The beginning of the technical era of the new time began a new stage of world history. The main part of humanity was no longer divided into separate autonomously developing civilizations, and formed a global society of closely interacting countries. In the end, even

Great geographical discoveries are the most important period in the history of mankind from the end of 15 to the middle of the 16th centuries. The brave discovers of Spain and Portugal opened new lands to the Western world, thereby putting the beginning of the development of new trade routes and connections between continents.

The beginning of the period of great geographical discoveries

Throughout the existence of the human race, many important discoveries were made, but called "Great" in history included only those that took place in the 16-17 centuries. The fact is that neither this time interval, none of it, none of the travelers and researchers could repeat the success of medieval discoverers.

A geographical discovery understands the finding of new, previously unknown geographical objects or patterns. It may be part of the Earth or a whole mainland, a water pool or a strait, about the existence of which cultural mankind did not suspect on Earth.

Fig. 1. Middle Ages.

But why are the great geographical discoveries of steel possible in the gap between 15 and 17th centuries?

• active development of various crafts and trade;
• growth of European cities;
• the need for precious metals is gold and silver;
• development of technical sciences and knowledge;
• serious discoveries in navigation, the appearance of essential navigation devices - astrolabia and compass;
• development of cartography.

The annoying fact became the catalyst for the great geographical discoveries that Constantinople in the Middle Ages was under the rule of Osmanov Turkov, who prevented the direct trade of European powers with India and China.

Great travelers and their geographical discoveries

If we consider the periodization of great geographical discoveries, then the first to the Western world new routes and endless possibilities, the Portuguese navigators became. They did not lag behind the British, Spaniards and Russians, who were also seen in the conquest of new lands, great prospects. Their names are forever entered the history of navigation.

• Bartolome Diash - The Portuguese navigator, who in 1488 in search of a convenient direction to India ran into Africa, opened the Cape of Good Hope and became the first European in the waters of the Indian Ocean.
• "It is with his name that the discovery in 1492 the whole continent - America is associated.

Fig. 2. Christopher Columbus.

• Vasco da Gama - Commander of the Portuguese expedition, to which in 1498 it was possible to pave a direct trading path from Europe to Asia.

For several years, from 1498 to 1502, Christopher Columbus, Alonso Oving, Amerigo Vespucci and many other northwesters from Spain and Portugal, was carefully investigated by the Northern Coast of South America. However, acquaintance with Western conquerors did not bring anything good to local residents - in pursuit of light profit, they showed themselves extremely aggressive and cruel.

• Vasaw Nunhens Balboa - In 1513, the brave Spaniard was first managed to cross Panaman's experiencing and open the Pacific Ocean.
• Fernan Magellan - The first person in history, who in 1519-1522 made a world tour, thus proving that the earth has a shape of a ball.
• Abel Tasman - opened the Western World Australia and New Zealand in 1642-1643.
• Semen Dezhnev - Russian traveler and landlord, who was able to find a strait connecting Asia with North America.

Results of great geographical discoveries

Great geographical discoveries significantly accelerated the transition from the Middle Ages to a new time, with its most important achievements and the flourishing of the majority of European states.

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Humanity otherwise looked at the world around the world, new horizons opened before scientists. This contributed to the development of natural sciences, which could not not affect the overall standard of living.

Europeans conquering new lands led to the formation and strengthening of colonial empires that became a powerful raw material base of the old world. There was a cultural exchange between civilizations in various fields, animals, plants, diseases, and even whole nations took place.

Fig. 3. Colonies of new light.

Geographical discoveries were continued after the 17th century, which made it possible to create a full map of the world.

What did we know?

When studying the theme "Great Geographic Discovers" under the program of grade 6 geography, we learned briefly about the great geographical discoveries, their meaning in world history. We also made a brief overview of the greatest personalities who managed to make important discoveries in the geography of the Earth.

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One of the first travelers for long distances was Athanasius Nikitin, which was committed in the 60s of the XV century. Travel from Russia (Tver) to India. His path for that time was unusually difficult. He had to survive a number of priests and dangers. In India, he lived for about three years.

In addition to Athanasius Nikitin, Nikitin went through Persia, recalculated the Black Sea and died on the way in Smolensk. A few notebooks were found in his army bag, in which ways were led. Subsequently, his record was published under the name "Going in three seas." They contain interesting descriptions of his travel and life of the population of India. The city of Kalinina (former Tver) in memory of their land was established a monument (Fig. 3).

Searches for the sea in India

Western European merchants with great benefits sold goods from India. Under India, people had a geography of Pony-Mali all East Asia, right up to China. For bright, pearls, elephant bone, the fabric paid gold. The gold-she was not enough in Europe, and the goods were very expensive. The mediators were delivered to the coast of the Mediterranean Sea from India - Arab merchants. In the XV century of the Earth in the east of the Mediterranean Sea, the Turks were enough - there was a huge Turkish Ottoman impeller. Turks did not miss shopping caravans, often robbed them. We needed a comfortable seaway from Europe to India, to the countries of the East. Searches for him and Europeans took up - first of all the lives of Portugal and Spain.

Portugal and Spain are in the south of Europe, Pyrenee Peninsula. This peninsula is washed and the Mediterranean Mo-Rem, and the Atlantic Ocean. For a long time he was under the rule of Arabs. In the XV century, the Arabs were expelled, and the Portuguese, pursuing them in Africa, began to make swimming off the coast of this mainland.

Heinrich, Prince of Portugal, received a nickname Maperplav-Tel. At the same time he did not swim anywhere. Heinrich organized maritime expeditions, collected information about distant countries, wanted old cards, was pretended to create new ones, the floor of the seaworthy school. Portuguese learned how to build new ships - three-person caravels. They were lightweight, quickly, could move under the paws and at the side, and yes, with the oncoming wind.

Expedition Bartolome Diash

Portuguese expeditions moved along Africa's Be-Regov Further Further. In 1488, Bartolome Diash was charged to the southern end of Africa. Two of his ships got into cruel storm - Storm at sea. Strong wind drove ships on the rocks. Despite the high waves, Diash turned from the shore to the open sea. For several days he sailed to the east, but the African coast was not visible. Diash understood that he reinforced Africa and reached the Indian Ocean! The rock, about which his ships almost crashed, was the southern tip of Africa. Diash called it cape Storms. When the sea - ki returned to Portugal, the king ordered to rename Cape Sturges in cape of Good Hope, Hope to reach India by sea.

