History of genetics. The history of the development of genetics (briefly)
Genetics - Science, which studies patterns and material basics of heredity and variability of organisms, as well as mechanisms for the evolution of the living. Healthiness is called the property of one generation to transmit to another signs of structure, physiological properties and the specific nature of individual development. The properties of heredity are implemented in the process of individual development.
Along with similarity with parental forms, each generation arise certain differences from the descendants as the result of the manifestation of variability.
The variability is the property, the opposite of heredity, which consists in changing the hereditary deposits - genes and in the change in their manifestation under the influence of the external environment. Differences of the descendants from parents also arise as a result of various combinations of genes in the process of MEIOS and when combining paternal and maternal chromosomes in one zygote. It should be noted here that the clarification of many issues of genetics, especially the discovery of material carriers of heredity and the mechanism of variability of organisms, has become the property of science of recent decades who have nominated genetics to the advanced positions of modern biology. The main laws of the transfer of hereditary signs were established on plant and animal organisms, they were attached to both a person. In its development, genetics passed a number of stages.
The first stage was marked by the discovery of the G. Mendel (1865) of discreteness (divisibility) of hereditary factors and the development of a hybridological method, studying heredity, i.e. the rules of crossing organisms and accounting for signs of their offspring. The discreteness of heredity is that individual properties and in the signs of the body are developing under the control of hereditary factors (genes), which the zygotes are not mixed during the merges and education, and during the formation of new Games are inherited independently of each other.
The value of the opening of the city of Mendel was assessed after his laws were re-equipped in 1900 in three biologists, independently of each other: de Friz in Holland, K. Korrens in Germany and E. Chermak in Austria. The results of the hybridization obtained in the first decade of the XX century. On various plants and animals, Mendelian laws of inheritance of signs have fully confirmed and showed their universal nature in relation to all organisms reducing sexually. The patterns of inheritance of signs during this period were studied at the level of a holistic organism (peas, corn, poppy, beans, rabbit, mouse, etc.).
Mendelian laws of heredity laid the foundation of the theory of the gene - the greatest discovery of natural science of the XX century, and the genetics turned into a rapidly developing biology industry. In 1901-1903 De Fris put forward a mutational theory of variability, which played a big role in the further development of genetics.
The work of the Danish botany V. Johannsen, who studied the patterns of inheritance on clean lines of beans was important. He also formulated the concept of "populations" (a group of organisms of one species, dwelling and breeding in a limited territory), proposed to call Mendelian "hereditary factors" by the word gene, gave definitions of the concepts of "genotype" and "phenotype".
The second stage is characterized by the transition to the study of the phenomena of heredity at the cellular level (pytogenetics). T. Boverty (1902-1907), W. Seatton and E. Wilson (1902-1907) established the relationship between Mendelian laws of inheritance and chromosome distribution in the process of cell division (mitosis) and the ripening of genital cells (meyosis). The development of a cell teaching led to clarification of the structure, shape and quantity of chromosomes and helped to establish that genes controlling certain signs, nothing other than the sections of chromosomes. This served as an important prerequisite for the approval of the chromosomal theory of heredity. Studies conducted on the flock of drosophilas by the American geneticist T. G. Morgan and its employees (1910-1911) were crucial in her substantiation. They found that the genes are located in chromosomes in linear order, forming a clutch group. The number of gene clutch groups corresponds to the number of pairs of homologous chromosomes, and the genes of one clutch group can reconnect in the MEIOS process due to the crosslinker's phenomenon, which underlies one of the forms of hereditary combinative variability of organisms. Morgan also established the patterns of inheritance of signs adopted with the floor.
The third stage in the development of genetics reflects the achievements of molecular biology and is associated with the use of methods and principles of accurate sciences - physics, chemistry, mathematics, biophysics, etc. - in the study of life phenomena at the molecule level. Mushrooms, bacteria, viruses have become objects of genetic studies. At this stage, the relationship between genes and enzymes was studied and the theory of "one gene is one enzyme" (J. Bidl and E. Tatum, 1940): Each gene controls the synthesis of one enzyme; The enzyme in turn controls one reaction from a number of biochemical transformations underlying the manifestation of an external or internal characteristic of the body. This theory played an important role in finding out the physical nature of the gene as an element of hereditary information.
In 1953, F. Creek and J. Watson, relying on the results of the experiments of genetics and biochemists and the data of X-ray diffraction analysis, created a structural DNA model in the form of a double helix. The DNA model proposed is good agreement with the biological function of this compound: the ability to self-deepening genetic material and sustainable preservation of it in generations - from the cell to the cell. These properties of DNA molecules also explained the molecular mechanism of variability: any deviations from the initial structure of the gene, the self-dedication error of the genetic material DNA, once having occurred, in the future, accurately and stably reproduce in DNA subsidiaries. In the subsequent decade, these provisions were experimentally confirmed: the concept of gene was refined, the genetic code and the mechanism of its action during the synthesis of protein in the cell was deciphered. In addition, the methods of artificially obtaining mutations were found and with their help created valuable varieties of plants and strains of microorganisms - antibiotic producers, amino acids.
In the last decade, a new direction occurred in molecular genetics - genetic engineering - a system of receptions that allow the biologist to design artificial genetic systems. Genetic engineering is based on the universality of the genetic code: DNA nucleotide trips are programmed by the inclusion of amino acids in protein molecules of all organisms - humans, animals, plants, bacteria, viruses. Due to this, a new gene can be synthesized or highlight it from one bacterium and introduce it into the genetic apparatus of another bacterium devoid of such a gene.
Thus, the third, modern stage of the development of genetics opened the huge prospects of the directional intervention in the phenomena of the heredity and selection of plant and animal organisms, revealed an important role of genetics in medicine, in particular, in the study of the patterns of hereditary diseases and human physical anomalies.
R.Sh. Shamshutdinov, 10 "B", School number 10
Report on the topic:
"Genetics"
The first genetic ideas were formed in connection with the agricultural and medical activities of people. Historical documents suggest that 6 thousand years ago in animal husbandry made up pedigree, people have already understood that some physical signs can be transmitted from one generation to another. Observations on the inheritance of increased bleeding in male people (hemophilia) are reflected in religious documents, in particular, in Talmud (4-5th century BC). The transfer by inheritance from generation to generation of certain signs is the concept of one of the most important properties of the living - heredity. By selecting certain organisms from natural populations and crossing them among themselves, a person created improved varieties of plants and the breed of animals who need the properties necessary to him. It follows from this that the person noticed the differences arising in generations of living organisms and distinguishing offspring from parents. That is, the person is impericious (without a complete understanding of the essence of the process) used another fundamental property of the living - variability.
In this way, heredity - the property of living organisms to ensure the structural and functional continuity between generations, and variability - changes in hereditary deposits arising from generations.
The fundamental characteristics of living heredity and variability are closely associated with reproduction and individual development and serve as necessary prerequisites for the evolution process. Due to variability, there is a variety of alive forms, and heredity retains the evolutionary experience of the biological species in generations.
Genetics - Science, which studies the patterns of heredity and variability, as well as biological mechanisms, providing them.
The first really scientific step forward in the study of heredity was made by the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel, who in 1866 published an article laying the foundations of modern genetics. Mendel showed that hereditary deposits are not mixed, but are transferred from parents to descendants in the form of discrete (isolated) units. These units presented in pairs (alleles) remain discrete and are transmitted to subsequent generations in male and female gates, each of which contains one unit from each pair. In 1909, Danish Botany Johansen. called these units "Genes", And in 1912, the American Genetic Morgan showed that they are in chromosomes.
The official date of birth of genetics is considered to be 1900, when the data of G. de Frise, K. Correns and K. Chermak were published, actually overlapping the patterns of inheritance of signs established by G. Penelle. The first decades of the 20th century were solely fruitful in the development of the basic provisions and directions of genetics. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe mutations, populations and cleanlines of organisms, the chromosomal theory of heredity was formulated, the law of homologous series was opened, data on the occurrence of hereditary changes under the influence of X-rays were developed, the development of the basics of genetics of organisms populations was launched.
In 1953, an article in the International Scientific Journal was printed an article by the James Watson biologists and Francis Crying about the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - one of the substances constantly present in chromosomes. The structure of DNA was completely unusual! Its molecules have a huge length of the length and consist of two threads woven with each other in a double helix. Each of the threads can be compared with the long thread bead. Belkov "Beads" are amino acids of 20 different types. DNA is only 4 types of "beads", and they are nucleotides. "Beads" of two yarns of DNA double spirals are interconnected and strictly match. To clearly imagine it, imagine two next to the underlie threads Bus. Opposite each red beads in one chain lies, let's say, blue beads in another. Opposite each greenery - Yellow. Similarly, Timin is located in front of the Adenin nucleotide, opposite the cytosine - Guanin. With such a construction of a double helix, each of the chains contains information about the structure of the other. Knowing the structure of one chain, you can always restore the other. Two double spirals are obtained - accurate copies of their predecessor. This property accurately copy itself from the source matrix is \u200b\u200bkey to life on Earth. The reactions of matrix synthesis are not known in inanimate nature. Without these reactions, life would lose their main property - the ability to reproduce yourself. In the threads of DNA by a four-letter alphabet of "Beads" -nucleotides recorded the structure of all proteins of living organisms. All information regarding the structure of one protein takes a small area in DNA. This section is the genome. Of the four letters of the DNA alphabet, you can make 64 trite-letter "words" - triplet. The vocabulary of 64 words Triplets is enough to record the names of 20 amino acids that are part of the proteins.
The discovery for the development of genetics at the present stage is the discovery of the "heredity substance" - deoxyribonucleic acid, the decoding of the genetic code, the description of the mechanism of the protein biosynthesis.
