Five unusual substances with amazing properties. A dozen of unusual substances with unique properties on the planet ...
Most people can easily name three classic substances: liquid, solid and gaseous. Those who a little knows science will add to these three more plasma. But over time, scientists expanded the list of possible states of the substance over these four. In the process of this, we learned a lot about the large explosion, light swords and a secret state of a substance, hidden in a modest jury.
Amorphous solids are a rather interesting subgroup of a well-known solid state. In the usual solid object, the molecule is well organized and do not particularly have space for movement. This gives a solid high viscosity, which is a measure of fluidity resistance. Fluids, on the other hand, have an unorganized molecular structure, which allows them to flow, spread, change the shape and take the shape of the vessel in which they are located. Amorphous solids are somewhere between these two states. In the process of vitrification of the liquid, they are cooled and their viscosity increases to the moment when the substance is no longer flowing like a liquid, but its molecules remain unordered and do not take the crystalline structure as conventional solids.
The most common example of an amorphous solid is glass. For thousands of years, people made a glass of silicon dioxide. When glasswakes are cooled by silica from a liquid state, it actually does not solidify when the melting point falls below. When the temperature drops, the viscosity grows, the substance seems to be harder. However, its molecules are still unordered. And then the glass becomes amorphous and solid at the same time. This transition process allowed artisans to create beautiful and surreal glass structures.
What is the functional distinction between amorphous solids and the usual solid state? In everyday life it is not particularly noticeable. The glass seems completely solid until you study it at the molecular level. And the myth that the glass flows over time is not worth a broken penny. Most often, this myth is supported by the arguments that the old glass in churches seems thicker in the lower part, but is due to the imperfection of the glass-flow process at the time of creation of these glasses. However, to study amorphous solids like glass is interesting from a scientific point of view to study phase transitions and a molecular structure.
Supercritical fluids (fluids)
Most phase transitions occur at a certain temperature and pressure. It is well known that the temperature rise ultimately turns fluid to gas. Nevertheless, when the pressure increases along with the temperature, the fluid performs the jump in the kingdom of supercritical fluids, which have properties of both gas and liquids. For example, supercritical fluids can pass through solid bodies as gas, but can also act as a solvent as a liquid. Interestingly, supercritical fluid can be made more than gas or liquid, depending on the pressure combination and temperature. This allowed scientists to find many applications for supercritical fluids.
Although supercritical fluids are not as common as amorphous solids, you probably interact with them as often as with glass. Supercritical carbon dioxide loves brewing companies for its ability to act as a solvent when interacting with hop, and coffee companies use it for the production of better coffee without caffeine. Supercritical fluids were also used for more efficient hydrolysis and so that the power plants work at higher temperatures. In general, you are likely to use side products of supercritical fluids every day.
Degenerate gas
Although amorphous solids at least meet on the planet Earth, the degenerate substance is found only in certain types of stars. Degenerate gas exists when the external pressure of the substance is determined not by temperature, as on earth, but complex quantum principles, in particular the principle of Pauli. Because of this, the external pressure of the degenerate substance will be maintained, even if the temperature of the substance falls to absolute zero. Two main types of degenerate substance are known: electron-degenerate and neutron-degenerate substance.
Electronically degenerate substance exists mainly in white dwarfs. It is formed in the star core, when the mass of the substance around the kernel is trying to squeeze the kernel electrons to the lowest energy state. However, in accordance with the principle of Pauli, two identical particles cannot be in one energy state. Thus, the particles "repel" the substance around the core, creating pressure. This is possible only if the mass of the star is less than 1.44 mass of the sun. When the star exceeds this limit (known as the limit of chandrekar), it simply collapsing in a neutron star or in a black hole.
When a star collapses and becomes a neutron star, it has no more electron-degenerate substance, it consists of a neutron-degenerate substance. Since the neutron star is heavy, electrons merge with protons in its core, forming neutrons. Free neutrons (neutrons are not connected in the atomic nucleus) have a half-life of 10.3 minutes. But in the nucleus of the neutron star, the mass of the star allows neutrons to exist outside the cores, forming a neutron-degenerate substance.
Other exotic forms of the degenerate substance may also exist, including strange matter, which can exist in a rare form of quark stars. Quark stars are a stage between a neutron star and a black hole, where quarks in the kernel are unleashed and form broth from free quarks. We have not yet observed this type of stars, but physicists allow their existence.
Superfluidity
Let's go back to the ground to discuss superfluid liquids. Superfluch is a state of a substance that exists in certain isotopes of helium, rubidium and lithium cooled to almost absolute zero. This condition is similar to the condensate Bose - Einstein (Bose-Einstein condensate, BEK), for several differences. Some back superfuckers, and some superfluid states are back, but not all of them are identical.
Liquid helium is known for its superfluidity. When helium was cooled to the "Lambda point" in -270 degrees Celsius, part of the fluid becomes superfluid. If you cool most of the substances up to a certain point, the attraction between atoms is superior to thermal vibrations in the substance, allowing them to form a solid structure. But helium atoms interact with each other so weakly, which can remain liquid at a temperature of almost absolute zero. It turns out, at such a temperature, the characteristics of individual atoms overlap, generating strange properties of superfluidity.
Superfluch substances have no internal viscosity. Superflaking substances placed in a test tube begin to crawling up the sides of the test tube, it would seem that violating the laws of gravity and surface tension. Liquid helium is easily dried, because it can slip even through microscopic holes. Superfluch also has strange thermodynamic properties. In such a state, the substance has zero thermodynamic entropy and endless thermal conductivity. This means that two superfluch substances cannot be thermally different. If you add to the superfluid substance of heat, it will take it so quickly that heat waves are formed that are not characteristic of conventional liquids.
