Results of the Paris and Washington conferences for the victorious powers. Macron made billions of dollars in concessions to "yellow vests
Organizer Paris Peace Conference there was the victorious side - the Entente countries, a bloc of more than twenty states. The conference, albeit intermittently, lasted more than a year - from January 18, 1919 to January 21, 1920... Winners and losers discussed the scheme of the post-war world - what will it be?
Member countries.
At the beginning Paris Peace Conference of 1919 years it was attended only by the states from the Entente bloc - the winners in the war that ended. They were the ones who drew up agreements, contracts and conditions for the losers.
Germany and its allies were invited to Paris later - and not to discuss the decisions made, but simply to announce the final positions.
Russia, which took the largest part in the First World War, was completely left out of the conference. None of the leaders who could have run the country at that time were invited to Paris.
The main role at the conference in Paris was played by representatives of three countries - Clemenceau from France, Lloyd George from Great Britain and Wilson from the USA. They were also called the “great three”. They were the ones who actually made the decisions, discussing options among themselves.
Conference conventions in Paris.
After a year of work, the Paris Peace Conference was able to prepare several treaties concerning the post-war division of the world and sanctions for the defeated countries:
- Saint-Germain Treaty;
- Treaty of Versailles;
- Treaty of Trianon;
- Neuilly Treaty;
- Treaty of Sevres.
It was these agreements that became the cornerstone of the Versailles-Washington system, which was established in the world.
The "Armenian question" can be taken out as a separate item. Armenia, which suffered the most during the war, was not invited to the conference, like Russia - they were too busy with the redistribution of land. However, this country independently sent its delegations and presented demands to the contracting parties: to recognize the independence of Armenia, give the new state security guarantees, pay reparations and punish those guilty of the Armenian genocide.
In 1920, when the Treaty of Sèvres was signed, these demands were heard and fulfilled.
Results of the Paris Peace Conference.
Several contracts Paris Peace Conference of 1919 significantly influenced the map of the world and the fate of the defeated countries.
Germany was forced to part with most of the conquered territories - Alsace and Lorraine returned back to France, Poznan, Pomorie and part of West Prussia - to Poland. Belgium got back Malmedy and Eupen, and in addition, Germany recognized the sovereignty of Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia.
Many districts of the losing country were demilitarized, the colonies went to the victorious countries.
Following the results of the Saint-Germain treaty, Austria officially turned into a separate state from Hungary, was forced to limit its armed forces and pay monetary compensation to the affected countries.
Hungary also lost most of its military forces and paid reparations to the affected parties. In addition, Transylvania and part of Banat went to Romania, Backa and Croatia went to Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia received Slovakia and part of Transcarpathia.
And finally, Turkey, as a result of the Treaty of Sevres, also lost part of its territories. The lands of the Ottoman Empire were finally divided.
By the end of the 19th century, the world was almost completely divided among the leading European powers. The only exceptions were the United States, which managed to defend its independence from England. China, into which the European monsters did not consider it necessary to get deeply, and Japan, which is of little interest in colonial terms. Actually, the section ended at the beginning of the century.
But a lot has changed since then. In Europe, after centuries of oblivion, a great power, Germany, was reborn. Germany did not have colonies at the expense of which England, France or Holland were enriched; it did not have time to divide the world. The power, which was traditionally striving for expansion, was categorically unhappy with its modest position.
For the first time, the new Germany (then Prussia) showed its teeth in 1870, when, during the Franco-Prussian war, France was completely defeated and lost the most important provinces in economic terms - Alsace and Lorraine.
The victory over France allowed Prussia to complete the unification of Germany under the scepter of William I. Under the rule of the Prussian kings, and after the victory in the war - of the German emperors, it turned out to be the largest Western European country with a multimillion hardworking population.
The cause of the first world war is an ambitious Germany
The economy of the unified Germany grew at a rapid pace. The coal mines and iron mines of the Ruhr, Saar, Silesia, Alsace-Lorraine provided primary strategic resources. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Germany surpassed the "workshop of the world" - England by more than one and a half times in coal mining, pig iron and steel production.
The growing industry of Germany was cramped in the domestic market, and by the beginning of the twentieth century, German goods began to seriously compete with English in the world market.
Germany was named a deadly rival to British world domination first by journalists and then by official politicians, including Prime Minister Rosebery.
They had reasons for this. The main rival of the British magnates for gold and diamonds in South Africa was the Deutsche Bank. In China, Germany occupied the strategically important Shandong Peninsula. Exports of German goods to China grew rapidly, posing a threat to British economic interests.
And the construction by Germany of the Baghdad Railway, whose territory had a special status in the Turkish Empire, created a direct threat to British communications with India, the most important British colony.
Germany's relations with France were explosive. The capture of Togo and Cameroon by Germany posed a threat to French West Africa.
German banks were becoming dangerous competitors to French financial circles. The loss of Alsace and Lorraine was a painful thorn in the mass consciousness of the French. Revanchist sentiments in France prevailed in all strata of society.
Knowing this, the German ruling circles were looking for any excuse to inflict another blow on France and break her power forever. Minor colonial conflicts in Morocco in 1905 and 1911 nearly sparked a war between the two powers.
Relations between Germany and Russia were not developing in the best way. Germany was the main economic partner of Russia, the consumer of its grain and timber. Germany was again the main supplier of machinery and equipment for the Russian economy, since the British imposed a number of important restrictions on their exports to Russia.
Taking advantage of this, the Germans by all means lowered prices for Russian export goods and overstated prices for imports. In the Russian press, a broad campaign was waged for a radical revision of relations with Germany; it was supported by many Duma deputies and a number of ministers.
