish king of Jacob V died, leaving the daughter of Maria just gone. The recent state was made by her mother Maria, from the famous French surname of Gizov. Once the life of Jacob V from Germany and England began to penetrate the Relief Teaching, but his followers at the same time began to pursue and execute. Many of them left their homeland; Including historian and poet George Bundan (see) and Professor theology of the Knox (see). When, during the regency of Mary Giz, Scotland led the war with England, the government called for the aid of the French army, and after the reflection of the English invasion he kept him in the country for the purposes of internal politics. In these years and spoke on the Scene of the Knox. Returning from Geneva in 1555, the NOCS found in Scotland already a lot of followers R. and among the nobles and the people. He began to preach the new teaching and organize his supporters for the general church life and for the fighting struggle. At the end of 1557, several Protestant nobles (among them the side brother of the Queen, subsequently, Count Murray) concluded among themselves "Covenant", obliged to renounce "from the hit of an antichrist with a vast superstition of him and idolosmid" in order to establish the evangelical community of Jesus Christ. With a religious motive, they were connected with political - the dissatisfaction with the regen, which, through the marriage of his daughter with the French Dofi, wanted to merge Scotland and France together and, following the French policy, began to oppress Protestants again. To this alliance began to join the masses; "Lords of the Congregation", as the initiators were called, demanded that the Government and the Parliament of the Restoration of the "divine form of the original church", worship in their native language on the Anglican "General Official" and the choice of priests arrives, bishops - nobility. Parliament did not agree to this; Recentsha, who has ceased to build his daughter in the English throne, united with supporters of the Catholic response on the continent to suppress the heresy and in Scotland. This forced Scottish Protestants to ask for help from Elizabeth (1559); The country began the stormy People's Republic of R., with an iconocringent character, with the destruction and looting of monasteries. Against the "Christ Congregation" the government exposed military power. It happened by civilianity in which France intervened; The British Queen for its part assisted the Covenaters, to whom some Scottish Catholics joined, fearing the domination of the French. "Lords and Communities of the Scottish Church" decided to take away the power of the regent; Knox made a memoir, in which he proved quotes from the Old Testament, which navigate the idolatry rulers is the case, pleasing to the Lord. Temporary government was formed; One of his members was NOCS. In 1560, the warring parties were reconciled: according to the Edinburgh Treaty, the French troops were derived from Scotland; Parliament (or, or rather, Convert), which consisted in the enormous majority of supporters R., introduced Calvinism in Scotland and produced the secularization of church property, distributing most of the confiscated lands between the nobles. The Scottish church, called the Presbyterian, borrowed from Geneva, the stern regime of Calvinism and put the clergy very highly, who managed it on his synod. Due to participation in the Scottish Reformation Movement of the Nobility, the Republican Organization of the Scottish Church was also distinguished by an aristocratic character. See Calvinism, Presbyterian, Maria Stewart.

Reformation in the Netherlands

In the Netherlands R. penetrated in the first half of the XVI century. From Germany, but Karl V, strictly observed here the Wormian Edict, suppressed the most cruel measures the launched Lutheran movement. In the fifties and sixties in the Netherlands, Calvinism began to quickly spread (see), at the time, as the political opposition against the refotism of Philippi II Spanish began. Little-inlets Netherlands R. turned into the Netherlands Revolution (see), which completed the foundation of the Dutch Republic (see).

Reformation in France

Protestantism appeared in France back in the first half of the XVI century, but the real reform movement began only in the fifties, and the French Protestants were Calvinists and got the name of Huguenots. The peculiarity of the French Reformation Movement in Social and Policy was that they were covered mainly nobility and to some extent the townspeople. Religious struggle accepted here the nature of the struggle against royal absolutism. It was a kind of feudal and municipal response, connected to an attempt to limit the royal power to the General States. In 1516, in Bologna Concordatu (see), Pope lost to the French king's right to appoint all higher church posts in the state, thereby subordinating the French Church of the Royal Power. When R. in other countries discovered its relationship with folk movements, Francis I armed against R., finding that it is dangerous in politically and "serves not so much dialing of souls as the shocks of states." And with him, and with his son Henry II, Protestants were greatly pursued, but their number grew. In 1555, there was only one rightly organized Calvinist community in France, and in 1559 there were already about 2 thousand them, and the Protestants collected their first synod (secret) in Paris. By the death of Henry II, with weak and unable to his successors, the royal power fell into decline than and the feudal and municipal elements took advantage to declare their claims connected with the ideas of Calvinism. But R. in France failed to win the victory over Catholicism, and the royal power eventually came out the winner from the political struggle. It is wonderful that Protestantism had an aristocratic character here, and the extreme democratic movement was under the banner of reaction Catholicism.