Historically, medicine interest in genetics was formed initially in connection with observations of inherited pathological (painful) features. In the second half of the 19th century, the English biologist F. Galton allocated as an independent subject of research "Humanity of a person." He also proposed a number of special methods of genetic analysis: genealogical, twin, statistical. Studying the patterns of inheritance of normal and pathological signs and now occupies a leading place in genetics of man.
Detection of the relationship between genes and proteins (enzymes) led to the creation biochemical and molecular genetics (molecular biologia). Immunogenetics It studies the genetic foundations of the human body's immune reactions. Finding out the primary biochemical disorder leading to the hereditary disease facilitates the search for the treatment of such diseases. Thus, the disease of phenylketonuria, due to the insufficient synthesis of a certain enzyme regulating the exchange of phenylaline amino acid, is amenable to treating this amino acid from food. Previously, children born with such a vice were doomed.
The study of the role of genetic factors and environmental factors in the development of diseases with a hereditary predisposition is one of the leading partitions. medical genetics.
Population genetics He is studying the distribution of pairs of genes in groups of living organisms, patterns and causes of this distribution.
Cytogenetic - Section of genetics studying the distribution of genes in chromosomes of monochiots, mapping genes in chromosomes.
Changes in genetic material may occur under the influence of environmental factors. So there is a section of genetics - radiation genetics - The subject of which is the effect on the genotype of radiating physical factors.
There were also controversial, ambiguously perceived by society, sections of genetics. So, in the last quarter of the 19th century, F. Galton raised the question of the development of special science - eugeneika. Its task was to be improved by the human race by increasing the amount of beneficial genes in the genotype of the amount of useful genes and reducing the share of gifted people through the systematic selective reproduction of gifted people and restricting the reproduction of asocial individuals, for example, criminals. Soon it turned out that, even without taking into account the ethical foundations of human life, it is impossible to be purely practically. Modern genetics, molecular biology and medicine have means of manipulating with hereditary material, much superior to the restriction of marriages. This is an artificial insemination and conception of a "tube" with the subsequent movement of the embryo in the woman's uterus, the selection of germs in the early stages of development, genetic engineering, the core transplant of the somatic cell in the egg cell. It is important, however, to understand that the biological ways to improve the human society are unacceptable, which particular form they did not take. But, genetics and medicine are responsible for the health of the offspring. It is no secret that currently in the world more than 5% of children are born with hereditary disorders, 10-20% of children's mortality due to hereditary pathology, up to a third of sick children are on treatment in hospitals with hereditary diseases. Genetics and medicine in the struggle for the health of people in each generation take into account that a significant impact on the manifestation of positive and negative properties has a medium in which human development occurs. Based on this principle in 1929 Koltsov N.K. allocated a person in practical genetics eufenika - Science about a favorable manifestation of hereditary signs.
Genetics is currently one of the sciences that determine the development of humanity. Genetics associated the most courageous forecasts of the prospects for this development.
R.Sh. Shamshutdinov
The content of the article
GENETICS,science, studying heredity and variability - properties inherent in all living organisms. The infinite variety of plant species, animals and microorganisms is supported by the fact that each species preserves in a row of generations characteristic of it: in the cold north and in hot countries, the cow always gives birth to a calf, the chicken displays chickens, and wheat reproduces wheat. At the same time, living beings are individual: all people are different, all cats are different from each other, and even the spikelets of wheat, if you look at them more closely, have our own characteristics. Two these most important properties of living beings - to be similar to their parents and differ from them - and constitute the essence of the concepts of "heredity" and "variability".
Origins of genetics
The origins of genetics, like any other science, should be sought in practice. Since people have been breeding animals and plants, they began to understand that the signs of descendants depend on the properties of their parents. Selecting and crossing the best individuals, a person from generation to generation created breeds of animal and plant varieties with improved properties. The rapid development of tribal and crop production in the second half of the 19th century. he gave rise to increased interest in analyzing heredity phenomenon. At that time, it was believed that the material substrate of heredity is a homogeneous substance, and the hereditary substances of parental forms are mixed with the offspring, just as mutually disheaval fluids are mixed with each other. It was also believed that in animals and humans the substance of heredity is somehow connected with blood: the expressions "half-blood", "purebred", etc. preserved to the present day.
It is not surprising that contemporaries did not pay attention to the results of the work of the monastery's abbot in Brno Gregor Mendel on the crossing of pea. None of those who listened to the report of Mendel at a meeting of the Society of Society and Doctors in 1865, failed to solve in some "strange" quantitative relations found by Mendel when analyzing pea hybrids, fundamental biological laws, and in a person who discovered them, the founder of the new Science - Genetics. After 35 years of oblivion, Mendel's work was assessed: his laws were renounced in 1900, and his name entered the history of science.
Laws of genetics
The laws of genetics, open by Mendel, Morgan and Pleiagee of their followers, describe the transfer of signs from parents to children. They argue that all inherited signs are determined by genes. Each gene can be represented in one or greater number of forms called alleles. All organism cells, in addition to sex, contain two alleles of each gene, i.e. are diploid. If two alleles are identical, the body is called homozygous for this gene. If alleles are different, the body is called heterozygous. Cells involved in sexual reproduction (Gameta) contain only one allele of each gene, i.e. They are haploid. Half hemes produced by individual, carries one allele, and half - another. Combining two haploid weights in fertilization leads to the formation of diploid zygotes, which develops into an adult organism.
Genes are certain DNA fragments; They are organized in chromosomes located in the core of the cell. Each type of plants or animals has a certain number of chromosomes. The diploid organisms have a pair chromosome, two chromosomes of each pair are called homologous. Let's say, a person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, with one homolog of each chromosome received from the mother, and the other from the Father. There are and extraordinary genes (in mitochondria, and plants also in chloroplasts).
Features of the transfer of hereditary information are determined by intracellular processes: mitosis and meyosis. Mitosis is the process of distribution chromosome on subsidiaries during cellular division. As a result of mitosis, each chromosome of the parent cell doubles and identical copies differ in the daughter cells; In this case, hereditary information is fully transmitted from one cell to two subsidiary. This is the division of cells in ontogenesis, i.e. Individual development process. Meiosis is a specific form of cell division, which takes place only in the formation of genital cells, or games (spermatozoa and egg). Unlike mitosis, the number of chromosomes during meiosis is halucing; Only one of the two homologous chromosomes of each pair falls into each subsidiary, so that in half of the daughter cells there is one homologist, in the other half - the other; At the same time, chromosomes are distributed in the goves independently of each other. (Mitochondrial genes and chloroplast genes do not follow the law of equal distribution in division.) When the fusion of two haploid gammets (fertilization) is again restored by the number of chromosomes - a diploid zygote is formed, which from each of the parents received according to a single set chromosome.
Methodical approaches.
Thanks to what features, the methal methodological approach managed to make his discoveries? For his experiments on the crossing, he chose the pea lines, differ in one alternative feature (seeds smooth or wrinkled, semi-synedols, yellow or green, bob shape or with harshs, etc.). The offspring from each crossing he analyzed quantitatively, i.e. Calcated the number of plants with these signs, which no one did before him. Thanks to this approach (the choice of highly different signs), which lay down the basis of all subsequent genetic studies, Mendel showed that the signs of parents are not mixed with the descendants, but are transmitted from generation to generation unchanged.
Mendel's merit consists also in the fact that he gave in the hands of genetics a powerful method of study of hereditary signs - hybridological analysis, i.e. The method of studying genes by analyzing the signs of descendants from certain crossings. The laws of Mendel and Hybridological Analysis are based on events occurring in Meiosis: alternative alleles are in homologous hybrid chromosomes and therefore diverge to robust. It is a hybridological analysis that determines the requirements for objects of general genetic studies: it must be easily cultivated organisms that give numerous offspring and having a short reproductive period. Such requirements among the highest organisms are the fruit fly of the Drozophile - Drosophila Melanogaster. For many years, she has become a favorite object of genetic studies. The efforts of the genetics of different countries on it were discovered fundamental genetic phenomena. It was found that the genes are located in chromosomes linearly and their distribution in the descendants depends on the processes of MEIOS; That genes located in the same chromosome are inherited together (adhesion of genes) and are susceptible to recombination (crosslinker). The genes localized in sex chromosomes are open, the nature of their inheritance is established, the genetic bases of the floor determination are revealed. It was also found that the genes are not unchanged, but are subject to mutations; That the gene is a complex structure and there are many forms (alleles) of the same gene.
Then the object of more scrupulous genetic studies were microorganisms on which the molecular mechanisms of heredity began to study. So, on the intestinal wand ESCHERISHIA Coli. The phenomenon of bacterial transformation was opened - the inclusion of DNA belonging to the donor cell, into the cell of the recipient - and for the first time it was proved that it was the DNA that is the carrier of genes. DNA structure was opened, the genetic code was decrypted, the molecular mechanisms of mutations, recombination, genomic rearrangements were revealed, the regulation of the gene activity, the phenomenon of the movement of elements of genome, etc. ( cm. CELL; HEREDITY; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY) . Along with the specified modeling organisms, genetic studies were conducted on the set of other species, and the universality of the main genetic mechanisms and the methods of their study was shown for all organisms - from viruses to humans.
Achievements and problems of modern genetics.
Based on genetic studies, new areas of knowledge arose (molecular biology, molecular genetics), corresponding biotechnologies (such as gene engineering) and methods (for example, polymerase chain reaction), allowing to identify and synthesize nucleotide sequences, embed them in the genome, to obtain hybrid DNAs with the properties that were not existed in nature. Many drugs have been obtained, without which medicine is already unthinkable ( cm. GENETIC ENGINEERING) . The principles of exchanging transgenic plants and animals with signs of different species have been developed. It became possible to characterize individuals in many polymorphic DNA markers: microsatellites, nucleotide sequences, etc. Most molecular biological methods do not require hybridological analysis. However, in the study of signs, analyzing markers and mapping genes, this classical method of genetics is still needed.