Travel Columbus

In the XV century There were many maritime expeditions. The most outstanding of them is the Spanish Expedition of Christopher Columbus. In 1492, the members of the expedition on the three ships sailed from the Pyrenean Peninsula to search for the sea in a rich gold and spices of India. Understanding in the shag-likeness of the Earth, Columbus believed that, floating to the West across the Atlantic Ocean, you can reach the shores of Asia. After two-month swimming, the ships came to the east-rov of Central America. Travelers opened a lot of new lands.

Columbus made three more travels to America, but until the end of the life was confident that he visited India, and the islands opened to them are known as West-Indian (West Indian); The indigenous population is called Indians.

In the XIX century One of the republics of South America began to be called Colombia.

John Kabot's journey

News about the discoveries of the Columbum of the new lands quickly spread through Europe, it came to England. This country lies in the British Islands separated from Europe strait of La Mans. In 1497, British merchants were equipped and sent to the West an expedition to John Cabota, an Italian moved to Ang Liu. A small ship sailed in the Atlantic is much north of Kohlla Columbus. On the way, the sailors met huge shoals of cod and herring. Until now, the North Atlantic is the most important area of \u200b\u200bfishing of these fish species. John Cabot opened the island Newfoundland North America. Portuguese Maison-Teli opened cold harsh peninsula Labrador. So the Euro-Peytsy after five hundred years after the Viking again saw Northame-Rican lands. They were inhabited - Ameri-Canan Indians, dressed in animal skins, went ashore.

Travel Amerigo Vespucci

All new expeditions went from Spain to a new light. Hoping to get rich, find gold, to become the owners of new lands went to the West Spanish nobles and soldiers. The priests and the monks were floating together with them - to turn the Christian faith of the Indians, to increase the richness of the church. The Italian Amerigo Vespucci was a member of several Spanish and port-Tugal expeditions. He compiled a description of the coast of South America. This territory covered dense tropical forests, in which the "Brazil" tree grew with valuable red wood. Later, they began to call all the Portuguese lands in South America and the huge country appeared on them - Brazil.

Portuguese opening a comfortable bay, where, how it misunderstood, the mouth of a large river was located. It was in January, and the place was called Rio De-Janeiro - "January River". Now here is the largest city of Brazil.

Amerigo Vespucci wrote to Europe that again open lands most likely have nothing to do with Asia and are New World. On European maps drawn up during the first swimming through the Atlantic, they are named Earth Amerigo. This name has gradually gained in two huge mothers of new light - North America and South America.

John Cabota expedition financed Richard America's patron. There is a common beliement that the metric was named after him, and Vespucci has already taken a name on the name of the continent.

Expedition Vasco da Gama

First expedition (1497-1499)

In 1497, the Portuguese expedition of four ships led by Vasco da Gama I went to seek the way to India. The ships warked the cape of good hope, turned north and floated along the unknown oriental tarts of Africa. Unknown Ev-Ropites, but not the Arabs who had trading and military settlements on the shores. Taking on board the Arab Lotsmana - Marine Wiring, Vasco da Gama swam with him through the Indian Ocean, and then through the Arabian Sea to India. The Portuguese reached its West shores and with a burden of spices and jewels in 1499 returned to their homeland safely. The sea route from Europe to In Dia was opened. It was found that the Atlantic and Indium-Sky Oceans are connected to each other, they were applied to the map of Africa, Madagascar Island.

Opening of the Pacific Ocean (Vasco Balboa)

First World Travel (Magellan)

From 1519 to 1522 Expedition Fer-Nando Magellan Made a round melting for the first time. The crew of 265 people for 5 ships went from Spasi to South America. Having conceded her, the ships went into the ocean, which Magellan called quiet. Swimming continued in incredibly hard conditions.

On the islands near the shores of Southeast Azin, Magellan intervened in the distinction of local authorities and in one of the skits with the mea residents died. Only in 1522, 18 people on the same ship returned to their homeland.

Magellan's journey is the greatest Event of the XVI century. Ex-Fediya, going to the West, returned back from the east. This journey has established the presence of a single world ocean; It was of great importance for the next time, the knowledge of the knowledge of the Earth.

Second World Travel (Drake)

The second round-the-world swimming was made by the English Pi-Rat. Francis Drayk. In 1577-1580. Drake was proud that he, in contrast to Magellan, managed not only to start, but also to complete the swimming. In the XVI-XVII centuries, pirates, among which there were many English and French, robbed Spanish Su-Yes, hurried from America to Europe with expensive cargo. Pirates were sometimes divided into part with the English kings, to receive rewards and patronage.

A small ship Drake "Golden Lan" was attributed to the storm from Magellanov Strait south. In front of him lay the open sea. Drake realized that South America was over. Subsequently, the sahm wide and deep in the world of the shed between South America and Antarctica was called strait Drake.

Replying to Spanish colonies on the Pacific shore of South and Central America, Drake was afraid to return back by the old road, through Magellan Strait, where they could wait for the on-humped and angry Spaniards. He decided to get around from the north of North America, and when it failed, he returned to England through the quiet, Indian and Atlantic Oceans, completely encouraging the globe.

Searches for southern mainland

Opening Oceania

The Portuguese swam in India and to the islands of spices around the African mainland. Spanish ships were looking for ways to Asia, sailing from the west coast of America. Sailors of re-sequel Pacific Ocean, opening in the path of the island, which received the names of the islands Oceania. The navigaters often kept their on-touches in secret. Captain Torres opened the strait between new Guinea Island and lying south of Australia. Geographical Torresov Strait. Spanish authorities were classified from sailors.

Opening of Australia (Janzzon)

Portuguese and Dutch sailors at the end of the XVI - early XVII century landed on the shores of North and Western Austa Lii, amazing water and food reserves. At the same time, they did not think that they were going on the coast of the new mainland. So, the Dutchman Janzzon opened the North Coast of Australia, but, knowing nothing about Torres Strait, believed that this is part of the island of New GVI. In the XVII century, the Little European Country of Holland ( Netherlands) lying in Europe on the coast North Sea, I became a strong naval holding. Dutch ships swam through the Indian Ocean Probe-Skim Islands. Large island Java became the center of Dutch colonies.