Reformation in Poland and Lithuania

In the Polish-Lithuanian state R. also ended in failure. She found sympathy only in the most wealthy and educated part of the gentry, and in cities with the German population. A struggle between the gentry and the clergy arose due to influence in the state, as well as due to church courts and tithing, the struggle, which was especially strong in the Sex of the middle of the XVI century, when the gentry chose mainly Protestant ambassadors. This gave temporary success to Protestantism, who favored the Indifference of the clergy, who dreamed of the National Church, with his cathedrals and the people in worship, but Zano-defending his privileges. The forces of Polish Protestants were, however, disconnected. Lutheranism, the Greater Poland gentry has been spread to the confession of the Czech brothers (Hussism), and Malopolskaya began to accept Calvinism; But in the environment of the Malopolian Church of the Helvietic Confession (see) in the sixties, an antitriinitarian split began. Royal power in Sigismund I strictly pursued the born; Sigismund II August treated them tolerantly, and even more than once was made attempts to push him on the path of Heinrich VIII. Polish gentry did not sympathize with Lutherancy for his German origin and his monarchical character; Calvinism was much more suitable for her aspirations, with its aristocratic-republican character and the permit to the church office of the secular element, in the face of Elders (seniors). Calvin entered into correspondence with the Poles, between which even the idea of \u200b\u200binviting him to Poland arose in the mid-fifties. As an organizer of the Church in Poland, the Poles invited their compatriot, Calvinist Yana Labo (see). The Shankhetsky character of the Polish R. is also the fact that the right to religious freedom, Polish Protestants output from their gentlehetics; Reforming the churches in their estates, the landowners forced the peasants to give them the tithe for themselves, which was previously introduced to the Catholic Clear, and demanded that their subjects attend Protestant worship. The rationalistic sectarianism in Poland also had an aristocratic character (see Socinianism). The greatest strength Polish R. reached the fifties and sixties of the XVI century in the fifties, and from the seventies a Catholic response begins. In Lithuania, R. had the same fate (about Protestantism in the North-Western Rus, see the article. Article).

Reformation in the Czech Republic and in Hungary

Both of these states at the very beginning of the Epoch of R. entered the power of the Dynasty of the Habsburgs, in the possessions of which, with two closest successors of Karl V, Protestantism spread almost unhindered. By the time of joining the throne of Rudolph II (1576), almost all the nobility and almost all the cities of the lower and Upper Austria confesses the Protestant faith; Protestants were a lot in Styria, Carinthia, extremely. Hussing in the Czech Republic was especially strong (see Pribunism), and in Hungary - Lutheranism among the German colonists (and partly among the Slavs) and Calvinism among Magyar, as a result of which he was called "Magyar faith." In both countries, Protestantism received a purely political organization. In the Czech Republic, by virtue of the "Majesty's Diplomas" (1609), Protestants had the right to choose 24 Defense devices, to convene their representatives to support the army and impose a grant for its content. This diploma Rudolph II gave Cezham to keep them towards himself, when the rest of his subjects were postponed from him: in the Habsburg possessions, as in other states, there was a struggle of the Zemskiy ranks with royal absolutism. Soon after the mutual relationship of the estates and the king was aggravated, and an uprising occurred in the Czech Republic, the former beginning of the thirty-year-old War (see), during which the Czechs have lost political freedom and have undergone a terrible Catholic reaction. The fate of Protestantism in Hungary was more favorable; He was not suppressed as in the Czech Republic, although Hungarian Protestants repeatedly had to withstand strong persecutions (see).

Reformation in Italy and Spain (with Portugal).

In South Romanese countries there were only single deposits from the Catholic Church, and R. did not receive political importance. In the thirties, among the Cardinals were people (Contari, Sadoolet), who were thinking about church reform and rewriting with Melanchton; Even in the curia there was a party, striving for reconciliation with Protestants; In 1538, a special commission was appointed to correct the church. The essay of "Del Beneficio del Cristo" was released in 1540, it was drawn up in the Protestant spirit. This movement was crushed by the reaction that began in the forties. In Spain, a connection with Germany, established due to the election of Karl V to the emperors, contributed to the spread of Luther's writings. In the middle of the XVI century. There were secret Protestant communities in Seville, Valladolid and some other places. In 1558, one of these Protestant communities was opened by the authorities. The Inquisition immediately made a lot of arrests, and Karl V, who was even alive then, demanded the most strict punishment guilty. The burning of the convicted inquisition of heretics took place in the presence of Philip II, his side brother of Don-Juan Austrian and son, Don Carlos. Even Primas Spanish, Archbishop Tolelsky Bartholomew Carranza, on the hands of which Karl V died, was arrested (1559) for the tendency to luterance, and only the papal intercession saved him from the fire. With such energetic measures at the very beginning of their reign, Philip II immediately "cleared" Spain from "heretics". Individual cases of persecution for disparation from Catholicism met, however, in the following years.