Condensate Bose - Einstein
Condensate Bose - Einstein is probably one of the most famous incomprehensible forms of matter. First, we need to understand what bosons and fermions are. Fermion is a particle with a half-spin (for example, an electron) or a composite particle (like a proton). These particles obey Pauli's principle, which allows you to exist electron-degenerate matter. Boson, however, has a complete whole spin, and one quantum state can take several bosons. Bosons include any particles of power carriers (like photons), as well as some atoms, including helium-4 and other gases. Elements in this category are known as bosomic atoms.
In the 1920s, Albert Einstein took the work of the Indian physics of Satylandra Nath Boz to offer a new form of matter. The original Einstein theory was that if you cool certain elementary gases to the temperature in the fraction of the degree above the absolute zero, their wave functions are somewhat, creating one "exhaust". Such a substance will exhibit quantum effects on the macroscopic level. But only in the 1990s the technologies needed to cool the elements to such temperatures appeared. In 1995, Eric Cornell's scientists and Karl Viman were able to combine 2000 atoms in Condensate Bose - Einstein, who was large enough to see it in a microscope.
Condensates Bose Einstein are closely related to superfluid substances, but also have their own set of unique properties. It is funny that the back can slow down the usual speed of light. In 1998, Harvard scientist Lena Hau was able to slow down the light to 60 kilometers per hour, passing the laser through a cigar-like BACK sample. In later experiments, the Hau group managed to completely stop light into the back, turning off the laser when the light passed through the sample. These opened a new field of communications based on light and quantum computing.
Metals Yana - Teller
Metals Yana - Teller is the newest child in the world of the state of matter, since scientists managed to successfully create them for the first time in 2015. If experiments are confirmed by other laboratories, these metals can change the world, as they have the properties of both the insulator and the superconductor.
Scientists led by a chemist Kosmas Prassedies experimented by introducing rubidium into the structure of carbon molecules-60 (in the simple people of well-known under fullerenes), which led to the fact that fullerenes take a new form. This metal is named after the Yana-Teller effect, which describes how pressure can change the geometric shape of molecules in new electronic configurations. In chemistry, pressure is achieved not only by compression of something, but also by adding new atoms or molecules to the previously existing structure, changing its basic properties.
When the study group of Prassedies began to add rubidium into carbon-60 molecules, carbon molecules changed from insulators to semiconductors. Nevertheless, due to the effect of Yana - Teller, the molecules tried to stay in the old configuration, which created a substance that was trying to be an insulator, but had the electrical properties of the superconductor. The transition between the insulator and the superconductor has never been considered until these experiments began.
Interestingly in Metal Yana - Teller's fact that they become superconductors at high temperatures (-135 degrees Celsius, and not at 243.2 degrees, as usual). It brings them to acceptable levels for mass production and experiments. If everything confirms, perhaps we will step closer to the creation of superconductors working at room temperature, which, in turn, will revolutionize in many branches of our life.
Photon substance
For many decades it was believed that photons are massless particles that do not interact with each other. Nevertheless, over the past few years, scholars Mit and Harvard have found new ways to "extradite" the light of mass - and even create "", which bounce apart and communicate together. Some counted that this is the first step towards creating a light sword.
Science of photon matter is a little more difficult, but it is quite possible to comprehend it. Scientists began to create photonic matter experimented with supercooled Rubidy gas. When the photon takes over the gas, it is reflected and interacts with rubidium molecules, losing energy and slowing down. In the end, the photon comes out of the clouds very slow.
Strange things begin to occur when you skip two photons through gas, which generates a phenomenon known as Rydberg's blockade. When an atom is excited by a photon, nearby atoms cannot be excited to the same extent. An excited atom is on the path of the photon. In order for the atom nearby to be excited by the second photon, the first photon should go through the gas. Photons usually do not interact with each other, but meeting with the blockade of Rydberg, they pushed each other through the gas, exchanging the energy and interacting with each other. Outside it seems that the photons have a mass and they act as a single molecule, although they actually remain massless. When photons come out of gas, they seem to be connected, like a light molecule.
The practical application of photon matter is still questionable, but it will definitely be found. Perhaps even in light swords.
Disordered spokenitude
Trying to determine whether the substance is in a new condition, scientists look at the structure of a substance, as well as its properties. In 2003, Salvator Torcvato and Frank Stilllinger from Princeton University proposed a new state of matter, known as disordered skewliness. Although this phrase looks like an oxymmer, at its base, it implies a new type of substance that seems unordered at closer examination, but overseas and structured from afar. Such a substance must have the properties of the crystal and liquid. At first glance, there are already in plasma and liquid hydrogen, but recently scientists have discovered a natural example where no one expected: in a chicken eye.
Chickens have five colums in the retina. Four detect color and one is responsible for light levels. However, in contrast to the human eye or hexagonal eyes of insects, these columns are dispersed by chance, do not have a real order. It happens because Kolkovka in the eye of chicken have the zones of alienation around, and they do not allow two columns of one type being near. Because of the zone of the alienation and shape of the colums, they cannot form ordered crystal structures (as in solids), but when all the columns are considered as one whole, it turns out that they have a highly ordered pattern, as can be seen on the princeton images below. Thus, we can describe these columns in the retina of chicken eyes as a liquid at closer looks and as a solid when viewed from afar. This is different from amorphous solids, which we talked above, since this spoken material will act as a liquid, and the amorphous solid body is not.
Scientists still investigate this new state of matter, since it, to everything else, can be more common than was considered initially. Now scientists of Princeton University are trying to adapt such spoken materials to create self-organizing structures and light detectors that react to light with a certain wavelength.
String networks
What state of the substance is the Space Vacuum? Most people do not think about it, but in the last ten years Xiao Gan-Wen from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Michael Levin from Harvard proposed a new state of a substance that could lead us to the discovery of fundamental particles after an electron.
The path to developing a string-network fluid model began in the mid-90s, when a group of scientists suggested that the so-called quasiparticles, which seemed to appear in the experiment, when the electrons were held between two semiconductors. Constratus originated, as quasiparticles acted as if they had a fractional charge, which seemed impossible for physics of that time. Scientists analyzed the data and suggested that the electron is not a fundamental particle of the universe and that there are fundamental particles that we have not yet found. This work brought them the Nobel Prize, but later it turned out that an error in the experiment was crushed into the results of their work. About the quasiparticles were safely forgotten.