Opening of New Zealand (Abel Tasman)

Europeans persistently searched for the South Mainland, shown on the ancient Ptolemy map. In 1642, Dutch Captain Abel Tasman was sent by the Governor Java in search of southern land. The sailor dreamed of waking up for the daughter of the governor, and he considered for the best send it to a dangerous swimming. Tasman floated Dale-ko south, opened a large island lying south of Australia, which was later named Tasmania. He described all the northern invented Australia of the smallest continent of the earth, named in the beginning of New Holland. Tasman first sailed along New Zealand, Having considered it the shores of the unknown southern mainland. The Dutch tried to keep these discoveries secret to other countries to capture newly open lands.

Conquest Siberia.

Dutch scientist Bernhardus Zarrenius in the XVII century in his work "Universal Geography" first allocated geography from the knowledge system, dividing it into common and regional. Vare Nius summed up the scientific results of the great geographical discoveries of the XV-XVI centuries., Posted the beginning of a modern look at the time of the request of the mainland and oceans on our planet. For the first time, it was proposed to distinguish five oceans: quiet, Atlantic, Indium-sky, North and South Arctic. Assume about traveling Athanasius Nikitina.

13. Great geographical discoveries and began new time in Western Europe.

By the XVI century. Manufacturing and trade reached a significant trade in Western Europe development, What caused the increase in money needs as a universal exchange agent. Metal money from gold and silver in Europe lacked. In addition, after decline in the XV century. Trade in the Mediterranean, the fall of Constantinople and the capture of the Turks of Front Asia and the Balkans, restoring the monopoly of Egyptian sultans on the Red Sea, the need to search for new sources of gold and silver, new trading paths even more increased. Under these conditions, the abolishing, universal thirst for money, new sources of rapid enrichment covered all segments of the population in Western Europe, which stimulated the search for new marine trade routes from Europe to Africa, India and East Asia.

Positive influenced on great geographical discoveries And those important improvements that were made at the time in the navigation and military business. For the XV century A new type of high-speed and lung sailboats was created - Karavel, spacious than those allowed to make large marine transitions. Significantly increased the safety of navigation due to the improvement of the compass, marine cards, devices and fixtures. There was great importance to improve firearms, muskets, pistols and guns appeared.

The first from West european countries that began searching for new sea routes to Africa, India and Asia, were Portugal and Spain. This was interested in the royal power of these countries, church, merchants and especially nobles. After the end of the war with Moors, Portuguese and Spanish nobles, who treated all types of activities, except for the war, remained essentially without affairs and very soon were in debts from urban rivochers. Therefore, the idea is to get rich in Africa or Asia for the mass of small noble nobles was especially tempting. It is from their environments that came in the XV - XVI centuries. Bold navigators, cruel conquers-conquistadors, greedy colonial officials. The merchants willingly gave money to these expeditions, as they hoped for mastering new trade routes and rapid enrichment. The Catholic Church consecrated conquistadors in the hope of increasing the number of believers, their land possessions and income. The royal authorities in Portugal and Spain in mastering new trade routes and colonies also seen a way out of the established acute lack of money. In addition, they sought to capture the numerous militant nobility of the idea discoveries New countries, because otherwise, it could easily use large feudals in the fight against the strengthening of royal power.

Considering that the trading paths on the Mediterranean Sea were captured by the Marine cities of the Republics of Italy by Venice and Genieta, in the Baltic Sea - the Union of Northern and Central German Cities - Gansa, the expansion of Portugal and Spain was possible only towards the Atlantic Ocean's unknown. Yes, and self geographical The position of the Pyrenean Peninsula, which nominated far to the West in this ocean, contributed to the direction of expansion of the Portuguese and Spaniards.

The first on the ocean paths were published by Portuguese, but first the development of the Atlantic took place slowly, for those who wish to get into the "sea of \u200b\u200bdarkness" were called europeans The Southern Part of the Atlantic Ocean, not known to them, was a bit. Gradually, the Portuguese captured in Africa one colony after another, and finally B. Diaz in 1487 reached the Cape of Good Hope, heated him and reached the Indian Ocean. However, his subordinates, referring to fatigue, refused to continue the navigation and B. Diaz was forced to return to Lisbon and without reaching the shores of India.

To complete the search for new ways to India around South Africa, the King of Portugal in the summer of 1497 prepared an expedition from four ships, headed by Vasco da Gama. The squadron warked Africa from the south and with the help of Arab Lotsmana on May 20, 1498 came to the Indian city of Calcutta, which was at that time one of the largest shopping cities of Asia. In September 1499, with less than a half team, but with the cargo of the spices of Vasco da Gama returned to Lisbon, where his return was solemnly celebrated.

With the opening of ways to India around Africa, the Portuguese very quickly mastered the marine trade of South and East Asia and began a cruel struggle against Arabs in the Indian Ocean, robbed and treated their ships. In1511, they captured the Malak Strait, began trading with China and Japan and went out to the Pacific Ocean.

So the sea route from Western Europe to India and East Asia was opened. From that time to the opening of the Suez Canal in November 1869, the sea route around South Africa was the main trading road from Europe to Asia.

In order to open the Western Way to India and Eastern Asia, on August 3, 1492, an expedition from three caravel under the leadership of Christopher Columbus was sent from Spain. Not wanting exacerbation of relations with Portugal, the real objects of this navigation were held first secret. 69 days after sailing, October 12, 1492, Karavella Columbus reached one of the islands of the Bahamas group, which were located near the coast of the new, not yet known to Europeans of the mainland. It is day that October 12, 1492 and is considered to be the day of the opening of America.

Total H.Columba made four expeditions to America during which he opened and explored Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and other Islands of the Caribbean Sea, the East Coast of Central America and Venezuela.

Until the end of his life, H. Columbus was confident that he had reached the shores of East Asia, the wealth of which was so dreamed of Spanish kings, a Catholic church and nobles. It was not able to conclude that he opened a new, unknown mainland. H.Columb called the Earth Opened Earth, and the inhabitants - "Indians". Even during his last navigation, he wrote to Spain that Cuba is South China that the coast of Central America is part of the Malac Peninsula, which south from it should be a strait through which you can get to India.