Religious Wars Reformation Epoch

Religious R. XVI century. caused a number of wars both internecine and international. For short and those who had a local character of religious wars in Switzerland and Germany (see above) at the end of the first half of the XVI century. The era of terrible religious wars, who received an international character - the epoch, covering the whole century (believing from the beginning of the Schmalkaldense war in 1546 to the Westphalian world in 1648) and disintegrating on the "Century" of Philip II of Spanish, the chief actor of the international reaction in the second Half XVI century, and the times of the thirty-year war, in the first half of the XVII century. At this time, the Catholics of individual countries stretch each other, imposing their hopes for powerful Spain; The Spanish King becomes at the head of the international reaction, using not only means that his huge monarchy delivered to him, but also the support of Catholic parties in individual countries, as well as the moral and monetary help of the papal throne. It forced both Protestants from different states to get closer to each other. Calvinists in Scotland, in France, in the Netherlands and English Puritans considered their own business; Queen Elizabeth has assisted to Protestants. Philip II's reaction attempts were repulsory. In 1588, his "invincible Armada" was wreking, sent to conquer England; In 1589, in France, Heinrich IV entered into the throne, the country and at the same time (1598) who gave freedom of religion to Protestants and concluded peace with Spain; Finally, the Netherlands successfully led the fight against Philip II and forced his successor to conclude a truce. Barely ended these wars, we tease the extreme West of Europe, as a new religious struggle began to prepare in another part of it. Heinrich IV, back in the eighties of the XVI century, who offered Elizaba the English device of the general Protestant Union, dreamed of him and at the end of his life, turning his eyes to Germany, where the parties between the Catholics and Protestants threatened civilian, but his death from the hand of Catholic fanatics (1610) put an end to his plans. At this time, due to the truce concluded for twelve years (1609), the war has just ceased between the Catholic Spain and Protestant Holland; In Germany, Protestant Seni (1608) and the Catholic League (1609) were already concluded (1609), which soon had to enter into an armed struggle. Then the war between Spain and Holland began again; In France, the Huguenotes produced a new uprising; In the northeast there was a struggle between Protestant Sweden and Catholic Poland, the king of which, Catholic Sigismund III (from the Swedish dynasty of the VAZ), having lost the Swedish crown, challenged the rights to her at the uncle of his Karl IX and his son Gustav Adolf, the future hero of the thirty-year war . Dreaming about the Catholic reaction in Sweden, Sigismund acted at the same time with Austria. Thus, in the international policy of the second half of the XVI and in the first half of the XVII centuries. We see the division of European states into two religious camps. Of these, the Catholic camp was larger and more aggressive character, at the head of which were Habsburg, first Spanish (at the time of Philip II), then Austrian (during the thirty-year war). If Philip II managed to break the resistance of the Netherlands, to acquire France for his home, and England with Scotland to turn into one Catholic British, - and those were his plans, if, a little later, the aspirations of Emperors Ferdinand II and III were carried out if Finally, Sigismund III coped with Sweden and with Moscow and used part of the Polish forces, which acted in Russia in the troubled time, to fight in the West of Europe in the interests of Catholicism, - the victory of the reaction would be complete; But Protestantism has defenders in the face of such sovereigns and politicians, what are Elizabeth English, Wilhelm Orange, Heinrich IV French, Gustav-Adolf Swedish, and in the face of entire peoples whose national independence threatened a Catholic response. The struggle took such a character as Scotland, in the reign of Mary Stewart, and England, with Elizabeth, and the Netherlands and Sweden, with Charlem IX and Gustaba Adolfe, had to defend their independence along with their religion, since the aspirations were dominated in a Catholic camp Political hegemony over Europe. Catholicism sought in international politics, to suppressing national independence; Protestantism, on the contrary, tied his business with the matter of national independence. Therefore, in general, the international struggle between Catholicism and Protestantism was the struggle between cultural response, absolutism and enslavement of nationalities, on the one hand, and cultural development, political freedom and national independence - on the other.

Catholic Reformation or Counterfeiting

The influence of R. on Catholicism is understood only in the sense of calling the reaction against a new religious movement. But with this counterfeiting (gegenreformation) or the Catholic reaction, the update of the Catholicism itself was connected, which makes it possible to talk about Catholic R.. When the reformation movement of the XVI century began, disorganization and demoralization were dominated in the Catholic Church. Many pushed in Protestantism the visible reluctance of the spiritual power to produce the most necessary transformations. R. found the old church completely surprised, as a result of which the organization of a Catholic reaction against R. could not immediately arise. In order to take advantage of the reaction mood caused by the extremes of movement, strengthen this mood, to rally the social forces inclined to it, to send them to one goal, the Catholic Church should have been subjected to some reform, opposing the "heresy" legal corrections. All this little and happened, since the forties of the XVI century, when the new Order of Jesuit (1540) was founded for the rescue of the reaction, the Supreme Inquisition Court in Rome (1542) was established, and a strict book censor was organized and the Trient Cathedral was convened (1545) which later produced Catholic R. The result was the Catholicism of the New Time. Before the start of R. Catholicism was something inquiry in official formalism; Now he got life and movement. It was not the church of the XIV and XV centuries, which could neither live nor die, but an active system that adapts to the circumstances encompassing the kings and peoples, all the lubricating, whom - despotism and tyranny, who indulgent tolerance and freedom; It was no longer a powerless institution that was looking for help from the outside, not finding sincere desire to correct and update, and a slim organization that began to use in society, she was re-educated, great authority and, whereby a fanatized masses, led them in the fight against Protestantism. Pedagogy and diplomacy were two great tools that had been transformed by the Church: to train a person and force it to serve someone else's goals so that she herself didn't notice it - these were two arts, especially those who had the main representatives of the revived Catholicism. The Catholic reaction has a long and complex history, the essence of which always and everywhere was the same. In cultural and social terms, it was the history of theological and clerical suppression of independent thought and public freedom - suppression, in which, with representatives of the revived and militant Catholicism, competed sometimes, but not with such jealousy and not with such success, representatives of Protestant intolerance and Protestant Rigorism. The political history of the Catholic response is reduced to the subordination of the internal and foreign policy by the reactionary direction, to the formation of a large international union of Catholic states, to initiate hostility against Protestant countries, even to interference in the internal affairs of these latter. To the main political forces of the reaction, Spain and Austria, Poland, which made the operating basis of the Catholic Church and against Orthodoxy, is joined from the outcome of the XVI century.