But not all. Wen and Levin took the idea of \u200b\u200bquasiparticles as a basis and offered a new state of substance, string-network. The main property of such a state is quantum confusion. As in the case of disordered sinking, if you look at the string-mains from a close distance, it will be similar to an unordered set of electrons. But if you look at it as a whole structure, you will see a high ordering due to quantum-tangled electron properties. Wen and Levin then expanded their work to cover other particles and properties of confusion.
Having worked out computer models for the new state of the substance, Wen and Levin found that the ends of the string-networks can produce a variety of subatomic particles, including legendary quasiparticles. An even greater surprise was that when the string-network vibration, it makes it in accordance with the Maxwell equations that are responsible for the light. Wen and Levin suggested that the space is filled with string networks of confusing subatomic particles and that the ends of these strings are subatomatic particles that we observe. They also suggested that the string-network fluid can ensure the existence of light. If the cosmic vacuum is filled with string-network fluid, it may allow us to combine light and matter.
All this may seem very farmed, but in 1972 (for dozens of years before string-network proposals), geologists have found strange material in Chile - Herbertsmith. In this mineral, electrons form triangular structures that seem to contradict everything that we know about the interaction of electrons with each other. In addition, this triangular structure was predicted as part of a string-network model, and scientists worked with artificial gerbersmith to accurately confirm the model.
Ritch-gluon plasma
Speaking of the last state of the substance in this list, consider the condition from which it all began: a quark-gluon plasma. In the early Universe, the condition of matter significantly differed from the classic. To start a little prehistory.
Quarks are the elementary particles that we find inside the hadrons (for example, protons and neutrons). The hadrons consist either of three quarks or from one quark and one antiquark. Quarks have fractional charges and are bonded by gluons that are particles for the exchange of strong nuclear interaction.
We do not see free quarks in nature, but immediately after a large explosion for milliseconds, free quarks and gluons existed. During this time, the temperature of the universe was so high that the quarks and gluons moved almost at the speed of light. During this period, the universe consisted entirely of all of this hot quark-gluon plasma. After another fraction of a second, the universe has cooled enough to form heavy particles like hadrons, and quarks began to interact with each other and gluons. From this point on, the formation of the universe known to us, and the hadrons began to bind to electrons, creating primitive atoms.
Already in the modern universe, scientists tried to recreate a quark-gluon plasma in large particle accelerators. In the course of these experiments, heavy particles like hadrons faced each other, creating a temperature at which the quarks were separated for a short time. In the course of these experiments, we learned a lot about the properties of a quark-gluon plasma, in which friction was absolutely lacking and which was more like a liquid than the usual plasma. Experiments with the exotic state of matter allow us to learn a lot about how and why our universe has formed such as we know it.
Based on Listverse.com.
In this (2007 - P. Z.) We want to tell you, dear readers, about water. This cycle of articles will be called: water cycle. Probably there is no point in talking about how much it is important for all the natural sciences for each of us. It is not by chance that many are trying to speculate for interest in water, take at least a popular film "Great Mystery of Water", which attributing the attention of millions of people. On the other hand, it is impossible to simplify the situation and say that we know everything about water; This is not the case at all, the water and remains the most unusual substance in the world. In order to consider water features in detail, you need a thorough conversation. And we begin by his heads from the wonderful book of the founder of our journal Academician I.V. Petryanova-Sokolova, which reached the Pedagogy Publishing House in 1975. This book, by the way, may well serve as a model of a popular science conversation with such a difficult reader as a high school student.
Is everything already known about water?
More recently, in the 30s of our century, chemists were confident that the composition of the water was well known for them. But one day one of them had to measure the density of the water remainder after electrolysis. He was surprised: the density turned out to be several hundredsmatic fractions above normal. There is nothing minor in science. This insignificant difference required explanations. As a result, scientists have discovered many new large secrets of nature. They learned that the water is very complex. New isotopic forms of water were found. Produced from ordinary heavy water; It turned out that it is absolutely necessary for the energy of the future: with the thermalide reaction, deuterium, isolated from liter of water, will give as much energy as 120 kg of coal. Now in all countries of the world, physics hardly and tirelessly work on solving this great task. It all started with a simple measurement of the most ordinary, everyday and uninteresting size - the water density was measured more precisely on an extra decimal sign. Each new, more accurate measurement, every new faithful calculation, every new observation not only increases confidence in knowledge and reliability of the already mined and known, but also spreads the boundaries of the unknown and not yet disabled and puts new paths to them.
What is ordinary water?
There is no such water in the world. There is no ordinary water anywhere. She is always unusual. Even on isotopic composition, water in nature is always different. The composition depends on the history of water - from what it happened in an infinite manifold of its cycle in nature. When evaporated, the water is enriched by the capital, and the water of rain is therefore different from the water of the lake. The water of the river is not similar to sea water. In closed lakes, water contains more deuterium than the water of the mountain stream. In each source, its isotopic composition of water. When water freezes the water in the lake, none of those who skate, and does not suspect that the isotopic composition of the ice has changed: it decreased the content of heavy hydrogen, but the amount of heavy oxygen increased. Water from melting ice is different and differs from water from which the ice was obtained.
What is light water?
This is the water, the formula of which all schoolchildren know - H 2 16 o. But there is no such water in nature. Such water with great difficulty prepared scientists. It was necessary for them to accurately measure the properties of water, and first of all to measure its density. So far, such water exists only in several largest laboratories of the world, where the properties of various isotopic connections are studied.
What is heavy water?
And this water is not in nature. Strictly speaking, it would be necessary to call heavy water consisting only of some heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen, D 2 18 o, but there is no such water even in scientists' laboratories. Of course, if this water is needed by science or technology, scientists will be able to find a way to get it: and deuterium, and heavy oxygen in natural water as much as you like.