The news of the discoveries of H. Columbus caused greater alarm in Portugal, the Portuguese even prepared a military expedition in order to capture the Earth's open H.Ch. Columbum. With the help of the Pope, Spain and Portugal agreed on the division of spheres of influence on new lands.

The opening of H.Columba contrary to the expectations gave Spain a bit of gold, and in the country there was a disappointment of his expeditions in the country. H. Columbus lost all his property, which went to pay the debts and everyone forgotten died in 1506

Contemporaries forgot the great navigator. Even open H.Ch. Columbus, they did not give his name, but the name of the Italian scientist Amerigo Vespucci, which in 1499 - 1504. He took part in the study of the shores of South America and whose letters were gained great popularity and fame in Europe. "These countries should be called new light," writing Amerigo Vespucci.

After H.Ch.Columb, many other conquistadors in search of gold, slaves and sharp seasonings expanded the colonial possessions of Spain in America. In 1508, they received a patent from the king to create colonies in America Spanish nobles, the colonization of Central America and Mexico began.

September 20, 1519 Five Karavel Fernanda Magellan sailed from the Spanish port of San Lucan in order to find South West way to the Pacific Ocean and achieve Asia from the West.

This navigation lasted three years and became the first in history around the world. F. Magellan found a southwest shed in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, who was later named after him, and in the spring of 1521 reached asia Western way.

Spanish conquistadors won and defeated the states of the Aztecs in Mexico, Incs in Peru, captured Guatemala, Honduras, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Portuguese - Brazil.

Despite the existing agreement between Portugal and Spain on the division of spheres influence On new lands, navigators and merchants of other Western European countries in search of wealth also began to penetrate the American continent. At the end of the XV century. The British and French navigators explored part of North America, and the Dutch in 1606 opened Australia.

So was open The new world and on the American continent were formed by the possessions of Spain and Portugal, which ceased independent development The peoples of this continent and marked the beginning of their colonial addiction. The main social economic The consequences were the following. 1. The colonial system began to develop, which accelerated the emergence of capitalist production in Western Europe and contributed to the accumulation of large funds from the bourgeoisie necessary for the organization of major capitalist enterprises. 2. Thanks to the bold expeditions of navigaters of many countries of Europe, Europe, Africa, America and Australia were related to the trade routes and began to develop the global market. His appearance has become another powerful impetus for the birth and development Capitalistic relations in Western Europe. The new world became the market for markets for Europe and the monopoly ownership of them ensured the rapid accumulation of capital in Western European countries.

3. There was a so-called price revolution, which was due to importation from America to Europe of a large amount of gold and silver. For the XVI century. Total Call of Coins, which appealed to West european countries increased more than 4 times. Such a large influx of relatively cheap gold and silver led to a sharp drop in their cost and strong (at 2 - 3 or more times) to increase prices for agricultural and industry products.

4. The "Revolution of Prices" contributed to strengthening the position of urban and rural bourgeoisie, the growth of their income. Large land owners were ruined - feudal, carried the loss of the poorest peasants and hired workers. 5. As a result great geographic discoveries Centre economical Life moved from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The Italian republic cities declined, new world trade centers - Lisbon, Seville and especially Antwerp were elevated. It was the last one that became the richest city in Europe, the World Trade and Financial Center.

Thus, as a result great geographic discoveries Separate countries of Western Europe were as favorable for development Capitalist production. Positively reflected geographic Proximity to the new sea routes of world trade and the fact that the Belarusian-Lithuanian and Moscow states covered Western Europe from the destructive Tatar-Mongol invasions. Great geographical discoveries accelerated the process of initial capital accumulation

Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of the new time in Western Europe.

the period of 15 -17 centuries, during which Europeans opened new lands and sea routes to Africa, America, Asia and Oceania in search of new trading partners and sources of goods who have been in great demand in Europe. Historians usually correlate "great geographical discoveries" with pioneer long-range marines of Portuguese and Spanish travelers in search of alternative trade routes in India for gold, silver and spices.

The Portuguese began a systematic study of the Atlantic Coast of Africa in 1418 under the auspices of Prince Henry, ultimately encouraging Africa and entering the Indian Ocean in 1488.

In 1492, in search of a trading route to Asia, Spanish monarchs approved the Plan of Christopher Columbus to go to the West across the Atlantic Ocean in search of Indium. He landed on the continent who was not applied on the maps, opening for Europeans "New Light", America. In order to prevent the conflict between Spain and Portugal, the Tordesillas Agreement was concluded, according to which the world was divided into two parts, where each Party received exclusive rights to the land opened by them.

In 1498, the Portuguese expedition under the leadership of Vasco da Gama was able to reach India, having encouraged Africa and opening a direct shopping path to Asia. Soon the Portuguese left even further to the east, reaching the "islands of the spices" in 1512 and landing in China a year later.

In 1522, the Expedition of Fernan Magellan, the Portuguese, held in the Spanish service, went to the West, making the world around the world around the world. In the meantime, Spanish conquistadors examined the American continent, and later some of the islands of the South of the Pacific Ocean.

In 1495, the French and the British and, a little later, the Dutch joined the race for the opening of new lands, throwing the challenge of the Iberian monopoly on the maritime trading paths and exploring new routes, first the northern, then through the Pacific Ocean around South America, but in the end, followed by Portuguese around Africa in the Indian Ocean; Opening Australia in 1606, New Zealand in 1642 and the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Meanwhile, from the 1580s to 1640s, Russian pioneers opened and conquered almost all of Siberia.

Great geographical discoveries contributed to the transition from the Middle Ages to a new time, together with the era of the revival and the rise of European national states. Cards of distant lands contributed to the development of humanistic worldview and expansion of the horizon, breeding a new era of scientific and intellectual curiosity. The promotion of Europeans to new lands led to the creation and lifting of colonial empires, when contacting between the old and new light, Columbus was exchanged. Exchange: moved on plants of plants, animals, food, whole nations (including slaves), infectious diseases, and was also cultured by Cultural. The exchange between civilizations, it was one of the most important stages of globalization in ecology, agriculture and culture in history. European discoveries (eng.) Russian. They continued after the era of great geographical discoveries, as a result of which the entire surface of the globe was applied to the cards, and distant civilizations were able to meet with each other.

Newest (or new history) - a period in the history of mankind, which is between the medieval and the latest times.