Like any other science, genetics was and remains weapon of unscrupulous scientists and politicians. Such a branch as Evgenik, according to which the development of a person is fully determined by its genotype, served as the basis for creating racial theories and sterilization programs in the 1930-1960s. On the contrary, the denial of the role of genes and the adoption of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe dominant role of the medium led to the termination of genetic studies in the USSR from the late 1940s to the mid-1960s. Now there are environmental and ethical problems in connection with the work on the creation of "chimer" - transgenic plants and animals, "copying" animals by transplanting a cell core into a fertilized egg, genetic "passport" of people, etc. In leading powers of the world, laws are accepted that the aim of preventing unwanted consequences of such works.
Modern genetics provided new opportunities for researching the body's activities: with the help of induced mutations, it is possible to turn off and include almost any physiological processes, interrupt protein biosynthesis in the cell, change morphogenesis, stop development at a certain stage. We can now continue to investigate population and evolutionary processes ( cm. Population genetics), study hereditary diseases ( cm. Genetic counseling), problem of cancer and much more. In recent years, the rapid development of molecular biological approaches and methods has allowed geneticists not only to decipher the genomes of many organisms, but also construct living beings with specified properties. Thus, genetics opens ways to model biological processes and contributes to the fact that biology after a long period of crushing into individual disciplines enters into the era of combining and synthesizing knowledge.
Genetics
GENETICS [NE], - and; g. [from Greek. Genētikos - relevant, origin]. Science on the laws of heredity and variability of organisms. Human. G. Plants. Medical Space
genetics(from Greek. Génesis - origin), science on the laws of heredity and variability of organisms and methods of managing them. Depending on the object of the study, the genetics of microorganisms, plants, animals and humans differ, and on the level of the study - molecular genetics, cytogenetics, etc. The foundations of modern genetics are laid down by G. Mendel, who opened the laws of discrete heredity (1865), and school T. H. Morgan , substantiated chromosomal theory of heredity (1910th). In the USSR in the 20-30s. The outstanding contribution to the genetics was made by the work of N. I. Vavilov, N. K. Koltsov, S. S. Chetverikova, A. S. Sererovsky and others from the mid-30s. And especially after the session, the anti-scientific views of T. D. Lysenko prevailed in Soviet genetics (unrecognized "Michurinsky teaching") that until 1965 stopped her development and led to the destruction of major genetic schools. The rapid development of genetics during this period abroad, especially molecular genetics in the second half of the XX century, made it possible to reveal the structure of genetic material, to understand the mechanism of its work. Ideas and methods of genetics are used to solve the problems of medicine, agriculture, microbiological industry. Its achievements led to the development of genetic engineering and biotechnology.
GENETICSGenetics (from Grech. Genesis - origin), science on the laws of heredity and variability of organisms and methods of management of them. Depending on the object, the study distinguishes the genetics of microorganisms, plants, animals and humans, and on the level of the study - molecular genetics, cytogenetics, etc. The foundations of modern genetics are laid down by G. Mendel (cm. Mendel Gregor Johann)discovered by the laws of discrete heredity (1865), and school T. H. Morgan, who substantiated chromosomal theory of heredity (1910s). In the USSR, in the 1920s and 1930s, N. I. Vavilov made an outstanding contribution to genetics (cm. Vavilov Nikolai Ivanovich), N. K. Koltsova, S. S. Chetverikova, A. S. Sererovsky et al. With gray. 1930s, and especially after the session, Vaschnil 1948, the anti-scientific views of T. D. Lysenko prevailed in Soviet genetics (unreasonably named by the Michurin teaching), which until 1965 stopped its development and led to the destruction of major genetic schools. The rapid development of genetics during this period abroad, especially molecular genetics in the 2nd floor. 20 V., allowed to reveal the structure of genetic material, to understand the mechanism of its work. Ideas and methods of genetics are used to solve the problems of medicine, agriculture, microbiological industry. Its achievements led to the development of genetic engineering (cm. Genetic Engineering)and biotechnology (cm. BIOTECHNOLOGY).
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Genetics (from Greek. Genesis - origin), Science, which studies the patterns of heredity and variability of organisms.
The main stages of the history of genetics
Various speculative ideas about heredity and variability were expressed by antichny philosophers and doctors. For the most part, these ideas were erroneous, but sometimes brilliant guesses appeared among them. So, the Roman philosopher and the poet of Lucretia car (cm. Lucretia) I wrote in my famous poem "On the nature of things" about "first" (hereditary deposits), determining the transmission from generation to the generation of signs from ancestors to descendants, about what is happening with the random combination ("draw") of these signs, denied the possibility of changing hereditary signs Under the influence of external conditions. However, genuinely scientific knowledge of heredity and variability began only after many centuries, when many accurate information was accumulated about inheritance of various signs in plants, animals and humans. The number of such observations carried out mainly by crop and livestock practitioners, especially increased from mid-18 to the middle of the 19th century. The most valuable data were obtained by I. Kelreteer and A. Gerdner (Germany), O. Sažre and Sh. Noden (France), T. Knight (England). Based on the interspecific and intraspecific plant crossings, they found a number of important factors relating to the strengthening of signs in the offspring of hybrids, the predominance of the descendants of the signs of one of the parents, etc. Similar generalizations made in France P. Luke (1847-1850), which collected extensive information On the inheritance of various signs in humans. Nevertheless, clear ideas about the patterns of inheritance and heredity up to the end of the 19th century were not over one significant exception. This exception was the wonderful job of Mendel (cm. Mendel Gregor Johann)The most important laws of inheritance of signs, which subsequently formed the basis of genetics subsequently formed in the experiments on hybridization of the pea. However, the work of the city of Mendel [reported to them in 1865 at a meeting of the Society of Sciences of G. Bunnin (Brno) and printed the next year in the writings of this society] was not evaluated by contemporaries and, remaining forngering 35 years, did not affect the presentations common in the 19th century heredity and variability. The appearance of evolutionary theories J. B. Lamarca (cm. Lamark Jean Batist)And then Ch. Darwin strengthened in the second half of the 19th century interest in the problems of variability and heredity, since the evolution is possible only on the basis of the emergence of changes in the living beings and their preservation from the descendants. This prompted prominent biologists of that time to put forward several hypotheses about the mechanism of heredity, much more detailed than the previously proposed. Although these hypotheses were largely speculative and were further disproved by experimental studies, three of them, along with erroneous, also contained the confirmed provisions. The first belonged to Ch. Darwin, who called her "temporary hypothesis of paranesis" (see Pangenesis (cm. PAGENENESIS)). In this hypothesis, there was a correct guess that sex cells contain special particles that determine the development of signs of descendants. In the second hypothesis, nominated by the German botanist K. Nemelay, contained the right idea that each cell of the body contains a special substance ("idioplasm"), which determines the hereditary properties of the body. The most detailed was the third hypothesis proposed by the German zoologist A. Veisman (cm. Weisman August). He also believed that in the genital cells there is a special substance - a carrier of heredity ("germinal plasma"). Relying on the information about the mechanism of cell division, Weisman identified this substance with chromosomes. The assumption of the leading role of chromosomes in the transfer of hereditary properties was right and weissman fairly consider the forerunner of chromosomal theory of heredity (cm. Chromosomal theory of heredity). His claims were also correct on the large value of crossings, as the causes of variability, and the denial of inheritance of acquired features.
The date of birth of genetics is considered to be 1900, when three botany - De Fris (cm. De frieze hugo) (Holland), K. Korrens (cm. Kornz Karl Erich) (Germany) and E. Chermak (cm. Chermak Zeizengg) (Austria), conducted experiments on the hybridization of plants, came across independently of each other for the forgotten work of Mendel. They were amazed by the similarity of its results with them, they estimate the depth, accuracy and importance of the conclusions made to them and published their data showing that they fully confirm the conclusions of Mendel. Further development of genetics is associated with a number of stages, each of which was characterized by the areas of research prevailing at that time. The boundaries between these stages are largely conditional - the steps are closely related to each other, and the transition from one stage to another became possible due to the discoveries made in the previous one. Along with the development of the most characteristic of each stage of new directions, the study of those problems that were main earlier continued, and then in one way or another moved to the background. With this reservation, you can divide the history of genetics into six main steps.
The first stage (from 1900 approximately 1912), called Mendelaminism (cm. Mendelism), It is a period of approval of the laws open by Mendel inheritance on the basis of hybridological experiments conducted in different countries on higher plants and animals (laboratory rodents, chickens, butterflies, etc.), as a result of which it turned out that these laws are universal. The name "Genetics" of the developing science gave in 1906 an English scientist W. Baton, and such important genetic concepts as a gene (cm. Gene (hereditary factor)), Genotype (cm. GENOTYPE), phenotype (cm. PHENOTYPE)which were offered in 1909 Danish Genetic B. Johansen (cm. Johansen Wilhelm Ludwig) . Along with the most characteristic of this initial stage of the history of genetics by works confirming the validity of Mendel's laws in different facilities, and some new areas of research that have been developed in subsequent periods also originated during the same years. First, it is a synthesis of information about chromosomes, mitosis and meyosis with genetics data. Already in 1902 T. Boverty (Germany) and W. Setton (USA) drew attention to the full parallelism of the discrepancy of chromosomes and their recoming during meyosis and fertilization with the splitting and reconnection of hereditary features according to the laws of Mendel, which served as an important prerequisite for the occurrence of the chromosomal theory of heredity.