In science and nuclear technology, it is customary to call heavy water in heavy water. It contains only deuterium, there is absolutely no usual, lightweight hydrogen isotope. The isotopic composition of oxygen in this water is usually the composition of the air oxygen.
More recently, no one in the world has suspected that such water exists, and now in many countries of the world there are giant plants, processing millions of tons of water to extract deuterium from it and get pure heavy water.
Is there much different waters contained in water?
What water? In the one that it is pouring from a water tap, where it came from the river, heavy water D 2 16 O is about 150 g per ton, and heavy-oxoronic (H 2 17 O and H 2 18 O together) almost 1800 g per ton of water. And in water from the Pacific Ocean, heavy water is almost 165 g per ton.
In a ton of ice of one of the large glaciers of the Caucasus of heavy water by 7 g more than in river water, and the heavy-oxidic water is as much. But in the water of the streams running along this glacier, D 2 16 O turned out to be less than 7 g, and H 2 18 o is 23 g more than in the river.
Tithe water T 2 16 O falls on the ground along with precipitation, but it is very small - only 1 g per million million tons of rainwater. In the ocean water it is even less.
Strictly speaking, water is always different everywhere. Even in the snow falling in different days, different isotopic composition. Of course, the difference is small, only 1-2 g per ton. Only, perhaps, it is very difficult to say - there is little or a lot.
What is the difference between light natural and hard water?
The answer to this question will depend on who he is asked. Each of us does not doubt that with water, he is familiar well. If each of us is to show three glasses with conventional, heavy and light water, then everyone will give a completely clear and definite answer: in all three vessels there is a simple clean water. It is equally transparent and colorless. Neither the taste nor on the smell can be found between them any difference. It's all - water. The chemist will answer this question almost the same way: there is almost no difference between them. All their chemical properties are almost indistinguishable: in each of these waters, sodium will be equally highlighted by hydrogen, each of them will be equally detected in electrolysis, all their chemical properties will almost coincide. It is clear: because the chemical composition they are the same. This is water.
The physicist will not agree. He will indicate a noticeable difference in their physical properties: and they boil and freeze at various temperatures, they have different density, their elasticity is a little different. And with electrolysis, they decompose at different speeds. Easy water is a little faster, and heavy - preferred. The difference in speeds is insignificant, but the water residue in the electrolyzer is a bit enriched hard water. So she was open. Changes in isotopic composition are little affected by the physical properties of the substance. Those of them, which depend on the mass of molecules, change more noticeable, for example, the diffusion rate of steam molecules.
The biologist will probably become a dead end and it will not immediately be able to find an answer. He will need to be over the question of the difference between water with different isotopic composition, there is still a lot of work. Most recently, everyone believed that in severe water, living beings could not live. It was even called her dead water. But it turned out that if very slowly, carefully and gradually replace the diet in the water, where some microorganisms live, on deuterium, then you can teach them to hard water and they will live well in it and develop, and the usual water will become harmful to them.
How many water molecules in the ocean?
One. And this answer is not exactly a joke. Of course, everyone can, looking at the directory and learning how much in the world ocean of water, it is easy to count how much it contains molecules H 2 O. But this answer will not be quite faithful. Water - a special substance. Due to the peculiar structure, individual molecules interact with each other. A special chemical bond arises due to the fact that each of the hydrogen atoms of one molecule densites the electrons of oxygen atoms in neighboring molecules. Due to such hydrogen bonds, each water molecule turns out to be quite firmly associated with four neighboring molecules.
How are water molecules in water are built?
Unfortunately, this very important issue is still not sufficient. The structure of molecules in liquid water is very difficult. When the ice is melted, its mesh structure is partially preserved in the resulting water. Molecules in melt water consist of many simple molecules - from aggregates that preserve the properties of ice. With increasing temperature, part of them decays, their dimensions are becoming less.
Mutual attraction leads to the fact that the average size of a complex water molecule in liquid water significantly exceeds the size of one water molecule. Such an extraordinary molecular structure of water causes its extraordinary physicochemical properties.
What should be the density of water?
True, a very strange question? Remember how the unit was installed - one gram. This is the mass of one cubic centimeter of water. So, there can be no doubt that the density of water should be only as it is. Is it possible to doubt this? Can. Theoretics were calculated that if the water had not retained the loose, the ice-like structure in the liquid state and its molecules would be packed tightly, the water density would be much higher. At 25 ° C, it would be not equal to 1.0, but 1.8 g / cm 3.
At what temperature should water be boiled?
This question is also of course strange. True, with a hundred degrees. This knows everyone. Moreover, it is precisely the boiling point of water at a normal atmospheric pressure and is selected as one of the reference points of the temperature scale, conventionally indicated 100 ° C. However, the question is delivered otherwise: at what temperature the water should boil? After all, the boiling point of various substances is not accidental. They depend on the position of the elements that are part of their molecules in the periodic Mendeleev system.
If we compare the same chemical compounds of various elements belonging to the same group of the Mendeleev table, it is easy to notice that the smaller the atomic number of the element, the smaller its atomic weight, the lower the boiling point of its connections. Water for chemical composition can be called oxygen hydride. H 2 TE, H 2 SE and H 2 S - the chemical analogs of water. If we determine the boiling point of the oxygen hydride by position in the periodic table, it turns out that water should boil at -80 ° C. Consequently, water boils approximately one hundred and eighty degrees higher than to boil. The boiling point of water is the most common property of its property - it turns out to be extraordinary and amazing.
At what temperature water freezes?
Is it not true, the question is no less strange than previous? Well, who does not know that water freezes at zero degrees? This is the second reference point of the thermometer. This is the most common property of water. But in this case, you can ask: at what temperature the water should freeze in accordance with its chemical nature? It turns out that the oxygen hydride on the basis of its position in the Mendeleev table would have to harden with a hundred degrees below zero.
From the fact that the melting and boiling point of the oxygen hydride is its abnormal properties, it follows that in the conditions of our Earth, the liquid and solid state is also anomalous. There would be only a gaseous state of water.