General historical importance of the Reformation

The general historical value of R. is enormous. The initial points of new religious systems were in full opposite with Catholicism. Church authority collided with individual freedom, a formal piety - with internal religiosity, traditional immobility - with the progressive development of reality; However, R. was often only a variety of form, and not a principle: for example, in many respects, Calvinism was only a vaccine from Catholicism. Often, the Reformation replaced one church authority in Faith's affairs to others in the same way, or the authority of secular power, determined for all mandatory external forms and, establishing the well-known principles of church life, was made in relation to these beginnings by the force of conservative, not allowing their further change. Thus, contrary to the basic principles of Protestantism, R. in fact, often maintained old cultural and social traditions. Protestantism, taken from the principle, was religious individualism and at the same time attempt to liberate the state from church guardianship. The latter was mostly achieved than holding an individualistic principle: the state was not only exempted from church guardianship, but himself subordinated to himself a church and even became to the place of the church in relation to his subject, directly contrary to the individualistic principle of R. His individualism and the liberation of the state from theocratic guardianship Protestantism converges with the Humanism of the Renaissance, in which individualistic and secularization aspirations were also strong. The common features of Renaissance and R. - the pursuit of the personality to create his own look at the world and critically treat traditional authorities, the liberation of life from ascetic requirements, the rehabilitation of the instincts of human nature, expressed in the denial of monastics and the clergy of the clergy, the emancipation of the state, the secularization of church property. Indifferent or too disassembly believed to religion Humanism turned out to be unable to develop an individualistic principle of freedom of conscience, born, albeit with great flour, reformation; R., in turn, turned out to be unable to understand the freedom of thought arising in humanism culture; Only later the synthesis of these heritals of Protestantism and humanism was accomplished. In his political literature, humanism did not develop the ideas of political freedom, which, on the contrary, defended Protestants in their writings (in the XVI century Calvinists, in XVII - Independents); Protestant political writers could not reduce the state life from religious coloring, as humanism did: and here only later the fusion of political views of the Reformation and Renaissance occurred. The religious and political freedom of new Europe is obliged to be predominantly Protestantism; The free thought and the secular nature of culture began on humanism. Particularly case is in particular. 1) Protestantism spawned the principle of freedom of conscience, although R. it did not fulfill it. The source point of the Reformation was a religious protest that was based on the moral conviction: all those who were made by Protestants on inner conviction often met the church from the Church and from the state, but courageously and even underponing martyrdom defended their freedom of conscience, removing her in the principle of religious life . In most cases, however, the principle of this in practice is distressed. Very often, the driven referred to him only in the types of self-defense, without having enough tolerance, so as not to be made by the persecutors of others, when it was possible, and thinking that, as owners of truth, they could force others to their recognition. By putting R. to the patronage of secular power, the reformers themselves passed to it the right of the old church over the individual conscience. Defending his faith, the Protestants refer not only to individual rights, as Luther did in the Wormsk Sejm, but mainly the obligation to more obey God than people; The same obedience was justified by their intolerant attitude towards the Neyno, which they equated to the insult of the Divine. Reformers recognized the right to punish the hereticals to punish the state, in which the secular power was completely converged, who seen in the retreat from the dominant religion to the disintegration of its velves. 2) R. disliked himself to freedom of thought, although he promoted its development. In general, R. theological authority was raised above the activities of human thought; The prosecution of rationalism was one of the strongest reformers in the eyes. Before the fear of heresy, they not only forgot the rights of someone else's conscience, but also denied the rights of their own mind. Meanwhile, the most protest reformers against the demand of the Catholic Church to believe, not arguing, concluded the recognition of famous rights in an individual understanding; It was highly illogical to recognize freedom of study, and for its results punish. An element of scientific research was included in theological classes more of those from humanists who were associated with interest to classic authors interest in St. Scripture and the Fathers of the Church and attached humanistic methods to theology. For Luther himself, the study of the Bible with the help of new techniques was a number of scientific discoveries. Therefore, despite the general principle of the subordination of the mind to the authority of St. Scripture, the need to interpret the latter demanded the activities of the mind, and rationalism, despite the enmity of the theologists and mystics, penetrated into the case of church reform. The freedomity of Italian humanists was rarely directed to religion, but seeking to free the mind from theological guardianship, they invented a special trick, arguing that the true in philosophy could be false in theology and vice versa. In the XVI century The thought headed mainly to solve religious issues, and the mystical idea about the inner revelation was only the predecessor of the later exercise, in which the most reason was the revelation of the Divine and was considered as a source of religious truth. 3) The mutual relations of the church and the state in Catholicism were understood in the sense of the first majority of the second. Now the church or is subject to the state (Lutheranism and Anglicism), or as if merged with him together (Calvinism), but in both cases the state has a confessional nature, and the church is a state institution. The principles of Catholic theocraticism and universalism were disturbed by the liberation of the state from the church and the report of it the nature of the institution of national political. Any connection between the church and the state rushed only in sectarianism. In general, we can say that R. gave the state the prevalence and even domination of the church, making the instrument of state power from the very religion. In whatever relations among themselves, neither the church and the state in Epoch R., in any case, these relations were a compound of religion and politics. All the difference was that the target was made and what is for the tool. If in the Middle Ages, the policy should usually serve the religion, then, on the contrary, in the new time it was very often forced to serve as politics. Some humanists already have (for example, Machiavelli) seen in the religion of a kind of Instrumentum Imperii. Catholic writers not without reason indicate that it was a return to the pagan state: in the Christian state, religion should not be a political means. The sectarians became the same point of view. The most creature of sectarianism did not allow it to organize in any state church, as a result of which it should have lead to a gradual separation of religion and politics. It is best that it was manifested in the English Independence of the XVII century, but the principle of separating the church from the state was fully implemented in the North American colonies of England, of which the United States arose. The separation of religion from politics led to non-interference of the state in beliefing its subjects. It was a logical conclusion from a sectarianism, which saw in religion primarily a matter of personal belief, and not an instrument of state-owned. From this point of view, religious freedom was an integral right personality, and it differs from the versoity arising from the concessions of the state, which itself determines the boundaries of these concessions. 4) Finally, R. had a great influence on the production and decision of social and political issues in the spirit of equality and freedom, although it also contributed to the opposite public trends. Mystical Anabaptism in Germany, Sweden and the Netherlands was a preaching of social equality; Rationalistic antitrinitarianism in Poland had the character aristocratic; Many Polish sectarians of the Shchaytsky title defended the right of true Christians to have "subjects" or slaves, referring to the Old Testament. Everything, in this case, depended on the medium in which the sectarianism developed. The same can be said about the political teachings of Protestants: Lutheranism and Anglicanism was distinguished by monarchical character, Zwingleanism and Calvinism - Republican. It is often said that Protestantism has always stood on the side of freedom, and Catholicism is always on the side of power. It is incorrect: the roles of Catholics and Protestants changed, depending on the circumstances, and the same principles that Calvinists justified their uprising against the "wicked" kings were in the go and Catholics when they dealt with sovereign heretics. This is observed at all in the Jesuit political literature, but it is particularly sharply manifested in France during religious wars. Of particular importance to understanding the further political development of Western Europe, the development of the ideas of democracy in the detailed political development of Western Europe. No Calvinists were inventors of this idea and they didn't develop it in the XVI century; But never until then, she did not receive such a theological substantiation and such practical influence (see monarchomaha). Calvinists (and in the XVII century. Independents) believed in its truth, while Jesuits, becoming at the same point of view, saw only one profitability under certain circumstances.