The concept of "New History" appeared in the European Historical and Philosophical Thought in the Renaissance Epoch as an element of a three-mended division of history on ancient, secondary and new ones proposed by Humanists. The criterion for the definition of "new time", his "novelty" compared to the previous era was, from the point of view of humanists, flewing in the Renaissance period secular science and culture, That is not a socio-economic, but a spiritual and cultural factor. However, this period is quite contrary to its content: high rebirth, reformation and humanism adjacent to the mass surge of irrationalism, the development of demonology, the phenomenon, which in the literature, the name "Witch Hunt".

Not all nations have entered this period at the same time.

Undoubtedly one: in this time cut occursthe emergence of a new civilization, a new system of relations, the Euro-centrist world, the "European Miracle" and the expansion of the European civilization to other areas of the world.

Periodization.

As a rule, in Soviet historiography, in the framework of the formational theory, its beginning was associated with the English revolution of the middle of the 17th century, which began in 1640. Among other events that are accepted as the original turn of the new time, call events related to the Reformation (1517), the discovery of the Spaniards in 1492 of the New World, the fall of Constantinople (1453) or even the beginning of the Great French Revolution (1789).

It is even more difficult to conclude with the definition of the end time of this period. In Soviet historiography, the point of view was undegraved, according to which the period of the new history ended in 1917, when a socialist revolution occurred in Russia. According to the most common modern point of view, consideration of events related to new time should be completed by the First World War (1914-1918).

The discussion on the periodization of the new story continues today.

At the same time, within the era of the new time, two sub-charge are usually distinguished, Napoleonic Wars are served by their border - from the Great French Revolution to the Vienna Congress.

Not only the submission of Europeans about the Earth suffered significant changes, but the place of the earth itself in the universe was revised - even more radical. In 1543, the book of Nikolai Copernicus "On Appeals of the Heavenship" was published from under the printed machine, in which the rejection of the Geocentric Ptolemy Geocentric System was proclaimed during almost one and a half thousand years.

Technique and production

An even greater impact on the daily life of people was the development of equipment at the turn of 15-16 centuries. One of the most important innovations of that time was typography. The invention and the introduction of simple, it would seem that technologies had a revolutionary effect on the rate of replication and dissemination of information, as well as its availability (printed books were much cheaper than handwritten). Johann Gutemberg is considered the inventor of typography. Approximately in 1440, he built his printing machine. It was possible to develop a stamp manufacturing technology (literator) not from wood, but from metal. And it was he who introduced the most important idea - a set of text from individual letters instead of manufacturing the board - stamp for the entire page.

With the onset of the new time, a manufactory type of production comes to replace the handicraft production of middle ages. In manufactories, labor remained manual, but unlike medieval workshops, a division of labor was introduced, due to which labor productivity increased significantly.

The development of mining and metallurgy was important.

Also from the XVI century for heating and in production, fossil coal began to be used.

Renaissance.

Revival, or Renaissance (Fr. Renaissance, Ital. Rinascimento; from "RI" - "again" or "re-born") - the epoch in the history of the culture of Europe, who has replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and the previous culture of the new time. The exemplary chronological framework of the era - the beginning of the Xiv is the last quarter of the XVI centuries and in some cases - the first decades of the XVII century (for example, in England and, especially in Spain).

The distinguishing feature of the Renaissance - the secular nature of culture and itsitropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, to man and its activities). There is an interest in ancient culture, there is a "revival", as it were, the term appeared.

General characteristics.

The growth of the city cities led to an increase in the influence of estates that did not participate in feudal relations: masters and artisans, merchants, bankers. All of them was alien to the hierarchical system of values \u200b\u200bcreated by the medieval, largely church culture, and its ascetic, humble spirit. This led to the emergence of humanism - the socio-philosophical movement, who considered man, his personality, his freedom, its active, creative activity as the highest value and criterion for assessing public institutions.

The cities began to occur secular centers of science and art, whose activities were outside the control of the church. The new worldview appealed to antiquity, seeing an example of humanistic, unequal relationships. The invention in the middle of the XV century of typography has played a huge role in the spread of ancient heritage and new views throughout Europe.

Revival emerged in Italy, where his first signs were noticeable in the XIII and XIV centuries (in the activities of the Pisano family, Jotto, Orcanya, etc.), but it was firmly established only from the 20s of the XV century. In France, Germany and other countries, this movement began significantly later. By the end of the XV century, it reached its highest heyday. In the XVI century, the crisis of the ideas of rebirth is brewing, the result of which is the emergence of manherism and baroque.

The reasons

The most common cause of the bourgeois revolution is the conflict between the new productive forces developing in the depths of the feudal system, and the feudal production relations (or their remnants, remnants), as well as feudal institutions, although this conflict is often unreliable for political and ideological contradictions.

driving forces

In the early bourgeois revolutions and some revolutions of the XIX century, the driving forces were the bourgeoisie and the peasants oppressed by feudalism, artisans, the developed working class. The leader, hegemon of the folk masses was a bourgeoisie, who was playing a revolutionary role then. Bourgeoisie fought against feudal property, but, being the owner herself, did not dare to cancel the private ownership of Earth. The most revolutionary force in the early bourgeois revolutions were the working "bottoms" of villages and cities. When they captured the initiative into their own hands, the bourgeois revolution sought the most significant success.

By the beginning of the XVII century. The English industry has achieved great success. New sectors developed. The decisive role passed to the manufactory. Dist dark peasants became workers manufactory.

England in the XVII century. It was at the crossroads of the main trading paths. Rightened the volume of trade with other countries.

A layer of feudal defendant in the English village began much earlier than in the city. Countryside was long and firmly connected not only with internal, but also with an external market. The first manufactories arose here.

Capitalism, winning increasingly strong positions in agriculture, industry and trade, has changed the structure (structure) of English society. New people put forward on the fore. A new class has been formed - nobles-gentry, entrepreneurs, merchants-merchants, prosperous farmers who owned significant capital, but were devoid of political power.