How many gaseous water states exist?
Only one - couples. And couple too alone? Of course not, water vapor is as much as there are different waters. Water pairs, various in the isotopic composition, possess, although very close, but still various properties: they have different density, at the same temperature they differ slightly on elasticity in a saturated state, they have a slightly different critical pressure, different Diffusion speed.
Can water remember?
This question sounds, you must admit, very unusual, but it is quite serious and is very important. It concerns a large physicochemical problem, which in its most important part has not yet been investigated. This question is only put in science, but she has not yet found the answer to him.
The question is whether or not the previous history of water affects her physico-chemical properties and is it possible, exploring the properties of water, find out what happened to her earlier, - to make the water "remember" and tell us about it. Yes, perhaps, as it seems amazing. The easiest way can this be understood on a simple, but very interesting and extraordinary example - on the memory of the ice.
Loda is the water. When water evaporates - the isotopic composition of water and steam changes. Light water evaporates although in an insignificant degree, but faster hard.
In evaporation of natural water, the composition varies on isotopic content not only deuterium, but also severe oxygen. These changes in the isotopic composition of the steam are very well studied, and their dependence on temperature is also well investigated.
Recently, scientists have put a wonderful experience. In the Arctic, in the thicker of a huge glacier in the north of Greenland, a borehole was laid and a giant ice core was removed and removed almost half a kilometer. On it were clearly distinguishable by the annual layers of the growing ice. At the entire length of the core, these layers were subjected to isotopic analysis, and according to the relative content of heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes - deuterium and 18 o, the formation temperatures of the annual layers of ice on each site of the core were determined. The formation date of the annual layer was determined by direct reference. Thus, a climate situation on Earth has been restored over the Millennium. Water all this was remembered and recorded in the deep layers of the Greenland Glacier.
As a result of isotopic analyzes, Ice layers were built by scientists climate change curve on Earth. It turned out, the average temperature is subject to century-old fluctuations. It was very cold in the XV century, at the end of the XVII century and at the beginning of the XIX. The hottest years were 1550 and 1930.
What has saved in memory water completely coincided with records in historical chronicles. The frequency of climate change is discovered by the isotopic composition of ice makes it possible to predict the average temperature in the future on our planet.
This is all completely clear and clear. Although very surprisingly thousand-year history chronology on Earth, recorded in the thickness of the Polar Glacier, but the isotopic equilibrium is well studied and there are no mysterious problems yet.
Then what is the mystery of the "memory" of water?
The fact is that in recent years, many amazing and completely incomprehensible facts have gradually accumulated in science. Some of them are installed firmly, others require quantitative reliable confirmation, and they are still waiting for their explanation.
For example, no one knows what happens with water flowing through a strong magnetic field. Theoretical physicists are quite sure that it cannot happen and does not happen to happen with her, reinforcing their convictions of quite reliable theoretical calculations, from which it follows that after the termination of the magnetic field, water should instantly return to the previous state and remain as it was . And experience shows that it changes and becomes another.
From ordinary water in a steam boiler, dissolved salts, standing out, deposit dense and hard as a stone, layer on the walls of boiler pipes, and from the stagnetic water (so it was now called in the technique) falls in the form of a loose sediment suspended in water. It seems the difference is small. But it depends on the point of view. According to the workers of thermal power plants, this difference is extremely important, as the Ocagnetic water provides a normal and uninterrupted operation of giant power plants: the walls of the steam boilers are overgrown, above heat transfer, more electricity generation. In many heat stations, magnetic preparation of water has long been installed, and how and why it works, neither engineers nor scientists know. In addition, the experience is noticed that after magnetic treatment of water, it accelerates the processes of crystallization, dissolution, adsorption, wetting changes ... True, in all cases the effects are small and difficult to reproduce. But how can I appreciate what is not enough in science and what is a lot? Who will take it? The effect of the magnetic field on the water (necessarily fast auction) lasts the small fractions of the second, and "remembers" the water about it tens of hours. Why is it unknown. In this matter, practice is far ahead of science. After all, it is even not known what the magnetic processing is acting - on the water or the impurities contained in it. Clean the water does not happen.
The "memory" of water is not limited only to the consequences of magnetic effects. In science there are and gradually accumulate many facts and observations, showing that the water seems to be "remembered" and that she used to be frozen. Melt water, recently obtained by melting a piece of ice, as if different from that water, from which this piece of ice was formed. In melt water faster and better germinate seeds, sprouts develop faster; Even as if chickens are growing faster and develop, which get talu water. In addition to the amazing properties of melt water established by biologists, well-known physicochemical differences, such as melting water differ in viscosity, by the value of dielectric constant. The viscosity of melt water takes its usual value for water only after 3-6 days after melting. Why it is so (if so), no one knows. Most researchers call this area of \u200b\u200bthe phenomena of the "structural memory" of water, believing that all these strange manifestations of the influence of the previous water history on its properties are explained by changing the fine structure of its molecular state. Maybe it is so, but ... to call - it does not mean to explain. There is still an important problem in science: why and how the water "remembers" that it was.
Does water know what is happening in space?
This question affects the area of \u200b\u200bsuch extraordinary, so mysterious, is still completely incomprehensible, observations that they fully justify the formulation of the issue. Experimental facts as if firmly installed, but the explanations for them were not yet found.
The striking riddle to which the question relates, was not installed immediately. It belongs to a littleness and seem to be a trifle phenomenon that does not have serious meaning. This phenomenon is associated with the thinnest and still incomprehensible properties of water, difficult to quantitatively definition - with the rate of chemical reactions in aqueous solutions and mainly at the rate of formation and precipitate in the precipitate of difficult-to-soluble reaction products. This is also one of the countless properties of water.
So, at the same reaction conducted in the same conditions, the time of the first traces of the sediment is inconstant. Although this fact was a long time ago, the chemists did not pay attention to him, satisfying how it often happens, explaining the "random reasons". But gradually, with the development of the theory of reaction speeds and improvement of the research methodology, this strange fact began to cause bewilderment.