At the very last time, attempts at the historical literature began to determine the value of R. from an economic point of view: not only try to reduce R. to economic reasons, but also to bring economic consequences from it. These attempts make sense only as far as far as both phenomena, i.e., the interaction is recognized as a reformal motion and economic process. It is impossible to reduce the reform movement to one economic reasons or to attribute to it from well-known economic phenomena; It is impossible, for example, to explain only the transition to Protestantism the economic development of Holland and England or the triumph of Catholicism - the economic decline of Spain (as Macaoles did). Undoubtedly, however, the existence of communication between the facts of both categories. Historians have long been talking about the need to count, in which Europe costs religious fanaticism, separated by different parts of the same people or entire nations to hostile lags. It is asked: where did you get those huge material tools that allowed Western European sovereigns to collect big armies, equip huge fleets? The course of the history of R. in the West will undoubtedly be other without ambitious international clashes that have done in the XVI century. Possible only as a result of important changes in the cash economy. Further, the question of the relationship of the Religious R. with an economic history towards the class differences of the Western European Society of the XVI century is of particular interest. The reasons for dissatisfaction with the Catholic clergy and church orders that have had a very often economic nature (the depletion of the nobility, the severity of the tithing, the burdens of the peasants of defeats), were far unenoble in individual estates and classes for which the then society was decayed. If not the class interests themselves forced that or another part of the population to become a banner of one or another formula, as often observed in the reformation era, in any case, class differences had an impact, at least indirectly, on the formation of religious parties. So, for example, in the era of French religious wars, the Guenota Party had the character predominantly noble, and the Catholic league consisted mainly from urban mortage, while "politicians" (see) were mainly a wealthy bourgeoisie. In direct connection with the religious R. was the secularization of church property. In the hands of the clergy and monasteries focused on a huge number of populated estates, sometimes almost half of the entire territory. Where the secularization of church property was occurring, therefore, a whole agricultural revolution, which had important economic consequences. Due to the clergy and monasteries, it was presented mainly to the nobility with which the state power, which produced secularization was mostly shared by its prey. The secularization of church property coincided with two important processes in the social history of Western Europe. First, it happened everywhere the depletion of the noble class, which, looking for ways to fix their affairs, on the one hand, rushed into the peasant mass, as we see, for example, in Germany, in the era of the Great Peasant War, and on the other - it became hard to strive for Mastering the landing property of a clearing and monasteries. Secondly, at this time the transition began from the former, medieval form of farm to a new, designed for more extensive production. Old ways to extract income from the ground could be easier to be held where the property retained the former owners - and anywhere did not dominate economic conservatism, as in church lands. The transition of the latter to new owners inevitably was to promote the changes in economic nature. Church of R. helped here a process that was rooted in the economic sphere.

Historical and philosophical views on the reformation

The rough-confessional point of view of the first historians R. in our time gave way to more objective criticism. The main merit of the historical clarification of the entire era belongs, nevertheless, writers with Protestant or sympathetic Protestantism, as a well-known form of religious consciousness, and in general, the writers of the Catholic camp are in vain trying to shake their idea of \u200b\u200bR. in some cases, however, it is necessary to reckon with introduction and This part is the amendments, especially since the judgment of Protestant historians was often affected by biased views. The litigation between the two camps was transferred now to the new soil: before the dispute was about that on whose side the religious truth, whereas now they try to prove that R. promoted common cultural and social progress, others - that she slowed him. Thus, some non-confessional historical criterion for solving the issue of the value of R. In a number of essays of a historical and philosophical nature, an attempt was made to find out the historical meaning of R. without attitudes towards the internal truth or the falsity of Protestantism. And here, however, we meet with a one-sided attitude. Transferring to the past that look at the positive value of the knowledge with which the future hopes are connected to the future, it was easy to declare "organic" only the historical movement that manifested in the development of science to give a strong foundation for all areas of thought and life. Next to him, as the path clears him, another movement was delivered - a critical, destroyed by what could not be destroyed first in its weakness, but was referred to for the creation of a new one. From these two movements - an organic (positive, creative) and critical (negative, destructive), the third movement began to be distinguished - the "reform", as such, which only externally stands in hostile relations to the old order of things, but in reality it seeks only to transform an old Keeping the former content under new forms. From this point of view, the first movement is represented by the success of positive science, at first in the field of natural science and only much later in the field of human (cultural and social) relations, the second - the development of skepticism aimed at issues of distracted thought and real life, the third - the emergence and distribution Protestantism, which inherited from Catholicism hostile attitude to free thought. Many are prone, therefore, to see in the reformation movement more reactionary than progressive phenomenon. It is difficult to agree with that interpretation. First, it meant here only one mental development; Only in relation to it is recommended to evaluate the religious R., really accompanied by the fall of secular science and the development of theological intolerance. At the same time, other spheres of life are forgotten - moral, social and political, and R. played a different role in them, depending on the circumstances of the place and time. Secondly, beyond the reformation movement, in the era of his domination, the actual force could only have a critical movement, since the organic hardly emerged and, in its weakness and limitation, could not play a public role. Meanwhile, the critical movement had only a negative and destructive value; It was quite natural, so that, feeling the need for positive views and seeking to create new relations, people of the XVI and XVII centuries were to go under the banner of religious ideas, Protestant and sectarian. Religious R. XVI century. Sleepy cultural (by the way and scientific) movement of humanism, but humanistic morality, politics and science could not become the same force in wide circles of society and especially in the people's masses, which presented Protestant and sectarian movements at that time, could not To be such a force of both internal properties, on the extreme invertation of its own content, and on external conditions, on the inconsistency of their cultural state of society.