Secondly, it turned out that, although most of those studied by the time of the hereditary signs of various organisms were transferred from generation to generation in full compliance with the laws of Mendel, there were exceptions. So, the English genetics of W. Batson and R. Pennet in 1906 in experiments with fragrant peas found the phenomenon of the adhesive inheritance of some signs, and the other English geneticist L. Doncaster in the same year in experiments with the gooseberry spine opened the inheritance with the floor. And in that and in another case, the inheritance of the signs occurred otherwise than the laws of Mendel predicted. The number of examples of both types of deviations from Mendelian inheritance was then rapidly increased, but only at the next stage of the history of genetics, it turned out that there is no fundamental contradiction with Mendelism in these cases and that this apparent contradiction is explained in the framework of the chromosomal theory of heredity. Thirdly, the study of suddenly emerging and persistently inherited changes - mutations began. This, especially great merits belonged to G. de Frize (1901, 1903), and in Russia S. N. Korzhinsky (1892). At the first stage of the development of genetics, the first attempts also appeared to consider in the light of its data the problems of evolutionary teaching. Three such attempts undertaken by W. Batson (England), D. De Friz and Ya. Latse (Holland), reflected the desire of the authors to use the basics of genetics to revise the provisions of Darwinism. The inconsistency of these attempts also indicated in a number of critical articles K. A. Timiryazev, who one of the first noted that Mendelism not only does not contradict Darwinism, but, on the contrary, reinforces it, removing some important objections that put forward against the theory of Darwin.
A distinctive feature of the second phase of the development of genetics (approximately 1912-1925) was the creation and approval of the chromosomal theory of heredity. The leading role in this was played by experimental works of the American genetics T. Morgan and his students (A. Svetevant, K. Bridges and Meller), held in the period from 1909 to 1919 on Drozophile. These works, then confirmed in other laboratories and other organisms, showed that the genes lie in the chromosomes of the cell nucleus and that the transfer of hereditary signs, including such, whose inheritance, at first glance, does not fit into the laws of Mendel is determined by the behavior of chromosomes in the ripening of genital cells and fertilization. This conclusion was flowing out of studies conducted by two independent methods - hybridological and cytological methods that were mutually confirming the results. Genetic works of the Morgan School showed the ability to build maps chromosomes with an exact location of various genes (see genetic maps (cm. Chromosome genetic maps)). On the basis of the chromosomal theory of heredity, a chromosomal gender determination mechanism was founded. Large merits in this belonged to the Morgan, the American cytologist E. Wilson. At the same time, other work began on genetics, among which the research of the German genetics R. Goldshmidt had special importance. The chromosomal theory of heredity was the largest achievement of this stage of the development of genetics and largely determined the path of further genetic studies.
If a simplified idea was common in the first years of development of Mendelamines, that each hereditary sign of the body is determined by the special genome, then in the period under review, it became clear that any such sign was determined by the interaction of MN. Genov (Epistasis (cm. Epistasis)Polymeria (cm. POLYMERISM)et al.), and each gene in one way or another affects different signs (Pleotropia (cm. Pleotropy)). In addition, it turned out that the ability of the gene to manifest itself in the physician phenotype (penetrantiness (cm. Penetrant)) and its degree of action on the phenotype (expressiveness (cm. Expressiveness)) It may be dependent, sometimes to a large extent, from the effect of the environment or the action of other genes. The submissions on the penetration and expressity of the genes were first formulated in 1925 N. V. Timofeev-Resovsky (cm. Timofeev-Resovsky Nikolay Vladimirovich) Based on the results of his experiments with Drosofil.
In the same period, some directions of genetics are rapidly developing, important for the development of genetic bases of selection, seed production and tribal case: the study of the patterns of inheritance of quantitative signs (the research of the Swedish genetics of Nilson-Ele) is especially important), clarification of the nature of heterosis (cm. Heterosis) (works of American geneticists E. Ista and D. Jones), studies of comparative genetics of cultivated plants (outstanding works by N. I. Vavilov, who formed the basis of its law of homologous rows in hereditary variability), for interspecific hybridization of fruit plants (work I. in . Michurin in the USSR, L. Burbank in the USA), on the private genetics of cultivated plants and pets.
The formation of genetics in the USSR applies to the period under consideration, and its rapid development began in the 1920s, when there were three genetic schools, headed by N. K. Koltsov in Moscow, Yu. A. Filipichenko and N. I. Vavilov in Leningrad.
The next step (approximately 1925-1940) is associated with the opening of artificial mutagenesis. Until 1925, the opinion was quite widely extended to the statement of Weisman and especially the views of De Freise, that mutations arise in the body spontaneously under the influence of some purely internal reasons and do not depend on external influences. This erroneous concept was refuted in 1925 by the works of G. A. Nadon and G. S. Filippov for artificially invoking mutations, and then experimentally proved by the experiments of Meller (1927) on the effects of X-rays on drosophila. The work of Metler stimulated numerous studies on mutagenesis at different objects, which showed that ionizing radiation - universal mutagens. Due to this, the study of the patterns of mutagenic action of radiation began; The studies of N. V. Timofeev-Resovsky and M. Delbruck were particularly valuable, found a direct dependence of the frequency of induced mutations from the dose of radiation and those assumed in 1935 that these mutations are caused by direct hit in the quantum gene or ionizing particle (target theory). In the future, it is shown that ultraviolet rays, chemicals have a mutagenic effect. The first chemical mutagens were opened in the 1930s in the USSR V. V. Sakharov, M. E. Lobashev and S. M. Gershenzon. Thanks to the studies of I. A. Rappoporta in the USSR and Sh. Auerbach and J. Robson in the UK, in 1946 Supermutagemen detected ethylenimine and nitrous hyperture.
Studies in this area led to rapid progress in the knowledge of the patterns of the mutation process and to clarify some issues relating to the subtle structure of the gene. In the late 1920s - early 1930s, A. S. Serebrovsky and his students received the first data pointing to the complex structure of the gene from parts capable of mutating apart or together. The ability to induce mutations has opened new prospects for the practical use of genetics achievements. In different countries, work began on the use of radiation mutagenesis to obtain the source material when creating new forms of cultivated plants. In the USSR, the initiators of such a "radiation selection" were A. A. Sapegin and L. N. Delon.
At the same stage of the development of genetics, a direction that studies the role of genetic processes in evolution has arisen. The theoretical works of English genetics R. Fisher and J. Holdane, American genetics S. Wright and Experimental studies S. S. Chetherikova and its employees who first investigated the genetic structure of natural populations in several types of natural populations were fundamentally. Unlike some early mechanisters who opposed Darwinism, these scientists, relying on the high actual material accumulated since the genetics, convincingly showed that genetic data confirm and concretize the number of the basic principles of Darwinism, contribute to clarifying correlative importance in the evolution of natural selection, different Types of variability, insulation, etc. N. I. Vavilov and his students continued to successfully study the comparative genetics and the evolution of cultivated plants. Especially bright was the work of his talented employee of G. D. Karpechechenko, which, on the basis of interhoego hybridization, received a prolific radiated-cabbage hybrid. He experimentally proved the possibility of overcoming infertility among remote hybrids and reproduced one of the ways of forming new species in plants.
Great heyday during this period reached genetics in the USSR. In addition to the outstanding works mentioned above, in different fields of genetics, important results were obtained recognized by the genetics of the whole world. Among them are the works B. L. Astaurova, which in experiments on a tute silkworm developed by them by genetic methods first proved the opportunity to regulate the frequency of individual sex at the offspring, M. M. Zavadovsky on the development of sexual signs in vertebrates, G. A. Leviticus on classification and variability of karyotypes and their evolution. Research A. A. Sapegin, K. K. Meister, A. R. Zhabraak on private genetics and genetic basics of plant selection, works A. S. Sererovsky, S. G. Davydova, D. A. Kislovsky on private genetics and genetic bases of pet selection. N. K. Koltsov (cm. Koltsov Nikolai Konstantinovich) In 1927, the concept that chromosome with genes represents one gigantic organic molecule and that the reproduction of this hereditary molecule is carried out by the matrix path. It was later confirmed when genetic processes began to study at the molecular level (the truth turned out that the genetic material is not protein, as Koltsov believed, and DNA).
In the late 1920s, a lively discussion took place in the USSR whether modifications could be inherited (they were then called "acquired signs"), i.e., phenotypic changes caused in the body of the body by exposure to external conditions (food, temperature, humidity, lighting etc.) and exercise or inappropriate organs. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe possibility of inheritance of modifications was at that time almost completely rejected in foreign genetics on the basis of numerous experienced data, but in the USSR, some biologists, especially E. S. Smirnov, E. M. Vermel and A. M. Kuzin, this opportunity was divided and promoted. They were supported by Moscow philosophers M. B. Mitin, P. F. Yudin et al., Claimed that this neolamarkist concept allegedly corresponds to the philosophy of dialectical materialism. This dispute lasted for several years, although the fallacy of the theory of inheritance of modifications was convincingly demonstrated and owls. Geneticists N. K. Koltsovsky, Yu. A. Filipichenko, A. S. Serebrovsky, S. S. Chetverikov and Zologami A. S. Severrtov and I. I. Schmalgausen. The last later put forward important considerations that the scope and nature of modifications, although they are not inherited, dependes not only from external influences, but also from the "norm of the reaction" of the body determined by its genotype. The erroneous idea of \u200b\u200binheritance acquired signs was subsequently reborn in the anti-scientific views of T. D. Lysenko.