Despite the most thorough precautions in carrying out experience in completely permanent conditions, the result is still not reproduced: the precipitate falls at once, then it is necessary to wait for a long time to appear.
It would seem, isn't it equal - the precipitate falls out in a test tube for one, two or twenty seconds? What can this matter? But in science, as in nature, there is nothing having any meaning.
Strange irrepreneurities more and more occupied scientists. Finally, a completely unprecedented experiment was organized and implemented. Hundreds of voluntary chemical researchers in all parts of the globe according to a single, pre-developed program at the same time, on the same moment at world time again and again the same simple experience was repeated: the rate of appearance of the first traces of the solid phase sediment was determined as a result Reactions in aqueous solution. Experience continued for almost fifteen years, more than three hundred thousand repetitions were held.
Gradually began to pursue an amazing picture, inexplicable and mysterious. It turned out that the properties of water that determine the flow of a chemical reaction in the aqueous medium depend on time.
Today the reaction proceeds quite differently than at that time she went yesterday, and tomorrow she will go back differently.
The differences were small, but they existed and demanded attention, research and scientific explanation.
The results of statistical processing of materials of these observations led scientists to the striking conclusion: it turned out that the dependence of the reaction rate on time for different parts of the globe is completely the same.
This means that there are some mysterious conditions, changing simultaneously on the entire planet and affecting the properties of water.
Further processing of materials led scientists to an even more unexpected consequence. It turned out that events flowing into the sun, somehow reflected on the water. The nature of the reaction in the water follows the rhythm of solar activity - the appearance of spots and outbreaks in the sun.
But this is not enough. An even more incredible phenomenon was discovered. Water with some kind of inexplicable way responds to what is happening in space. A clear dependence has been established from changing the relative speed of the Earth in its movement in outer space.
The mysterious connection of the water and events occurring in the universe is still unexplained. And what value can be related between water and space? No one else can know how large it is. In our body about 75% of water; On our planet there is no life without water; In each living organism, countless chemical reactions proceed in each cell. If an example of a simple and coarse reaction is notified by the influence of events in space, it is not even possible to imagine how much it can be the meaning of this effect on global life development processes on Earth. Probably there will be a very important and interesting science of the future - cosmobiology. One of its main sections will be the study of behavior and properties of water in a living organism.
Is all the properties of water understand the scientist?
Of course not! Water is a mysterious substance. So far, scientists cannot even understand and explain very many of its properties.
Is it possible to doubt that all such riddles will be successfully resolved by science. But there will be a lot of new, even more amazing, mysterious properties of water - the most extraordinary substance in the world.
http://wsyachina.narod.ru/physics/aqua_1.html
"The most extreme" option. Of course, we all heard stories about magnets, strong enough to be injured in injury to children, and acids that will pass through your hands in a matter of seconds, but there are even more "extreme" their options.
1. The world's most famous man
What happens if you put on top of the edge of carbon nanotubes and alternate layers of them? It turns out the material that absorbs 99.9% of the light that falls on it. The microscopic surface of the material is uneven and rough, which refracts the light and is a bad reflective surface. After that, try using carbon nanotubes as superconductors in a certain order, which makes them beautiful light absorbers, and you will have a real black storm. The scientists are seriously puzzled by potential options for the use of this substance, since, in fact, the light is not "lost", the substance could be used to improve optical devices, such as telescopes and even used for solar batteries operating almost with 100% efficiency.
2. The most fuel
Many things are on the striking speed, for example, the eraphom, napalm, and this is just the beginning. But what if there was a substance that could be covered with fire? On the one hand, this is a provocative question, but it was asked as the starting point. Chlorine trifluoride has doubtful glory as a terribly fuel, despite the fact that the Nazis believed that this substance was too dangerous for work. When people who discuss genocide believe that the purpose of their life is not to use anything, because it is too fatal, it supports cautious treatment of these substances. It is said that one day a ton of matter was shed and a fire began, and 30.5 cm concrete burned down and the sand meter with gravel, until everything subsided. Unfortunately, the Nazis turned out to be right.
3. The most poisonous substance
Tell me, what would you like the least, what could get to your face? This could well be the most deadly poison, which rightfully will occupy 3rd place among the main extremal substances. Such a poison is really different from what the concrete is burning, and from the strongest acid in the world (which will soon be inversion). Although not quite so, but you all, without a doubt, heard from the medical community about Botox, and thanks to him the most deadly poison was famous. Botox uses botulinium cellin, generated by the Bacteria "Clostridium Botulinum" bacterium, and it is very deadly, and its quantities equal to the grain of salt, enough to kill a person weighing 200 pounds (90.72 kg; approx. Mixednews). In fact, scientists calculated that it was enough to spray only 4 kg of this substance to kill all people on Earth. Probably, the eagle would have arrived much harm with the rattling snake than this poison with a man.
4. The most hot substance
There are very few things in the world known to man as something more hotter than the inner surface of the newly preheated in the microwave Hot Pocket, but this substance seems to beat and this record. Created atoms of gold at almost light velocity, the substance is called a quark-gluon "soup", and it reaches the crazy 4 trillion degrees Celsius, which is almost 250,000 times the hot substance inside the sun. The magnitude of the energy emitted in the collision would be sufficient to melt protons and neutrons, which in itself has such features that you have not even suspected. Scientists say that this substance could give us an idea of \u200b\u200bwhat was like the birth of our universe, therefore it is worth considering that tiny supernovae are not created for fun. Nevertheless, really good news is that the "soup" occupied one trillion centimeter and lasted for a trillional one trillion second.
5. The most caustic acid
Acid is a terrible substance, one of the most terrible monsters in the cinema ended with acid blood to make it even more terrible than just a murder machine ("someone else's"), so inside us was rooted that the effect of acid is very bad. If "strangers" were filled with fluorine-antimony acid, they would not only fail in deep through the floor, but the pairs emitted from their dead bodies would kill everything around them. This acid is 21019 times stronger than sulfuric acid and can leak through the glass. And she can explode if you add water. And during its reaction, poisonous evaporations are allocated that can kill any indoors.