Literature

Historiography R. very extensive; There is no possibility to bring the title of all important essays, especially since the contemporaries of it began to write the story of R.. The only most important writings are named; For details, see "Lectures on the World History" Petrov (vol. III), in the writings of Lavissa and Rambo and in the "History of Western Europe in the New Time" (t. I and especially II) Kareeyev.

Reformation in general and individual sides of the question. Fisher, "The Reformation" (important in its bibliography of sources and benefits, but outdated); Merle D "Aubign é," Hist. De La Réformation AU XVI Siècl E "and" H. d. l. R. AU TEMPS DE CALVIN "; Georis (H Ä USSER)," History R. "; Laurent," La R é forme "(VIII T. His" Etudes Sur L "Histoire de L" Humanit é "); Bard ( Beard), "P. XVI in. In its attitude to new thinking and knowledge "; M. Carriere," Die Philosophische Weltanschauung der reformations ". See also essays on the history of the Church - Gieseler, Baur, Henke, Hagenbach (" reformationsGeschichte ") and Herzog," REALENCYCLOP ÄDIE FÜ R Protestantische Theologie ". Works on individual forms of Protestantism are indicated under the appropriate words. On the religious movements preceding R., see Nefele," ConciliengeSchichte "; Zimmermann," Die Kirchlichen Verfassungsk Ämpfe des XV Jahrh. "; Hü Ber," Die Constanzer Reformation UND DIE CONCORDATE VON 1418 "; V. Mikhailovsky," The main forerunners and predecessors R. "(in the Appendix to the Russian Transl. Od. Heiser); ULLMANN," REFORMATOREN VOR DERFORMATION "; Keller," Die Reformation und Die " ; Döllinger, "Beiträge Zur Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters"; ErbKam, "GE SCH. Der Protest. SEKTEN IM Zeitalter Der Reformation ". There are several writings specifically dedicated to the definition of mutual relations of humanism and R.: Nisard," Renaissance et r éforme "; Szujski," Odrodzenie I reformacya w Polsce "; Cornelius," Die Münsterischen Humanisten und Ihr Verhä Ltniss Zur reformation "and others. The same question is also considered in some common works (for Germany op. Gagen; see below) or in the biographies of humanists and reformers. Attempts to associate the history of R. with economic development, not given any major essay. Wed . Kautsky, "Thomas More", with extensive administration (translated into the "Northern Herald" for 1891); R. Vipper (Labor Company Oh Calvina), "Society, State, Culture in the West in the XVI century." ("Peace God, "1897); Rogers," T He Economic Interpretation of History "(Chapter" The Social Effects of Religions Movements "). On this issue, you can most expect from the history of secularization (see), which we barely become independently Develop. On the influence of R. on history Philosophy, ethical and political teachings, literature, etc., on the contrary, it was written a lot in general and special writings. Germany and German Switzerland: Ranke, "Deutsche Gesch. Im Zeitalter Der Reformation"; Hagen, "Deutschlands Liter. und Relig. Verhältnis SE Im Zeitalter Der Reformation "; Janssen," Geschichte des Deutschen Volkes Seit Dem Ausgange des Mittelalters "; Egelhaaf," Deutsche Gesch. IM XVI Jahrh. BIS ZUM AUGSBURGER RELIONSFRIEDEN "; BEZOLD," GESCH. Der Deutschen reformation "(in the collection of onken). Scandinavian states: Essays of History R. - in Op. Forsten," Fight due to domination in the Baltic Sea "; Munter," Kirchengesch. VON D ÄNEMARK "; Knös," Darstelung der Schwedischen Kirchenverfassung "; Weidling," Schwed. Gesch. Im Zeitalter Der Reformation ". England and Scotland: V. Sokolov," Reformation in England "; Weber," Gesch. der reformation von grossbritannien "; Maurenbrecher," England IM ReformationSzeitalter "; Hunt," Hist. Of the Relig. Thought in england from the reformation "; dorean," Origines du Schisme D "Angleterre"; Rudloff, "Gesch. Der Reformation in Schottland". See also the essays on the history of Puritanism in general and in particular Independent in England. Netherlands (except for essays in the Netherlands Revolution): Hoop Scheffer, "Gesch. Der Niederl. Ref ORATION"; Brandt, "Hist. Abregée De La Réformation Des Pays-Bas". France: DE-FELICE, "HIST. DES PROTESTANTS EN FRANCE"; Anquez, "Hist. Des Assemblées Politiques Des Prot. En France"; PUAUX, "HIST. DE LA RÉFORME FRANSAISE"; SOLDAN, "GESCH. DES PROTESTANTISMUS IN FRANKREICH"; VON POLLENZ, "GESCH. DES FRANZÖ S. CALVINISMUS"; Lucitsky, "Feudal aristocracy and Calvinists in France"; His, "Catholic League and Calvinists in France." See also Encyclopedia Haag, "La France Protestante". Poland and Lithuania: H. Lyutov, "Reformation History in Poland"; His, "Start a Catholic reaction and decay of the Reformation in Poland"; N. Kareyev, "Essay on the history of the reformation movement and the Catholic reaction in Poland"; Zhukovich, "Cardinal Gosiy and the Polish Church of His Time"; SZ UJSKI, "ODRODZENIE I REFORMACYA W POLSCE"; Zakrzewski, "Powstanie I Wzrost Reformacyi W Polsce". Czech Republic and Hungary (except for the essays about the gousity and the thirty-year war): Gindely, "Gesch. Der B Öhmischen Brüder"; Czerwenka, "Gesch. Der Evangel. Kirche in Böhmen"; Dénis, "FIN DE L" INDÉPENDANCE BOHê ME "; Lichtenberger," Gesch. Des Evangeliums in Ungarn "; Balogh," Gesch. Der Ungar.-Protestant. Kirche "; Palauzov," Reform and Catholic reaction in Hungary ". South-Romanese Countries: M" Crie, "Hist. Of the ProGress and OPPR Ession of the Edfformation in Italy"; His, "History R. in Spain"; COMBA, "STORIA DELLA RIFORMA IN ITALIA"; Wilkens, "Gesch. Des Spanischen Protestantismus IM XVI Jahrh. "; ERDMANN," DIE REFORMATION UND IHRE M ÄRTYRER IN ITALIEN "; CANTU," GLI ERETICI D "ITALIA". Counfood and Religious Wars: Maurenbrecher, "Gesch. Der Katholischen reform"; Philippson, "Les Origines du Catholicisme Moderne: La Contre-Révolution Ré Ligieuse"; Rank, "Roman Pope, their church and the state in the XVI and XVII centuries." See also writings on the history of the Inquisition, censorship, Jesuits, the Trient Cathedral and the thirty-year war; Fischer, "Geschichte der Ausw" Rtigen Politik Und Diplomatie Im Reformations-Zeitalter "; Laurent, "Les Guerres De Religion" (IX T. His "Etudes Sur L" Histoire de L "Humanité").