The most characteristic features of the fourth stage of the history of genetics (approximately 1940-1955) were the rapid development of works on the genetics of physiological and biochemical signs, due to the involvement of new objects in genetic experiments in the circle of genetic experiments - microorganisms and viruses. The possibility of obtaining huge offspring in these objects in a short time has sharply increased the resolving ability of genetic analysis and allowed to investigate many previously inaccessible aspects of genetic phenomena.
The study of biochemical processes underlying the formation of hereditary signs of different organisms, including Drozophils and especially the mold of neuroscience, shed light on how genes act and, in particular, as enzymes synthesized in the body are affected. This led to a generalization made in the 1940s by American geneticists J. Bidle and E. Tetem, according to which any gene defines the synthesis of one enzyme (the formula "One gene - one enzyme" was subsequently clarified "one gene - one protein" or even "One gene is one polypeptide").
In the late 19th and early 40s, the works of American geneticists M. Green and E. Lewis in experiments on a drosophyl was clearly proven by the complex structure and the frambeness of the gene, i.e., similar data obtained by A. S. Sererovsky were confirmed (cm. Silver Alexander Sergeevich).
In 1944, the American geneticist O. Eyveri with employees in the work on finding out the nature of genetic transformation in bacteria showed that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) chromosome (DNA) of the chromosome serves as a carrier of hereditary potencies (genetic information). This discovery served as a powerful impetus to the study of a subtle chemical structure, biosynthesis paths and biological functions of nucleic acids and was the starting point with which the development of molecular genetics and all molecular biology began. The most important achievements of the end of the fourth period is the establishment of the fact that their nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) is served by the infectious element of viruses, as well as the opening in 1952 by US Genetics by J. Lederberg and M. Zinder Transduction (cm. Transduction) , i.e. transferring viruses of the host genes, and finding out the structure of DNA molecules (t. n. double spiral) English physicist F. Creek and American Genetic J. Watson in 1953. The last work has played an outstanding role in all the subsequent development of genetics and all biology .
Thanks to the progress of biochemical genetics, large successes were achieved in genetic and cytological studies of hereditary diseases. (cm. Hereditary diseases) man. As a result, a new direction was a medical genetics.
Further development was obtained by work on the genetics of natural populations. Especially intense they were held in the USSR N. P. Dubinin with employees and S. M. Gershenzon with employees, and in the USA F. G. Blyuansky. During these studies, the role of various types of mutations in evolution, the effect of natural selection, isolation and genetic drift on the genetic structure of natural populations are shown. The discovery of a number of strong chemical mutagens served to the rapid progress of chemical mutagenesis. At the same years, the first highly productive varieties of cultural plants, created on the basis of mutations, artificially caused by radiation, began to be used with the same purpose of chemical mutagens; Methods of using heterosisis were introduced into practice, especially in corn and tute silkworm.
Until the 1940s, genetic studies in the USSR developed as a whole successfully and occupied one of the leading places in the world. With the establishment of the Sov. Biology of full-awake domination T. D. Lysenko and his associates, the rapid nomination of which began in the mid-1930s and reached apogee in 1948, genetics in the USSR was actually crushed.
The fifth stage of the genetics history (approximately from the mid-1950s before the early 1970s) is characterized by the study of genetic phenomena mainly at the molecular level, which has become possible due to the rapid introduction into genetics, as in other areas of biology, new chemical, physical and physical and Mathematical methods.
It was found that the genes are areas of giant polymer DNA molecules and differ in the number and procedure for the alternation of the components of their nucleotide pairs. The joint efforts of genetics, physicists and chemists it was found that hereditary information transmitted from parents to descendants is encoded by a sequence of nucleotide pairs in genes. With the help of enzymes, it is rewritten (transcription) into a nucleotide sequence of single-sequence molecules of matrix (information) RNAs, which determine the amino acid sequence of proteins synthesized (translation), which cause the basic properties of the body (in RNA-containing viruses, genetic information is encoded in the nucleotide sequence of their RNA). In decoding genetic code (cm. Code genetic)Having been versatile for all living beings, the main merits belong to F. Scream, S. Brenner (United Kingdom), S. Ochua and M. Nirenberg (USA).
At the same years, thanks to the discovery of a number of enzymes (restrictasis), cutting the DNA thread at certain points into small fragments, learned to allocate genes from DNA chromosomes. In 1969 in the United States, H. G. Koran with employees carried out a chemical synthesis of gene.
In 1961, French genetics F. Jacob and J. Mono opened the regulatory mechanisms for the inclusion and shutdown of the operation of some protein synthesis genes from the intestinal sticks and developed on the basis of this data the concept of Opero (cm. Opera)which was later confirmed on other organisms.
As a result of the clarification of molecular mechanisms of mutations, great successes were achieved in finding and studying the action of new powerful chemical mutagens ("Supermutagenov") and in use in selective practice. Significantly advanced work and in MN. other areas of genetics - in the development of methods for protecting the genome of a person from the effects of physical and chemical mutagens of the environment, in the disclosure of molecular genetic mechanisms for regulating the individual development of organisms, in the study of previously poorly studied phenomena of non-core heredity carried out through plastists, mitochondria, plasmids. By the end of this period, there is a wide revival of genetic studies in the USSR (starting from 1965).
At the present stage of the history of genetics, which began in early 1970s, along with the progress of almost all previously established areas, molecular genetics developed especially intensively, which led to fundamental discoveries and, as a result, to the emergence and successful development of fundamentally new forms of applied genetics.
So, in the 1960s, the USSR S. M. Gershenzon with employees who studied the reproduction of one of the insect viruses, received new data in favor of the fact that genetic information can be transmitted from RNA to DNA (reverse transcription), and not just from DNA to RNA, which was previously considered the only transcription. In 1970, the American genetics of Tehin and D. Baltimore in experiments with some RNA-containing tumor animal viruses proved the existence of reverse transcription, revealed its molecular mechanism and allocated its enzyme-reverse transcriptase (reverse (cm. Reversal)) encoded by a viral genome. The opening of reverse transcription made it possible to artificially synthesize many physiologically active genes based on their matrix RNA and create gene banks (cm. Bank of genes)like artificially synthesized and natural. Most of these genes are already sequenced, i.e. they define the sequence of nucleotide pairs. The data obtained during sequencing led to the discovery of the introne-ecological structure of most eukaryotes genes.
Finding out that the reproduction of RNA-containing oncogenic viruses occurs with the use of reverse transcription (such viruses began to be called retroviruses (cm. Retroviruses)), played an important role in creating a modern molecular genetic concept of oncogenesis (cm. Oncogenez)- The emergence of malignant tumors. The virological nature of the occurrence of tumors was put forward in the middle. 1940s by the Soviet virologist L. A. Zilber, who worked with the DNA-contained oncogenic virus. However, its recognition in those years prevented that she could not explain how RNA-containing viruses cause malignant tumors. After opening reverse transcription, it became clear that the virological theory was applied to retroviruses to the same extent as to DNA-containing oncogenic viruses. In the future, the virusogenetic theory of malignant growth began to develop ch. arr. based on the hypothesis of oncogenes (cm. Oncogenes), first nominated by American scientists R. Hubner and J. Todar and confirmed by numerous experimental studies.
The fundamental importance for the development of genetics was also the opening and study of mobile genetic elements. (cm. Mobile genetic elements), first predicted B. Mak Clintok (cm. Mac Clint Barbara) Back in the late 1940s, based on genetic experiments on the corn. These data were not properly estimated until at the end of the 1960s, the bacteria genetics did not lead to the discovery of two classes of mobile genetic elements. Decade After D. Hognes with employees (USA) and independently of them, G. P. Georgiev with employees (USSR) revealed mobile genetic elements that were called mobile dispersed genes (MDH) in Drosophila. It was soon found that the movable genetic elements are also available in other eukaryotes.
Some mobile genetic elements are able to capture nearby genes and transfer them to the other of the genome. Such an ability of the Mobile P-Element of Drozophila was used by American geneticists in Rubin and A. Sprödling for the development of the transfer technique of any selected with the help of the restrictase of the plant chromosomes. This method has become widely used to study the role of regulatory genes in the work of structural genes, for the design of mosaic genes, etc.
The molecular genetic approach deepened an understanding of the mechanism of antibody synthesis (immunoglobulins (cm. Immunoglobulins)). The detection of structural genes encoding constant and variable chains of immunoglobulin molecules, and regulatory genes that ensure the agreed effect of these structural genes made it possible to explain how the synthesis of a huge number of different immunoglobulins is ensured based on a limited set of relevant genes.
Already at the initial stages of the development of genetics, an idea of \u200b\u200btwo basic types of variability was developed: hereditary, or genotypic, variability due to gene and chromosomal mutations and recombination of genes, and non-treating, or modifying, due to the impact on the signs of a developing organism of various environmental factors. In accordance with this, it was customary to consider the body's phenotype as a result of the interaction of genotype and environmental factors. However, this concept requested a significant addition. As early as 1928, B. L. Astaurov, on the basis of studying the variability of some mutant signs, Drozophili expressed the idea that one of the causes of variability could be random deviations during the development of certain signs (organs). In the 1980s, this thought received additional confirmation. The experiments of the city of Stanta (USA) and V. A. Strunennikova (USSR) conducted on different animals (nematodes, leeches, drosophyl, tute silkworm), it was shown that the pronounced variability of structural and physiological features is observed even among genetically identical (isogenic) individuals raised in perfectly homogeneous environment environment. This variability is obviously due to random deviations in the flow of various intracellular and intercellular ontogenetic processes, i.e., what can be characterized as "ontogenetic noise". In this regard, V. A. Stringnikov developed an idea of \u200b\u200b"realization variability", which participates in the formation of a phenotype along with genotypic and modification (for more details, see variability (cm. VARIABILITY)).