6. The most explosive explosive
In fact, this place is currently divided by two components: octogen and heptanitrocuban. Heptanitrocuban mainly exists in laboratories, and is similar to octogen, but has a denser structure of crystals, which carries booster in itself the potential of destruction. Otogen, on the other hand, exists in sufficiently large? X quantities, which can threaten physical existence. It is used in solid fuel for missiles, and even for detonators of nuclear weapons. And the latter is the most terrible, as despite the fact that it takes place in the cinema, the beginning of splitting / thermonuclear reaction, which leads to bright luminous nuclear clouds, similar to the fungus, is not a simple task, but octogen copes with it perfectly.
7. The radioactive substance
Speaking of radiation, it is worth mentioning that the glowing green rods "Plutonia" shown in the "Simpsons" is just a fiction. If something is radioactive, it does not mean that it glows. It is worth mentioning this, since "Polonium-210" is so radioactive that it glows blue. The former Soviet spy, Alexander Litvinenko, was misled when he was added to the food of this substance, and soon after that he died of cancer. This is not the thing with which you want to joke, the glow is caused by air around the substance that affects radiation, and, in fact, objects around can be heated. When we say "Radiation", we think, for example, about a nuclear reactor or an explosion, where the fission reaction really occurs. It is only the release of ionized particles, rather than the splitting of atoms out of control.
8. The most severe matter
If you thought that the most severe substance on Earth is diamonds, it was a good but inaccurate guess. This is technically created diamond nanoster. This is actually a totality of nano-scale diamonds, with the smallest degree of compression and the most severe substance known to man. In fact, it does not exist, but what would be quite by the way, since this means that someday we could cover our cars with this material and just get rid of it when a clash with the train (an unreal event) occurs. This substance was invented in Germany in 2005 and, possibly, it will be used in the same degree, as well as industrial diamonds, excluding the fact that a new substance is more resistant to wear than ordinary diamonds.
9. Magnetic substance
If the inducer was a small black piece, then it would be the most substance. The substance developed in 2010 from iron and nitrogen has magnetic abilities that are 18% more than the previous "record holder", and is so powerful that he forced scientists to revise how magnetism works. The person who discovered this substance was distanced himself with his studies so that none of the other scientists could reproduce his work, as it was reported that a similar connection was developed in Japan in the past in 1996, but other physicists could not have been able to inject it, so Officially, this substance did not accept. It is not clear whether Japanese physicists must promise to make a "sepuk" under these circumstances. If this substance can be reproduced, it can mean a new century of effective electronics and magnetic engines, possibly reinforced by power by an order.
10. The strongest superfluidity
Superfluidity is a state of matter (like solid or gaseous), which takes place at extremely low temperatures, has high thermal separability (each ounce of this substance should have exactly the same temperature) and no viscosity. Helium-2 is the most characteristic representative. A cup of "helium-2" spontaneously raises and poured out of the container. "Helium-2" will also be leaning through other solid materials, since the complete absence of friction force allows it to flow through other invisible holes through which ordinary helium (or water for a given case could not be found). Helium-2 does not come to the right state with the number 1, as if he had the ability to act at his discretion, although it is also the most effective thermal conductory on Earth, a few hundred times better than copper. The heat moves so quickly through the "helium-2", which it is rather moved by waves, like the sound (in fact, as a "second sound"), which is dissipated, while it simply moves from one molecule to another. By the way, the forces that control the possibility of "helium-2" crawl along the wall are called the "third sound." You hardly have anything more extreme than a substance that demanded a definition of 2 new types of sound.
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We can laugh at our ancestors who considered porch by magic and not understood that such magnets, however, and our enlightened occasion there are materials created by science, but similar to the result of this witchcraft. Often these materials are difficult to get, but it is worth it.
1. Metal that melts in your hands
The existence of liquid metals, such as mercury, and the ability of metals to take a liquid state at a certain temperature is well known. But the solid metal, melting in his hands as ice cream is an unusual phenomenon. This metal is called Gallium. It melts at room temperature and is not suitable for practical use. If you put a piece of gallium into a glass with a hot liquid, it will dissolve right on your eyes. In addition, Gallium is able to make aluminum very fragile - it is enough to simply put a drop of gallium on an aluminum surface.
2. Gas capable of keeping solid objects
This gas is heavier than air, and if you fill them a closed container, it will fall on the bottom. Just like water, sulfur hexafluoride is able to withstand less dense objects, for example, a foil boat. Colorless gas will keep the object on its surface, and the impression will be created that the boat is pararit. Sulfur hexafluoride can be deleted from the container with a regular glass - then the boat smoothly drops to the bottom.
In addition, due to its gravity, the gas reduces the frequency of any sound passing through it, and if you breathe a little sulfur hexafluoride, your voice will sound like an ominous bariton of Dr. Evil.
3. Hydrophobic coatings
Green tile in the photo is not at all jelly, but tinned water. It is on a flat plate, along the edges of the treated hydrophobic coating. The coating repels water, and the drops take a convex form. In the middle of the white surface there is an ideal untreated square, and water accumulates there. The drop, placed on the treated region, will immediately flow to the raw part and hees with the rest of the water. If you are a macnet treated with a hydrophobic finger finger into a glass with water, it will remain completely dry, and the "bubble" is formed around it - water will be desperate to try to escape from you. Based on such substances, it is planned to create water-repellent clothing and braid for cars.
4. Spontaneously exploding powder
Time nitride looks like a lump of dirt, but the appearance of deceptive: this material is so unstable that the lung touch of the pen is enough to have an explosion. The material is used solely for experiments - it is dangerous to even move from place to place. When the material explodes, a beautiful purple smoke appears. A similar substance is a silver fulminate - it is also not used anywhere and is suitable except for the manufacture of bombing.