Used materials

• Encyclopedic dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron.

What are the creeds of the era of the Reformation do you know? What was in common in them, what is special? Why did the secular authorities of many countries support the reformation?

Answers:

catholicism, Protestania, Calvinism. General - Christian faith, the difference in rites and some dogmas. Protestants wanted to cleanse the church from stying and worldly power, sought to simplify rites and denied the power of Pope. Calvinists - the most radical wing of Protestants

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1. Name the prerequisites for the transition to manufactory production.

Backgrounds:

Colonial trade helped the trading capital to grow rapidly;

Due to this, new financial instruments appeared that facilitated business;

In an effort to obtain greater profits and with financial instruments, trading companies invested funds and production;

The workshop organization of the medieval craft prevented free capital reversal, which contributed to the emergence of its alternative;

Technical innovations also contributed to the appearance of manufactories (printing machine, blast furnace, etc.).

2. What types of manufactory do you know? What were their advantages over the medieval shops?

With scattered manufactory, merchants placed orders from a large number of urban and rural artisans, taking the purchase of raw materials and sales of finished products. This type of manufactory in the method of production did not differ from the workshop, but brings more profits to the merchant.

With mixed manufactory, the product was assembled simultaneously in several workshops. At the first stage, details were made in different workshops, at the final stage in a separate workshop, they were collected into a single product. This method of production required a great qualification only from the artisan who did the finished product, the details could make it less skilled colleagues. This method increased the massability of products, made it cheaper. But all the work still took place in the workshops, who submitted to the workshop charters.

With centralized manufactory, all production was carried out in one place. It turned out to be divided into many simple operations with which even unqualified workers could cope with who were not required for many years to teach skill. In addition, such production could be organized anywhere in the presence of the necessary capital, outside the city, outside the workshop restrictions. It was the centralized manufactory that made production much more mass, and the goods are cheaper, indicating the path to industrialization.

3. Determine the consequences of the spread of manufactory production in Europe.

Effects:

Gradually the goals were pushed into the background;

Increased production volumes;

Rose Assortment Product Released;

The desire to obtain the initial capital stimulated the development of commodity-money relations;

In society, the role of bankers and merchants, entrepreneurs appeared;

The desire of influential people to participate in the process (open manufactory themselves or supply raw materials themselves) often led to the further oppression of the poor, for example, to enhanced in England;

The number of people who replenished the ranks of hired workers

The unemployed poor have become socially dangerous;

Cities quickly developed, the role of urban class in the state grew;

Development Production and trade helped the emergence of uniform domestic markets, which strengthened the centralization of their countries;

It began to divide labor among countries and regions of Europe;

Manufactory prepared the demand for technical innovations in production, which contributed to the industrial revolution.

4. List the factors promoted the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe.

Numerous frequently implanted sins of the Catholic clergy;

Frankly political games of the papal throne, who did not have anything in common with faith;

Frank sale of church positions and indulgences;

An explicit weakening of the influence of Roman dads to the political life of Europe in connection with the emergence of centralized states.

5. What are the creeds of the Epoch of the Reformation Do you know? What was in common in them, what is special? Why did the secular authorities of many countries support the reformation?