The successes of molecular genetics have created prerequisites for the emergence of four new directions of genetic studies of predominantly applied nature, the main purpose of which to change the genome of the body in the desired side. Genetic engineering has developed most quickly from these areas. (cm. Genetic Engineering) and the genetics of somatic cells ڮ Genetic engineering is divided into gene (artificial transfer of individual genes) and chromosomal (artificial transfer of chromosomes and their fragments). Methods of genetic engineering, the development of which began in 1972 in the United States in the laboratory of P. Berg, are widely used for industrial production of high-quality biological products used in medicine (insulin of a person, interferon, hepatitis V vaccines for diagnosing AIDS, etc.). With their help obtained a variety of transgenic animals (cm. Transgenic animals). Potato and sunflower plants enriched with a spare protein encoded by the bean genome, sunflower plants, enriched with a protein encoded by the corn genome. Very promising work in many laboratories in the world, on the transfer of nitrogen genes from soil bacteria to agricultural plants. Attempts to cure hereditary diseases by introducing a patient's "healthy" gene to the patient's body for substitution of a mutant, which is caused by the disease. Achievements in recombinant DNA technology that have made it possible to allocate many genes of other organisms, as well as the expansion of knowledge of the regulation of their expression allow you to hope for the implementation of this, which seemed before fantastic, ideas.
The method of chromosomal engineering allows you to transfer a diploid core of a somatic cell to a mammal with a remote kernel and introduce such an egg to the female umbrella, hormonally prepared for implantation. In this case, the descendant will be born, genetically identical individuals, from which a somatic cell is taken. Such descendants can be obtained from this individual an unlimited number, i.e., genetically cloned it (see cloning of animals (cm. Cloning animals)).
The studies conducted on the somatic cells of plants, animals and humans are practical importance. The selection of plant cells - producers of medicinal alkaloids (roots of fragrant, Rouvelop), in combination with mutagenesis, the content of these alkaloids in the cell mass is elevated 10-20 times. The selection of cells on nutrient media and the subsequent regeneration of whole plants from the cell callus are varieties of a number of cultivated plants, resistant to various herbicides and soil salinization. The hybridization of the somatic cells of different types and generics of plants, the sex hybridization of which is impossible or is very difficult, and the subsequent regeneration from the cellular callus have created different hybrid forms (cabbage - tour, cultural potatoes - wild views, etc.).
Another important achievement of the genetics of the somatic cells of animals is the creation of a hybrid (cm. Hybridoma)On the basis of which monoclonal antibodies, which serve to create highly specific vaccines, as well as to highlight the necessary enzyme from the mixture of enzymes.
Two more molecular genetic directions are very promising for practice - site-specific mutagenesis and the creation of antisense RNA. Site-specific mutagenesis (induction of mutations defined by restrictions of gene or its complementary DNA, and then the inclusion of a mutated gene in the genome to replace it with its unfinished allele) for the first time allowed inducing desirable, and not random gene mutations, and is already successfully used to obtain directional genes In bacteria and yeast.
Antisense RNA, the possibility of obtaining which was first shown in 1981 by the Japanese immunologist D. Tomizavava, can be used to target the level of synthesis of certain proteins, as well as for the directional inhibition of oncogenes and viral genomes. Studies conducted on these new genetic areas were aimed primarily on solving applied tasks. At the same time, they made a fundamental contribution to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe organization of genome, structure and functions of genes, the relationship between the nucleus genes and cellular organelles, etc.
The main tasks of genetics
Genetic studies are pursued by the goals of the twofold genus: the knowledge of the patterns of heredity and variability and the research paths of the practical use of these patterns. It is closely related: the solution of practical problems is based on the conclusions obtained in the study of fundamental genetic problems and at the same time delivers actual data important to expand and deepen theoretical representations.
From generation to generation transmitted (although sometimes in a somewhat distorted form) information on all diverse morphological, physiological and biochemical signs that should be realized from the descendants. Based on such a cybernetic nature of genetic processes, it is convenient to formulate four main theoretical problems studied by genetics:
First, the problem of storing genetic information. It is studied in what material structures of the cells were concluded genetic information and how it is encoded there (see Genetic code (cm. Code genetic)).
Secondly, the problem of transferring genetic information. The mechanisms and patterns of transmitting genetic information from the cell to the cell and from generation to generation are studied.
Third, the problem of implementing genetic information. It is studied as genetic information is embodied in specific signs of a developing body, interacting with the effects of the environment, in one way or another changing these signs, sometimes significantly.
Fourth, the problem of changing genetic information. Types, causes and mechanisms of these changes are studied.
The conclusions obtained in the study of the fundamental problems of heredity and variability serve as the basis for solving applications facing genetics.
Achievements of genetics are used to select the types of crossings, which are best affecting the genotypical structure (splitting) in the descendants, to select the most effective methods of selection, to regulate the development of hereditary signs, the management of the mutation process, aimed changed by the genome of the body using genetic engineering and site-specific mutagenesis . Knowing how different methods of selection affect the genotypical structure of the original population (breed, variety), allows you to use those selection techniques that will change this structure to the desired side. Understanding the ways of implementing genetic information during ontogenesis and the influence of these processes of the environment, help choose the conditions that contribute to the most complete manifestation of the valuable features and the "suppression" of unwanted. It is important for increasing the productivity of pets, cultivated plants and industrial microorganisms, as well as for medicine, as it allows you to prevent the manifestation of a number of hereditary human diseases.
The study of physical and chemical mutagens and the mechanism of their action makes it possible to artificially receive a set of hereditaryly modified forms, which contributes to the creation of improved strains of useful microorganisms and varieties of cultivated plants. The knowledge of the patterns of the mutational process is necessary for the development of measures to protect the genome of man and animals from damage to physical (ch. Radiation) and chemical mutagen.
The success of any genetic studies is determined not only by the knowledge of the general laws of heredity and variability, but also the knowledge of the private genetics of the organisms with which work is underway. Although the main laws of genetics are universal, they have in different organisms and features caused by differences, for example, in the biology of reproduction and structure of the genetic apparatus. In addition, for practical purposes it is necessary to know which genes are involved in determining the signs of this body. Therefore, the study of the genetics of specific characteristics of the body is a mandatory element of applied research.
The main sections of genetics
Modern genetics is represented by a variety of sections representing both theoretical and practical interest. Among the sections of general, or "classical", genetics are the main: genetic analysis, the basics of chromosomal theory of heredity, cytogenetics, cytoplasmic (extra-identical) heredity, mutation, modifications. Molecular genetics, ontogenesis genetics (phenogenetics), population genetics (genetic structure of populations, role of genetic factors in microevolution), evolutionary genetics (role of genetic factors in speciation and macroevolution), genetic engineering, genetics of somatic cells, immunogenetics, private genetics - genetics Bacteria, virus genetics, animal genetics, plants genetics, human genetics, medical genetics and MN. Dr. The newest sector of genetics - genomics - studies the processes of the formation and evolution of genomes.
Influence of genetics on other branches of biology
Genetics occupies a central place in modern biology, studying the phenomena of heredity and variability, to a greater degree determining all the main properties of living beings. The universality of genetic material and genetic code underlies the unity of the whole living, and the diversity of life forms is the result of its implementation in the course of the individual and historical development of living beings. Genetics achievements include an important part of almost all modern biological disciplines. The synthetic theory of evolution represents a close combination of darwinism and genetics. The same can be said about the modern biochemistry, the main provisions of which are controlled by the synthesis of the main components of living matter - proteins and nucleic acids are based on the achievements of molecular genetics. Cytology The main attention pays for the structure, reproduction and functioning of chromosomes, plastids and mitochondria, i.e. items in which genetic information was recorded. The systematics of animals, plants and microorganisms is becoming more widely by comparing genes encoding enzymes and other proteins, as well as direct comparison of nucleotide chromosome sequences to establish the degree of kinship of taxa and determine their phyloge. Different physiological processes of plants and animals are investigated on genetic models; In particular, in the studies of the physiology of the brain and the nervous system, they use special genetic methods, drosophila lines and laboratory mammals. Modern immunology is entirely built on genetic data on the mechanism of antibody synthesis. Achievements of genetics, to some extent, often very significant, are part of an integral part in virology, microbiology, embryology. With full right we can say that modern genetics occupies a central place among biological disciplines.
Genetics (from the Greek γ? Νεσις - origin), the science of heredity and variability - the universal properties of living organisms. The integrating position of genetics among other biological sciences is due to the subject of its research, which is largely determining all the main properties of living beings. Thanks to the discovers in the field of genetics, biology, along with physics and chemistry, since the beginning of the 20th century participated in the formation of a modern worldview in natural science. The term "genetics" was proposed in 1906 by W. Baton.
The study of the principal patterns of heredity and variability is the content of general genetics. Based on the object of the study, there is a private genetics of viruses, bacteria, mushrooms, plants, animals, human genetics, and depending on the level of organization of biological objects - cytogenetics, molecular genetics, phenogenetics, or ontogenetics, population genetics. Evolutionary genetics considers changes in the genetic material of various organisms during the historical development of life on Earth, based on genetic factors of populations dynamics: heredity, variability, selection, etc. Forecasting and preventing the undesirable consequences of human activities - the subject of genetic toxicology, which in turn, It is a section of ecological genetics that studies genetic mechanisms for the interaction of organisms in ecosystems. The knowledge of the hereditary diseases and the development of the methods of their early diagnosis, which allows to determine the risks of the development of hereditary diseases and prevent the occurrence of pathology and death of the patient, medical genetics are engaged. Methods and approaches of genetics play an important role in the development of other sections of biology, which is reflected in the title of various directions - immunogenetics, oncogenesis, radiation genetics, gene system, etc.