Hot ice, also known as sodium acetate, is a liquid solidifying at the slightest exposure. From a simple touch, it is instantly transformed into solid as ice crystal. On the whole surface, patterns are formed, like on windows in the frost, the process continues for a few seconds - until the substance does not "leave". When pressed, the crystallization center is formed, from which the chain molecules are transmitted by information about the new state. Of course, in the end, it is not formed at all - as follows from the name, the substance to the touch is quite warm, is cooled very slowly and is used for the manufacture of chemical heating.
6. Metal with memory
Nitinol, the alloy of nickel and titanium, has an impressive ability to "memorize" its original shape and return to it after deformation. All that is required for this is a bit warm. For example, it is possible to drop on a alloy with warm water, and it will take the initial form no matter how much it was distorted. Currently, methods of its practical application are being developed. For example, it would be reasonable to make glasses from such material - if they accidentally walk, you just need to substitute them under the stream of warm water. Of course, it will be unknown whether cars will ever do from nitinol or something else serious, but the alloy properties are impressive.
If you think that chemistry is a very boring science, then I advise you to see further on 7 very interesting and unusual chemical reactions that will be surprised for sure. Perhaps the gifs in the continuation of the post will be able to convince you, and you will stop thinking that chemistry is boring;) We look further.
Hypnotizing bromine acid
According to science, Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction is a "oscillatory chemical reaction", during which the ions of the transition metal metals catalyze the oxidation of various, usually organic, reducing agents with a bromine acid in an acidic water medium ", which allows you to" observe the unarmed form of complex space-time formation structures. " This is a scientific explanation of the hypnotic phenomenon, which occurs if you throw a little bromine into the acidic solution.
Acid turns a bromine in a chemical called Bromide (which acquires a completely different shade), in turn, bromide is quickly turning back to the bromine, because the scientific elves living inside it are too stubborn assholes. The reaction is repeated again and again, allowing you to infinitely observe the movement of incredible wave-like structures.
Transparent chemicals instantly become black
Question: What happens if mixed sodium sulfite, citric acid and sodium iodide?
The correct answer is:
When you mix the above ingredients in certain proportions, ultimately the capricious fluid is obtained, which at first has a transparent color, and after sharply becomes black. This experiment is called "iodine clock". Simply put this reaction occurs when the specific components are connected in such a way that their concentrations gradually changed. If it reaches a certain threshold - the liquid acquires black.
But that's not all. By changing the proportion of ingredients, you have the opportunity to get a reverse reaction:
In addition, using various substances and formulas (for example, as an option - the Briggs-Rauuchera reaction) you can create a schizophrenic mixture that will constantly change your color with yellow on blue.
Creating plasma in the microwave
You want to start anything interesting with your friend, but you do not have access to a pile of incomprehensible chemicals or elementary knowledge necessary to mix them safely? Do not despair! All you need for this experiment is grapes, a knife, a glass and microwave. And so, take the grape and cut it out. One of the pieces again divide the knife into two parts so that these quantity remains knitted. Place them in the microwave and cover the inverted glass, turn on the furnace. Then take a step back and watch the aliens kidnap the berry.
In fact, what happens on your eyes is one of the ways to create a very small amount of plasma. From school, you know that there are three states of the substance: solid, liquid and gaseous. Plasma, in fact, is the fourth type and is an ionized gas obtained as a result of overheating of ordinary gas. Grape juice, it turns out, is rich in ions, and therefore is one of the best and most affordable funds for ordinary scientific experiments.
However, be careful trying to create a plasma in the microwave, because ozone, which is formed inside the glass, can be toxic in large quantities!
Ignition of extinct candles through smoky trail
You can try to repeat this trick at home without the risk of an explosion of the living room or the whole house. Light a candle. Place it and immediately bring fire to the smoky trace. Congratulations: You have happened, now you are a real master of fire.
It turns out that there is some love between fire and candle wax. And this feeling is much stronger than you think. It doesn't matter what condition is a wax - liquid, solid, gaseous - the fire will still find it, it will overtake and burn to all the hell.
Crystals glow during crushing
Before you, a chemical called Europe-Tetrakis, which demonstrates the effect of tribuluminescence. However, it is best to see what to read a hundred times.
This effect occurs in the destruction of crystalline bodies due to the conversion of kinetic energy directly into light.
If you want to see all this with your own eyes, but at hand you have no european-tetrakis, not trouble: even the most ordinary sugar is suitable. Just sit in a dark room, put several sugar cubes into the blender and enjoy the beauty of the fireworks.
Back in the XVIII century, when many people thought that scientific phenomena cause ghosts or witches or witch's ghosts, scientists used this effect to swing over "simple mortals", chewing in the darkness of sugar and laughing at those who ran from them as from fire .
Hello monster appearing from the volcano
Tyocianate mercury (II) - in the form of an innocent white powder, but it is worth getting hikerly, as he immediately turns into a mythical monster, ready to absorb you and the whole world entirely.
The second reaction shown below is caused by the combustion of ammonium dichromate, as a result of which a miniature volcano is formed.
Well, what will happen if mixed two above-mentioned chemicals and set fire to them? See yourself.
However, do not try to repeat these experiments at home, since mercury (II) thiocyanate, and ammonium dichromate are very toxic and in combustion can cause serious harm to your health. Take care of yourself!
Laminar flow
If you mix coffee with milk, you will have a fluid that you can hardly ever be divided into components. And this applies to all substances in liquid state, right? Right. But there is such a concept as a laminar course. To see this magic in action, it is enough to place a few drops of colorful dyes in a transparent vessel with corn syrup and gently mix everything ...
... and then mix again at the same pace, but only now in the opposite direction.
The laminar flow can occur in all conditions and using various types of liquids, but in this case such an unusual phenomenon is due to the viscous properties of the corn syrup, which, when mixing with dyes, forms multi-colored layers. So, if you are as neat and slowly perform the action in the opposite direction, everything will return to the previous places. Looks like a trip in time!
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