Thus, by the beginning of the XVII century. Feudal orders in England have become increasingly constrained by the development of industry, trade and agriculture. The whole land was considered the property of the king. The nobility should have paid a certain amount of money in the royal treasury during the transfer of land for inheritance or its sale. Nobles (they still called them knights) were considered the holders of the Royal Earth, and not her full owners. The obstacle on the way to turning the Earth from conditional, "by the will of the king" (feudal) property in the property of private (capitalist) was the Royal Power of the Stuart Dynasty (from 1603). The royal authority stood on the side of the old, who sobbing their feudal orders. Royal defeats, arbitrary taxes and fines, numerous constraints and prohibitions prevented the accumulation of capital in the hands of the bourgeoisie and "new nobles", limited trade freedom. The most suffered from the preservation of the feudal structure the peasants, artisans, workers manufactory.

The increase in taxes, the introduction of shavers and the obvious desire to rule without parliament, the foreign policy coming against the interests of the bourgeoisie and the "new" nobility, caused an increasingly loud and resolute protest of the opposition. The conflict between absolutism and parliament on the most important issues of internal and foreign policy was the main prerequisite for the revolution.

Capitalism again acts as an opponent and an active fighter against absolutism. However, in England, the royal power was somewhat stronger than in Holland.

In 1629, King Karl I dissolved in 1629. Parliament began to rule himself, putting the population with arbitrary charges and taxes.

1640 Karl I was forced to convene parliament. He was called "long" because Having gathered in the fall, he felt 12 years old. The opening day of his meetings (November 3, 1640) is considered the day of the beginning of the British revolution. The House of Communities consisted of representatives of the "New Nobility" and the bourgeoisie, the purpose of which was to end with feudal relations and put a decisive blow to the royal absolutism.

As a result of the revolution, feudal ownership of land was eliminated. New classes got access to public power. Freedom of industrial and commercial entrepreneurship was proclaimed, the main obstacles for economic lifting were eliminated. As a result, the volume of multi-sectoral manufactory production began to increase, which became dominant in the Industry of England. In terms of pace and scales, the English industry at the end of the XVIII Art. ranked first in Europe.

English revolution XVII century. It was the most important event of a new story. The revolution resolutely ended with feudal orders and this opened the space for the development of a new method of production and new public relations. Thus, the relationship of these events with the economic approach of England becomes obvious, the growth of its power on the seas and in colonies.

Alexander 1 and Nikolai 1.

Alexander 1 Rules 1801-1825, grandson of Catherine 2 and Son Paul 1 and Princess Mary Fedorovna, Rod. 1777. It was originally planned that the internal policy of Alexander 1 and the external policies will develop in accordance with the course scheduled yet Catherine 2. In the summer of June 24, 1801, a unlawful committee was created under Alexander 1. The associates of the young emperor were included in it. In fact, the Council was the highest (unofficial) deliberative body of Russia.

The beginning of the reign of the new emperor marked the liberal reforms of Alexander 1. The young ruler tried to give the country to the Constitution, change the political system of the country. However, he had a lot of opponents. This led to the creation of April 5, 1803 of the indispensable committee, whose members had the right to challenge the royal decrees. But, nevertheless, part of the peasants was released. Decree "On Free Bakery" saw the light on February 20, 1803.

Serious importance attached and learning. Reform Education Alexandra 1 actually led to the creation of a state education system. He headed her Ministry of Folk Enlightenment. Also, the State Council was formed under Alexander 1, which with great solemnity opened on January 1, 1810.

Next, during state Department Reforms Alexandra 1 actually ceasing its functioning of the board (established in the era of Peter 1) were replaced by ministries. In total, 8 ministries were established: internal affairs, finances, military and land forces, sea forces, commerce, folk education, foreign affairs, justice. The ministers who manage them submitted to Senate. Alexander's ministerial reform 1 ended in the summer of 1811.

Speransky MM Speransky M.M. was seriously influenced by He was instructed to develop state reform. According to the project of this outstanding figure in the country, a constitutional monarchy was to be created. The government of the sovereign was planned to be limited to the Parliament (or the body of this type), consisting of 2 chambers. However, due to the fact that the foreign policy of Alexander 1 was quite difficult, and tensions in relations with France constantly increased, the plan proposed by the Speransky reform plan was perceived as an anti-state. Speransky himself received a resignation in March 1812.

1812 became the hardest for Russia. But, the victory over Bonaparte significantly improved the authority of the emperor. It is worth noting that the peasant question under Alexander 1 slowly, but still tried to resolve. But the commissioning of the project was, due to many factors it is impossible.

IN policy internal It is worth noting such features like military settlements under Alexander 1. They are more famous called "Arakcheev". Settlements of Arakcheev caused discontent almost if the country's total population. Also, a ban on any secret societies was introduced. He began to act in 1822. The liberal board, which was dreamed of Alexander 1, a brief biography of which simply cannot accommodate all the facts, turned into rigid police measures of the post-war period.

The beginning of the permission of the question of serfdom, and arakcheevshchina, and the greatest victory over Napoleon. These are the results of the rule of Alexander 1.

Nicholas 1. Years of life (1796-1855), years of reign (1825-1855).

Nikolai - the third of the five sons of Emperor Paul I, so could not count on the throne. From an early age, he was fond of military affairs, prepared for a military career.

From the very beginning of the Board, Nikolai I declared the need for reforms and created the Committee on December 6, 1826 to prepare transformations. The "own His Majesty of the Office" began to play a major role in the state, which was constantly expanded by the creation of a variety of offices.

Nicholas I instructed the Special Commission under the direction of M.M. Speransky develop a new set of laws of the Russian Empire. By 1833, two publications were printed: "the complete collection of the laws of the Russian Empire", starting from the Cathedral Casting of 1649 and to the last decree of Alexander I, and the "Code of the current laws of the Russian Empire." The codification of laws conducted under Nicolae I streamlined Russian legislation, facilitated legal practice, but did not bring changes to the political and social structure of Russia.

The emperor Nicholas I in spirit was a dealer and an enemy of the introduction of the Constitution and Liberal Reforms in the country. The militancy of the state apparatus under the auspices of the monarch is the characteristic feature of the political regime of Nicholas I. The literature, art, enlightened, was taken to restrict periodic printing.

In social policy, Nicholas I did focus on strengthening the classroom. The nobility was acquired only by law inheritance. And for serviced people to create new classes - "fines", "famous", "honorable" citizens. In 1845, the emperor published the "Decree on Majoras" (indivisibility of noble estates inheritance).