The main method of genetics is a hybridological analysis, which largely coincides with the method of genetic analysis. The development of the hybridological analysis method was reflected in the methods of remote hybridization, which make out the degree of evolutionary kinship of organisms. The methods of hybridization of somatic cells of animals and plants also received widespread. The birth of genetics was made possible through the use of the mathematical method (quantitative approach) when studying the results of crossings. The use of variation statistics to compare quantitative data of the experiment with theoretically expected is an integral part of the genetic analysis. Mathematical methods are used in the study of variability and inheritance of quantitative features, in computer modeling of genetic processes occurring in cells, organisms and populations, in the study of the primary structure of genomic DNA and the functions of genes (see bioinformatics, genomics). On this basis, a new science area is developing - systemic biology. In the study of the structural and functional organization of the genome, the cytological method, methods of molecular biology, biochemistry and physiology used to characterize inherited features at the level of metabolism and cellular structures, to study the properties of proteins and nucleic acids, are used. For the same purposes, the methods of immunology and immunochemistry are served, allowing to identify even meager amounts of gene products, primarily proteins. Genetics widely uses methods of chemistry and physics: analytical, optical, sedimentation, isotopic analysis, various types of labels for marking and identifying macromolecules. Genetics working with various facilities apply methods of zoology, botany, microbiology, virology and other related biological sciences. Modern methods and approaches of evolutionary biology are becoming increasingly important for the development of genetics.
The so-called model objects are widely used in genetics, i.e. lines and genetic collections of species with well-developed private genetics, convenient when studying the mutation process, recombination, regulation of the gene, etc., one of the main requirements for model objects is a short life The cycle, big fertility, the abundance of clear, easily accounted for signs, the development of methods of genetic analysis. The most convenient model objects with fully deciphered genomes - the yeast of the Saccharomyces genus, nematodes of Caenorhabditis Elegans, the Arabidopsis Thaliana plant (Cruciferous family). As an object for genetic experiments with mammals, a mouse is usually used.
The origin and main stages of the development of genetics. The first ideas about heredity are contained in the works of scientists an antique era. Already by the 5th century BC, two main theories were formed: direct (hippocrates) and indirect (Aristotle) \u200b\u200binheritance. The theory of direct inheritance, explaining the origin of the genital cells from all organs of the body, existed the 23nd century. The latest serious variation on this topic can be considered the theory of Pangenisis (1868) Ch. Darwin. In the middle of the 19th century, Mendel proposed the fundamental method of genetics - genetic analysis. In 1865, in experiments with pea, he opened the laws of indirect inheritance of signs by transferring their discrete departments (factors), or genes, as they are now called. These discoveries were not perceived by contemporaries and the official year of the birth of genetics is considered to be 1900, when H. de Friz, K. Korrens and E. Chermak Zeizengg re-opened the laws of Mendel, who received universal recognition. This was facilitated by the development of cell theory in the 2nd half of the 19th century: a description of the behavior of chromosomes during cell division (mitosis, meyosis) and in fertilization in plants and animals, the establishment of constancy of chromosomal sets, the emergence (VV, German scientists E. Strasburger, O. Gertig) and the proof (T. Bovteri) nuclear hypothesis of heredity. Created by A. Weisman mainly the speculative theory of heredity in many ways anticipated chromosomal theory. It also owns an explanation of the biological significance of the reduction of the number of chromosomes in MEIZE as a mechanism for maintaining the constancy of the diploid chromosomal set of the species and the basics of combinative variability in organisms that breed the sexual way.
In 1901, H. de Fris substantiated a mutation theory, in many respects coincided with the theory of heterogenesis S. I. Korzhzhinsky (1899). According to this theory, hereditary signs are not absolutely permanent, and may vaporly change due to the mutation of their deposit. In 1909, V. Johansen proposed to call the Mendelian one of heredity (deposit) genome, a set of genes - genotype, or a genetic constitution, and a set of signs - an organism phenotype.
In the 1920s, in experiments with fruit flock (Drosophila Melanogaster) T. H. Morgan, along with his students (K. Bridges, Möller and A. Stertugent) formulated a chromosomal theory of heredity and laid the foundations of the theory of gene - elementary carrier of hereditary information . N. I. Vavilov developed the idea of \u200b\u200bnatural intraspecific variability in its law of homologous series of hereditary variability (1920). This law summarized the enormous actual material about the parallelism of the variability of loved ones and species, tied together genetics and systematics on the path of subsequent synthesis of genetics and evolutionary teaching. In 1925, the theory of the mutational process was enriched with the discovery of induced mutagenesis: Russian microbiologists G. A. Naddson and G. S. Filippov found the influence of radioactive radiation on the mutation process at the lower mushrooms, in 1927, Möller demonstrated the mutagenic effect of X-rays in experiments with Drosophilic. Chemical mutagenesis was first opened by M. N. Meissel in yeast (1928), and Soon V.V. Sakharov and M. E. Lobachev in Drosophila (1932-34). Highly efficient chemical mutagens, or supermutagenes, were used in 1946 by I. A. Rapoport (Ethylenimine) and English scientists Sh. Auerbach and J. Robson (nitrogeny hprite). All this significantly expanded the possibilities of genetic analysis, increased its resolution. In the same period, Lobachev (1946) proposed a physiological hypothesis of the mutational process, firstly taking the mechanisms of mutagenesis with reparation (restoration) of the cell after damage.
In the early 1940s, J. Bidl and E. Tetem developed the basics of biochemical genetics. Studying Neurospora Crassa, mutations that violate various stages of cellular metabolism, they suggested that the genes control the biosynthesis of enzymes (the principle of "one gene is one enzyme"). In 1944, American scientists O. Avery, K. Mac-Lodode and M. McCarthy showed that the transforming agent carrying hereditary signs between bacteria strains (pneumococci) are DNA molecules. The discovery of the genetic role of nucleic acids led to the birth of molecular genetics. The structure of the DNA molecule (double helix) in 1953 was deciphered by J. Watson and F. Creek, summarizing X-ray diffraction data obtained in M. Wilkins laboratories and R. Franklin, as well as data from E. Chargaff about the chemical structure of DNA. It turned out that hereditary information is encoded in the DNA nucleotide sequence, and the genes differ from each other with alternating nucleotides. Mutations are changes in alternating (sequence) of nucleotides. In the complementarity of the threads of the double spiral of DNA, the possibility of replication - gene reproduction is laid. The proof of the DNA role in heredity symbolized the triumph of the matrix principle of reproduction of the genetic material proposed in 1928 by N. K. Koltsov. The further development of the matrix principle is associated with the discovery of matrix (information) RNA (MRNA), with the clarification of the mechanism of protein synthesis and the decoding of the genetic code (1961-65) cry with employees, M. U. Nirenberg, H. G. Korana, as well as S. Ochoa and others. The value of the matrix principle in the implementation of genetic information reflects the "Central Dogma of Molecular Biology" (DNA → RNA → Protein), formulated by Cry in 1958. In 1961, French researchers F. Jacob and J. Mono proposed the theory of opera - an idea of \u200b\u200bthe regulation of expression of bacterial genes at the transcription level.
In Russia, research on genetics began to develop after 1917 on the basis of two scientific schools - Moscow and Petrograd (Leningrad). In 1919, Yu. A. Filipichenko founded the first department of genetics in Petrograd University in the country, in 1921, he organized a research laboratory on genetics at the Academy of Sciences, on the basis of which in 1933 the Institute of Genetics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was created. In 1929, he published the first textbook "Genetics", uniting the books written by him earlier: "The variability and methods of its study" and "heredity". In 1932, another department was opened in the University of Leningrad - plants genetics; He supervised by G. D. Karpechechenko, who for the first time experimentally united two genomes of different plant species, thereby developing the ideas about remote hybridization and species in plants.
In the 1920s and 30s, the institute of experimental biology in Moscow became the largest genetic research center in Moscow. In this institute, I fulfilled its fundamental work of S. S. Chetverikov, which revealed the importance of the mutational process in natural populations. In 1929-32, scientists led by A. S. Sererovsky, using the method induced mutagenesis, were the first to show the complex structure of the gene using the example of drosophila. Silver formulated also the concept of gene pool. In 1930, he founded the Department of Genetics in Moscow State University; In 1948, he created the classic work "Genetic Analysis", which saw the light only in 1970. Achievements of Soviet genetics and breeders in the 1920-30s received world recognition, but in the late 1930s, with the support of the Communist Party and the Soviet government, the pseudo-nations of T. D. Lysenko began to spread in domestic biology, which spoke against the "classical" Genetics from the standpoint of vulgar lamarcism. After the session, the 1948 genetics in the USSR was banned as "bourgeois lzhenauca". As a result of this absurd policy, a whole generation was devoid of normal genetic education and a great damage was made to the development of biology, medicine and agriculture. Only after 1957 began to teach genetics again and genetic research institutes were organized.
The current state of genetics.Modern genetics is one of the most intensively developing areas of biology. Opening by V. Arber (1962) Enzymes - endonuclease restriction (restrictas) marked the beginning of the physical mapping of genomes (DNA molecules), and also formed the basis of one of the methods for determining the primary structure (sequencing) of DNA. This method was created in the early 1970s American researchers A. Maxam and W. Gilbert, who used the developments of A. D. Mirzabekova and E. D. Sverdlova. In 1973, F. Senger proposed a sequencing method based on the electoral stop of DNA replication on each of the nucleotides included in its composition. In the 1960s and 1970s, P. Berg et al. Carried out cloning of genes based on the technique of recombinant DNA. The discovery of K. Mallis (USA) of the polymerase chain reaction (1983) was of great importance, which allowed to selectively synthesize any DNA section in preparative quantities. All these methods have formed the basis of genetic engineering.