Lutherancy denies the possibility of mediation between man and the Lord. According to this teaching, only repentance and faith can save the soul of man. At the same time, the clergy is allocated only the role of advisor in the interpretation of the sacred texts, but the believer must decide for itself. Lutheranism opposed the luxury of the Church, the monastic movement and minimized the number of church sacraments.

Zwingleanism went even further. It sought to clean faith from everything that does not find confirmation in the New Testament. Therefore, in particular, it denied church sacraments as such - they are not described in any of the books of the Holy Scriptures.

Calvinism also opposed monastics, luxury church, extra sacraments and the role of the clergy as an intermediary in a conversation of a man with God. However, Calvinism pays more attention to the predestination of man. The topic of predestination in Christianity, which comes from Augustine, was fully in this teaching. According to it, it was originally predetermined who was taken by paradise to whom the hell. A person does not know his destination, but God gives him tips, for example, in the form of success in affairs. Calvinism approves business activity, like any work, considering his godly business. A sin on the contrary is the idleness, like monks.

The monarchs often supported Protestantism to loosen the dad of the Roman or another monarch, who fought with Protestants. An important stimulus was also the withdrawal of church lands and other property, which passed to the secular authorities. Sometimes other motives played a role. For example, Henry VIII english attracted the idea to become the head of the new church. Among other things, he did not see another way to terminate his marriage, which was very striving.

6. What significance did the counterperformation? How has the policy of the Roman Catholic Church changed?

The counter-reformation officially began with the Thirtieth Cathedral of 1545. On the one hand, it tightened and systematized punitive measures against heretics. In particular, the authority of the Inquisition was expanded, the index of prohibited books was published and periodically updated - a list of books that could not be published and even read in Catholic countries. The Order of Jesuitov played a big role in this case with its famous principle about the purpose of justifying means.

But at the same time, the counterreformation marked and the beginning of the fight against the pouring by persecution. In response to the arguments of heretics, not only karas, but also counter-arguments were exhibited. In particular, Jesuits widely engaged in the formation of young people in order to direct this education in the right direction. It is this direction of counter-processing enriched European spiritual life in many of its manifestations. Baroque culture has grown in many ways.

Under the name of the Reformation, a major opposition movement against the medieval system of life, which has engulfed Western Europe at the beginning of the new time and expressed in the desire for radical transformations mainly in the religious sphere, which was the result of which there was a new creed - protestantism - in both of its forms: lutheran and reformat . Since medieval Catholicism was not only a creed, but also a whole system that dominated all manifestations of the historical life of Western European peoples, the Epoch of Reformation was accompanied by movements in favor of reforming and other parties to public life: political, social, economic, mental. Therefore, the reform movement, hugging all the XVI and the first half of the XVII centuries, was a phenomenon very complex and was determined by both the reasons for all countries and the special historical conditions of each people separately. All these reasons were combined in each country in a variety of way.

Jean Calvin, founder of Calvinist Reformation

The unrest, excited in the Reformation Epoch, ended on the continent of the religious and political struggle known as the Thirty-year war ended in the Westphalian world (1648). The religious reform, legalized by this world, was no longer an initial character. In a collision with the reality, followers of a new teaching more and more fell into contradictions, openly glowing with the initial reform slogans of freedom of conscience and secular culture. The dissatisfaction with the results of the religious reform, degenerating in its opposite, gave rise to a special course in the Reformation - numerous sectarianism (anabaptists, independents, leverlera et al.), striving for resolving on religious soil mainly social issues.

Leader of German Anabaptists Thomas Munzer

The era of the Reformation gave all parties to European life a new, different from the medieval direction, and laid the foundations of the modern structure of Western civilization. The correct assessment of the results of the Epoch of the Reformation is possible only taking into account not only its initial wonderful "Freedom-loving" slogans, but also the deficiencies approved by it on practice New Protestant socio-church system. The Reformation destroyed the religious unity of Western Europe, created several new influential churches and changed - not always for the best for the people of the side - the political and social stroke of the countries affected by it. Secularization in the era of the reformation of church estates is completely and next to resolve their powerful aristocrats who rolled the peasantry stronger than the previous one, and in England it was often massively drove him with the lands jew . The destroyed authority of the Pope was replaced by obsessed spiritual intolerance of Calvinist and Lutheran theorists. In the XVI-XVII and even in the next century, it is its narrow-mindedness far exceeded the so-called "medieval fanaticism". In most Catholic states of this time, constantly or temporarily existed (often very broad) tolerance for supporters of the Reformation, but it was not practically in any Protestant country for Catholics. The fierce extermination of the reformers of the subjects of Catholic "ID-owned" led to the death of many largest works of religious art, the most valuable monastic libraries. The era of the Reformation was accompanied by an essential coup in the economy. The old Christian religious principle "Manufacturing for a person" was replaced by other, in fact, atheistic - "man for production." Personality lost its former self-sufficient price. The rates of the Reformation Epoch (especially Calvinists) saw in it just a richness of a grand engineering mechanism, which worked for enrichment with such an energy and non-stop, that the material benefits did not reimburse the mental and spiritual losses arising from this.

Reformation Epoch Literature

Hagen. Literary and religious conditions in Germany in the Epoch of Reformation

Rank. History of Germany in the Epoch of Reformation

Egelhaf. History of Germany in the Epoch of Reformation

Hosisser. History of the Epoch Reformation

V. Mikhailovsky. On the harbingers and predecessors of the Reformation in the XIII and XIV centuries

Fisher. Reformation

Sokolov. Reformation in England

Maurenbrecher. England in the Reformation Epoch

Lucitsky. Feudal aristocracy and Calvinists in France

Erbam. The history of Protestant sects in the Reformation Epoch