The serfdom under Nicolae I was supported by the state, and the king signed a manifesto, in which he stated that there would be no changes in the position of serf peasants.

The most important parties to foreign policy during the reign of Nicholas I were a refund to the principles of the Holy Union (the struggle of Russia against revolutionary movements in Europe) and the Eastern question. Russia under Nicolae I participated in the Caucasian War (1817-1864), Russian-Persian War (1826-1828), Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829), as a result of which Russia joined the eastern part of Armenia , the entire Caucasus received the eastern shore of the Black Sea. During the reign of Nicholas I, the most memorable was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Russia was forced to fight against Turkey, England, France. During the siege of Sevastopol, Nicholas I suffered a defeat in the war and lost the right to have a naval base on the Black Sea.

The unsuccessful war showed the backwardness of Russia from advanced European countries and how long the conservative modernization of the empire turned out to be conservative.

Nicholas I died on February 18, 1855. Summing up the rules of Nicholas I, historians call him the era of the most disadvantaged in the history of Russia, starting with troubled time.

Peasant reform

And although, by canceling the serfdom, the autocracy was forced to go wrong with the desires of the nobility - their social support, the obvious impossibility of Russia to claim the role of the leading European power in the framework of the previous building was clear to Emperor Alexander II.

1857 - Secret Committee to prepare the reform. The nobles were invited to form provincial committees to discuss the conditions for the liberation of peasants.

On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed a manifesto prepared by the Chief Committee on the peasant business and the regulations on the peasants who came out of the fortress dependence. These documents read that the serfdom is canceled, and the former serf peasants are given the rights of "free rural ordinary people." The peasants for the land owned by him should have served a working service or pay money to the landowner, i.e. were on the position of the so-called "temporary". According to the conclusion of contracts ("statutory reference"), the dependence of the peasants from the landowner was completely eliminated, and the treasury paid to the landowners (interest securities) the cost of their lands that were departed under the peasant stationery. After that, the peasants had to pay off their duty to the state by the annual contributions of "redemption payments" for 49 years. Redemption payments and all grants The peasants paid together, the "world". Each peasant was "assigned" to his community and without the consent of the "World" could not leave it.

Administrative reformon January 1, 1864, by signing Alexander II provisions on provincial and county diseases institutions. In accordance with it, the Zemstvo was all-known electoral institutions. The elections in them were held once every 3 years on the basis of the property of the property in three Kuria - landowner, urban and rural peasant societies. Glazny collections chose the executive body - Zemstvo Government.

Zemstvo was not allowed to solve national issues, as well as to contacts with other deposits. Decisions of collections of vowels and Zemskoye administration could cancel the governor.

In 1870, the city situation was published, which introduced a discomfort local government in cities. The vowels of the city duma elected the urban head and members of the city council. The competence of self-government bodies in the cities corresponded to the competence of Zemstvo institutions in rural areas.

Judicial reform It was started in 1864 and introduced the progressive procedure for legal proceedings. According to it, the Russian court was founded on the principles of unconsciousness, the equality of the parties to the law, publicity, competition of the process, the independence of judges. Two types of vessels were introduced - world and general.

The world judges were chosen by the county Zemsky meeting and were approved by the Senate (Higher Judicial Institution). The competence of global courts included consideration of criminal and civil affairs damage for which no more than 500 rubles.

General courts considered serious civil and criminal cases with the participation of jury who were betrayed by lot from local inhabitants of all classes. At the top of the judicial system was the Senate, which could cancel the decisions of the courts.

The new word in the judicial system of Russia was also the introduction of the Institute of Advocate, held from the face of the Legal Education - "jury attorneys".

Start military reform It was found in 1857 by the abolition of military settlements. In 1874, a new charter was published on military service and an universal military duty was introduced. 6 year period of valid service in the army was established; The servers were credited for 9 years to the reserve (in the fleet, respectively - 7 years and 3 years).

In accordance with the principles university reform 1863 A new university charter was published, according to which Professor Corporations received broad self-government. The Council of each university elected all officials of the administration, as well as professors for vacant positions.

Reform of public education It was an integral part of social transformations. According to the laws of 1864, the selection of primary and secondary education was democratized. With the expansion of a network of educational institutions, education has become possible to children of all classes and religions, although for a fairly high fee.

Print reformit was conducted in 1862 and 1865. The temporary rules of 1865 canceled the preliminary censorship of periodicals, leaving the administrative authorities the right to close the publication through the court. Over the years of reform, the number of printing houses and items issued by their literature increased dramatically.

Civil War

Part of the scientists believes that the chronological framework of the civil war is October 1917 - October 1922. Others believe that it is more correctly called the date of commencement of the civil war of 1917, and endings - 1923.

There is no consensus about the causes of the civil war in Russia, as well as. But, among the most important reasons, scientists call:

Acceleration by the Bolsheviks of the Constituent Assembly;

The desire of the bolshevik authorities to keep it with any ways;

The willingness of all participants use violence as a way to resolve the conflict;

Signing in March 1918 of the Brest world with Germany;

The solution of the Bolsheviks of an acute agricultural issue, contrary to the interests of large landowners;

Nationalization of real estate, banks, means of production;

The activities of the products in the villages, which led to the exacerbation of the relations of the new power with the peasantry.

Scientists allocate 3 phases of the Civil War. The first stage has been launched from October 1917 to November 1918. This is the time to come to power of the Bolsheviks. From October 1917, individual armed clashes gradually pass into full-scale military actions. It is characteristic that the beginning of the civil war 1917 - 1922, unfolded against the background of a more large-scale military conflict - the First World War. This is exactly the main reason for the subsequent intervention of the Entente. It should be noted that each of the countries of the Entente had their reasons for participation in the intervention. So, Turkey wanted to establish himself in the Transcaucasia, France - to extend its influence on the North of Black Sea, Germany - on the Kola Peninsula, Japan was interested in Siberian territories. The aim of England and the United States was at the same time expanding their own spheres of influence and preventing German enhancement.

The second stage dates back to November 1918 - March 1920. It was at that time that the decisive events of the Civil War occurred. In connection with the cessation of hostilities at the fronts of the First World and Deviation of Germany, gradually combat operations in Russia lost intensity. But at the same time, it came to the fracture in favor of the Bolsheviks, who controlled most of the country.