DNA enzymatic analysis was supplemented by the discovery of H. Temine and D. Baltimore (1970) RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase); Thanks to this discovery, it became possible to synthesize the DNA copies of any MRNA in vitro. These methods served as the basis for the so-called genomic projects aimed at establishing a complete nucleotide sequence of DNA of different types of organisms, of which the international project "Human genome", almost completed by the beginning of the 21st century. As a result of these works at the turn of the centuries, a new science was born - genomics. Comparative molecular biology of gene and genomics are essential for the development of evolutionary theory. In particular, F. Sharp and R. Roberts have shown in 1977 that the characteristic feature of eukaryot genes is the complex mosaic structure - alternation of exons and intron. The latter are not presented in the translated mRNA molecules, as they are removed during the "maturation" of their predecessors during the splicing (similar structure have archaebacterial genes, but not eubacteria). It turned out that splicing can be alternative in different tissues of a multicellular organism, due to which one gene is able to control the synthesis of several variants of the polypeptide chains.
Increasingly, the genetics pays to study the mobility of individual elements of the genome in evolution and during ontogenesis. Back in the 1950s, B. Mac Clintok opened mobile genetic elements in corn. In the future, mobile elements, or transposons, were detected from all studied organisms. They are given a significant role in the variability of genes, in particular with their duplication and subsequent divergence during evolution. The genes were changeable and in the course of individual development of multicellular organisms. In the late 1970s, S. Teregonaw found that the DNA sections encoding the variable and constant sections of the immunoglobulins of mice, located in the form of a continuous sequence in an adult animal, are spatially separated in their embryos and genital cells. In addition, immunoglobulin variability turned out to be associated with directional mutagenesis in certain areas of genes. Important to understand the mechanisms for maintaining stability and variability of genetic material have begun in the 2nd half of the 20th century work on DNA repair, providing damage arising from spontaneously or under the action of external factors (R. Bois and A. P. Howard Flanders, E . Vitkin, R. Pettidgeon and F. Khanauolat et al., USA).
At the turn of the 20-21th century, the study of the so-called epigenetic mechanisms of heredity and variability (non-affecting information laid in DNA or RNA) is intensively developing. In 1984, M. Susta (United Kingdom) and others described the genomic imprinting in mammals - the expression level of some genes depending on which parents are transmitted to the zygot. This phenomenon turned out to be associated with the nature of the modification of DNA molecules, mainly with its methylation in the body of parents. The interaction of two different modified genomes is the indispensable condition for the development of the organism of mammals, including a person. That is why the subsequent opening of the Irish researcher I. Wilmut (1997) is the possibility of cloning mammals, overcoming genomic imprinting - has become a real sensation. Already in the 21st century, the Netherlands scientist F. Sleuters with employees showed that small non-coding RNA molecules of about 20 nucleotides are involved in genomic imprinting, performing regulatory functions with respect to some conventional genes, as well as determining DNA modifications (methylation) or histones (methylation, acetylation).
Big resonance was developed by the development of prions (mainly by S. Prusiner in the 2nd half of the 20th century) - infectious agents carrying diseases such as "cow's rabies" and a number of neurodegenerative diseases of mature age in humans. Prion, like any other proteins, is not capable of replication, but its predecessor is one of the proteins of the nervous system - changing its spatial structure (without changing the primary structure), the pathogenic properties acquires and serves as a peculiar conformational matrix for newly synthesized homologous polypeptides. R. Weekens (1994) showed that prions can be cytoplasmic hereditary determinants of protein nature in the yeast Saccharomyces Cerevisiae, while mammalian prions are non-over, modifying change. These discoveries expanded the ideas about the epigenetic factors of heredity.
The cloning of genes, and then mammals, put the moral and ethical problems associated with the possibility of applying new methods for the study of man and treating its hereditary diseases. Human cloning is prohibited in most countries, and the use of methods of genetic engineering and genotherapy is associated with the need to follow a variety of rules and restrictions. At the end of the 20th century, great successes were achieved in the genetics and genomegology of the population of our country, primarily the school of the Russian genetics of Yu. G. Richkov. This direction explores the geographical distribution and frequency of alleles controlling both normal and pathological signs of a person, analyzes the genetic basis for the formation of ethnic groups and nationalities.
The value of genetics. Genetics is the theoretical basis of selection. Based on the private genetics of various facilities, breeders select the source material to create new varieties of plants, rocks of animals and strains of microorganisms. Thus, in 1930, the American geneticist M. Razz and the Soviet genetic M. I. Hadzhinov, the phenomenon of the cytoplasmic male sterility of corn became the basis of the seed production of this culture on a hybrid basis using heterogeneous. The latter finds use in the preparation of interlinear and variety hybrids of sorghum, sugar bits and many other cultures. Based on polyploidy of plants - multiplication of the number of chromosomal sets - economic and valuable forms of agricultural plants were created, for example, rye tetraploids (V. S. Fedorov, etc.), buckwheat (V. V. Sakharov). Based on Mendelian laws, breeders are bringing new rocks of fur animals with various coloring and shades of fur (mink, fox, ondatra, etc.) and some pets. Selection During the domestication of the fox gave a rich experimental material for developing the theory of the destabilizing selection function (D. K. Belyaev). The quantitative selection is used both to increase the yield of plants and to increase the meat and dairy productivity of farm animals. Methods of genetics are used in fish farming, poultry farming. For example, research on the genetics of populations was based on recommendations for the protection of commercial fish and their artificial breeding.
Mutational selection played a big role in the development of the microbiological industry (S. I. Alikhanyan, etc.): when creating strains - producers of antibiotics, vitamins, amino acids and other biologically active substances, as well as when creating "living fertilizers", for example, strains of symbiotic bacteria, capable of nitrogenation. Genetic engineering is successfully used to eliminate bacteria and yeast strains, synthesizing animal growth hormones, human interferons, to obtain plants and animals with a new combination of genes (see transgenic organisms). Transfer of anti-animal disease resistance genes to higher plants allows you to create living (edible) vaccines. Hybridization of somatic plant cells makes it possible to combine the genomes of species that never cross in nature.
Methods of genetics are used to diagnose hereditary diseases before the birth of a child or determining heterozygous carriages of gene and chromosomal anomalies. They allow to identify the predisposition genes to infectious and polygenic hereditary diseases and thereby predict the likelihood of disease development, plan preventive measures. On the basis of genetic engineering, a new area of \u200b\u200bmedicine has occurred - gene therapy, which develops ways to correct or replace the abnormal sections of the genome in the patient's somatic cells. The preservation of the optimal sizes and conditions for the existence of populations of plants, animals and microorganisms, their gene pool is the preservation of the natural wealth of genes, which can be used by a person in the selection process.
Leading genetic institutions, international organizations, periodic printing. Major Research and Training Centers Genetics in Russia: Institute of General Genetics named after N. I. Vavilova RAS, Institute of Cytology and Genetics of the SB RAS, Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biology of the Biology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Genetics and Selections of Industrial Microorganisms, All-Russian Institute of Crops named after N. I. Vavilova; Department of Genetics of the Moscow, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Saratov, Rostov and Tomsk State Universities. Research on genetics in foreign countries (outside the former USSR) is concentrated in universities and, as a rule, integrated into wholebiological research, making them a methodological basis. Specialized departments of genetics in them are extremely rare (including, for example, the departments of genetics at the University of California in Berkeley and the University of Washington in Seattle). Russian genetics and breeders brings together the Vavilovian society of genetics and breeders in the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Society of European Genetics - the European Genetic Federation (EF), the Genetic Organizations of the Total World - the International Genetic Federation (MGF). Every 5 years in various countries, the MGF Congress is held, on which the President and the Council of MGF are elected.
Articles on genetics Publish specialized magazines "Genetics" (M., 1965; also published in English), "Information Bulletin of the Vavilovsky Society of Genetics and Breeders" (Novosib., 1997), "Environmental Genetics" (SPB., 2003), and Also: "Cytology" (m.; L., 1959), "Ontogenesis" (M., 1970), "Journal of General Biology" (M., 1940), "Successes of Modern Biology" (m.; L., 1932 ) And some other biological profile magazines. The main international periodic publications include: "Genetics" (NY, 1916), "Journal of Genetics" (Camb., 1910), "Journal of Heredity" (Wash., 1910), "Annual Review Of Genetics" (Palo Alto, 1967), "Genetic Research" (CAMB., 1960) and many others.
Lit.: Lobashev M. E. Genetics. 2nd ed. L., 1967; Watson J. Molecular biology of gene. M., 1967; He is Double spiral. M., 1969; Stent, Calindar R. Molecular Genetics. 2nd ed. M., 1981; Lewin B. Gene. M., 1987; Ayala F., Kaiga J. Modern genetics: at 3 t. M., 1987-1988; Gaisinovich A. E. The origin and development of genetics. M., 1988; Inge-Evenomov S. G. Genetics with selection basics. M., 1989; Molecular biology cells: in 3 tons. 2nd ed. M., 1994; Gorbunova V.N., Baranov V.S. Introduction to molecular diagnostics and generating hereditary diseases. St. Petersburg, 1997; Zhimulev I. F. General and molecular genetics. 2nd ed. Novosib., 2003; Problems and prospects of molecular genetics. M., 2003-2004. T. 1-2; Bokkov N. P. Clinical genetics. 3rd ed. M., 2004; Schelkunov S. N. Genetic engineering. 2nd ed. Novosib., 2004.
S. G. Inge-Evenomov.
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