The final stage in the Chronology of the Civil War lasted from March 1920 to October 1922. The hostilities of this period were carried out mainly on the outskirts of Russia (Soviet-Polish War, combat clashes in the Far East).

The end of the civil war was marked by the victory of the Bolsheviks. The most important cause of historians call wide support for the masses. It was seriously affected by the development of the situation and the fact that the countries weakened by the First World War, the countries of the Entente could not coordinate their actions and strike through the territory of the former Russian empire by all their might.

The results of the Civil War in Russia were terrifying. The country actually lay in ruins. Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus, Western Ukraine, Bessarabia and part of Armenia came out of Russia. The level of production in the country has fallen sharply

India

Events in India developed in the direction of the war. In 1917, under pressure from the mass national political movement, the Indian National Congress British government announced the "preparation of conditions for the creation of a responsible government in India", not mentioning the status of the dominion.

the relationship between the authorities and the people is also the case. The largest incident occurred in 1919, when the troops opened fire in the crowd in Amritsar. The greatest effect was reached by the campaign of non-violent resistance under the leadership of Congress and the religious leader of Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948). Protesters took the tactics of disobedience to the authorities, without having physical resistance. It turned out to be so effective that today is applied by demonstrators around the world.

Inner Smoot

The situation was complicated by the growth of distrust between the Hindus and Muslims, which in the 1920s. exploded a series of armed skins.

In the early 1930s. Muslims for the first time demanded to create a separate Islamic state if India would be provided with independence.

Act on the management of India of 1935, who gave local self-government to the Indian authorities. Congress refused to make concessions to the Muslim league, which represented the interests of the Islamic community, and separated by their abyss became even wider.

At midnight, from 14 to 15 August 1947, India and Pakistan became independent states, remaining as part of the British Commonwealth of Nations, as the old empire was now named.

Southeast Asia

At this, the retreat of the British was not stopped, and the independence of Burma and Ceylon soon gained (now Sri Lanka). In 1957, education was followed in 1963 of the Malay Federation.

In the neighboring Vietnam, the Communists headed a nationwide war against imperialism. The French tried to return to indocipate by the power of weapons, but were headwounds were broken in the battle of Dieenbien Fu (1954), and after their departure, the country was divided into the Communist North and pro-Western south. By attacking the partisans who acted with the blessings of the North, South Vietnam began to receive more and more wider assistance from the United States. So the terrible war began, which devastated Vietnam and inflicted America a heavy moral damage.

Africa

In Africa, with its backward economies and interpretable retail, the colonial rule could hold out much longer.

In 1957, Kwame Nkruum raised a powerful campaign of strikes and demonstrations on a western pattern, which forced Britain to provide the independence of the colony of the Golden Beach (current Ghana). The last imperial illusions of the metropolis were buried in 1956, when during the Suez crisis Britain and France tried to take possession of the Suez Canal, but under pressure from the United States were forced to get out of Egypt.

in I960, the British Prime Minister Harold McMilllan announced his intention to leave the Black Continent. By 1964, the independence of Nigeria, Tanganyik and Zanzibar, Uganda, Kenya, Northern Rodezia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) were obtained. The same wind change touched Jamaica and a number of other island colonies of the Caribbean.

France learn positions

For France, the process of decolonization proceeded much more painfully. In 1956, she reluctantly refused the Protectorate over Tunisia and Morocco, but Algeria and other colonies remained part of the metropolis. In 1954, the uprising of the local population broke out, it soon turned into something among the colonial insurgent and civil war.

De Gaulle goes on concessions

In 1958, the coup led the General de Gaulle to power. De Gaulle reconciled with the independence of Algeria and put an end to the colonial dominion of France in the extensive territories south of the Sahara.

Responding to the development of international events, Belgium, without any preparation, provided in I960, the freedom of Congo (Zaire), which is why this large and densely populated country immediately covered the bloody and civil war.

And only one colonial power did not want to take positions. Portugal, in which the rules of the opposite regime for a long time, laid tenaciously for his African colonies (Guinea, Angola, Mozambique), where the rebellious movement also gained strength. Only the victorious revolution of 1974 in the metropolis brought independence to the Portuguese colonies.

South Africa

The processes of decolonization in southern Africa, as in Algeria, were complicated by the presence of large communities of white settlers. In South Rhodesia (since 1964, Just Rhodesia, since its northern neighbor began to be called Zambia) The ruling white minority in Peak London proclaimed independence. Despite the harsh commercial embargo, Rodezia was held before the collapse of the economy pushed her to new negotiations and transformation into multinational Zimbabwe (1980).

The Republic of South Africa was an independent state, where the rule is a white minority. She also had his own colony - the former German possession of South-West Africa, transmitted to her at one time on the mandate of the League of Nations and who had independence under the name of Namibia only in 1990, when radical changes have occurred in the South Africa itself.

Production

Along with the traditional ways of improving production (mechanization, chemicalization, electrification), the latest developments of production are developing intensively in which six main directions can be distinguished:

1. electronization;
2. complex automation or introduction of robotics and the creation of flexible industrial systems, automatic plants;
3. restructuring of energy economy;
4. production of fundamentally new materials;
5. accelerated development of biotechnology;
6. cosmization and emergence of the aerospace industry

the transition from the usual (paper) to machine (computer) information began.

Russia in the 90s.

On November 6, 1991, Boris Yeltsin ceased the activities of the CPSU and the Communist Party of the RSFSR.

1992-1993 - the resignation of the first government of Russia and the constitutional crisis.

1993 - overclocking the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation.

1994-1996 - the first Chechen war.

On August 31, 1996, Khasavyurt agreements are accepted. The conclusion of federal troops from Chechnya begins.

1999-2000 - Second Chechen War

December 31, 1999 - Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin, the first president of the Russian Federation, resigned. Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin appointed acting president.

Collapse of the USSR

If we talk briefly the reasons for the collapse of the USSR are as follows:

A crisis provoked by the planned nature of the economy and led to the shortage of many consumer goods;

Unsuccessful, in many respects ill-conceived, reforms that led to a sharp deterioration in the standard of living;

Mass discontent in the population feeding food supply;

All intensifying rupture of living standards between citizens of the USSR and citizens of the countries of the capitalist camp;

Aggravation of national contradictions;

Weakening central power;