The situation in the Balkans was tense. Austria-Hungary sought territorial expansion in the region, while Russia declared itself the defender of all Slavs and opposed all Austrian plans.
A large-scale armed conflict was almost inevitable. Realizing this, Germany in 1882 signed a mutual assistance agreement with Austria-Hungary, which was looking for an ally against Russia, and Italy, which sought to oust France from Tunisia (Triple Alliance). At the same time, the previously existing "Union of Three Emperors" (Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary) collapsed.
In the face of a clearly opposed new alliance, Russia hastened to enter into an alliance with France. The signing of the Anglo-French agreements in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian agreements in 1907 completed the formation of a new military-economic bloc - the Entente (Entente - French agreement).
A flame burned out of the coal
The outbreak of World War I in the summer of 1914
War broke out in the summer of 1914. The reason was the murder in Bosnia by a certain young radical of the heir to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand. On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
Russia announced that it would not allow the occupation of Serbia and announced a general mobilization.
In response, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, France and Belgium on the 3rd, England entered the war against Germany on the 4th, and Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia on the 6th.
In terms of its scale, the war was unmatched in the entire previous history of mankind.
It was attended by 38 states, where more than 1.5 billion people lived, or three quarters of the world's population. The total number of mobilized people reached 73.5 million. The death toll has exceeded 10 million - the same number as died in all European wars over the previous thousand years.
France against Germany in the early days of the war
From the first days of the war, the French theater of military operations became of prime importance. It was here that the largest military groupings of the opposing sides were concentrated, and decisive battles unfolded here.
By the beginning of the war, the number of the German army here was 1,600,000 people with 5,000 guns, the French - 1,300,000 people with 4,000 guns.
The allied forces of England and Belgium were relatively small - 87 and 117 thousand people, respectively. In the course of hostilities, the forces of both sides more than doubled.
On the potential direction of the main German attack, France had two powerful defensive lines. The first was the fortress of Verdun-Belfort-Tul-Epinal, the second - Dijon-Reims-Laon.
Regarding the French fortifications as practically irresistible, the Germans were guided by the so-called "Schlieffen plan", according to which the offensive was carried out bypassing the fortresses and the main French forces, through the territory of Belgium.
The swift defeat of France was declared to be of paramount importance. French plans called for an offensive primarily on Alsace and Lorraine in order to deprive Germany of the most important industrial areas.
The coordinated actions of the German troops in Belgium allowed them to reach the French border by August 20. During the Battle of the Frontier, in which more than 2 million people participated on both sides, three French armies and an English corps were defeated.
The French offensive in Alsace and Lorraine also ended in defeat. The Germans were rapidly moving inland, towards Paris, enveloping the main French forces from the flanks. The French government moved to Bordeaux, not being sure of the possibility of defending the capital.
However, at the end of August, the situation changed. The French formed two new armies and moved them to a new line of defense along the river Marne.
At the same time, all means were used for the rapid transfer of troops, including Parisian taxis. At the same time, the commander-in-chief, General Joffre, replaced 30% of the generals.
The personnel reshuffle had the most favorable consequences.
Russian intervention made its difference in the war
An important role in the turning point was played by the actions of the Russian troops invading East Prussia. Germany was forced to move two corps to the east, which allowed the French and British to gain a numerical advantage at the front.
Fresh French armies attacked the advancing Germans on the flank. During a week-long battle on the Marne, German troops were completely defeated and rolled back 50-100 km. This was a watershed event in the course of the war. Until then, the Anglo-French troops were continuously retreating, but now the moral advantage has passed to the Allies.
In addition, this was the first victory of the French over the Germans after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871, which was of colossal moral significance. The German plan for the lightning defeat of France failed, the war took on a positional character
In 1915, the front practically did not move, despite attempts by both sides to resume the offensive. The deeply echeloned defense - several lines of trenches, barbed wire, pillboxes and dugouts - made it possible to successfully resist any attacks. The use of the latest means of attack - aviation, poison gases - also proved to be ineffective.
Even heavy artillery was powerless against entrenched troops, despite its incredible power at that time. So, the famous German "Big Bertha" had a caliber of 420 mm, the weight of the projectile was 900 kg. The attacking efforts of the opposing sides led only to small movements of the front line (no more than 10 km) and were accompanied by huge human casualties.
The relative calm on the French front was due to the fact that Germany shifted its focus to the east, deciding to withdraw Russia from the war. The Russian army suffered a series of defeats and gave up significant territories, but then the front stabilized.
The combat power of the Russian troops was severely undermined, but they still represented a formidable force. 
The German offensive got stuck. Therefore, as the main goal of the 1916 campaign, the German command again put forward the defeat of France, going over to the defensive on the Eastern Front.
It was in 1916 that the bloodiest battles of the First World War were fought - the Battle of Verdun (Verdun meat grinder) and the Battle of the Somme. During these battles, tanks and flamethrowers were used for the first time.
The results of the battles were very limited, the German offensive was stopped, the losses were enormous - the German army lost up to a million people, the allies - about 1.300.000.
The battles of 1916 were one of Germany's last powerful efforts to snatch victory. Germany and her allies - Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria - lost the economic battle to the Entente. The fuel crisis, devastation, food shortages - France suffered from all of this. But the more significant economic power of the Entente, as well as substantial assistance from America, made the crisis phenomena much less acute than in Germany.
Finally, at the end of 1916, Germany asked for peace. Many politicians in France were in favor of ending the war. But these conversations were quickly stopped by the new Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, a supporter of the continuation of the war to a victorious end, a firm and resolute man. Had he been at the helm of France in 1939, World War II might not have taken place. But every time has its own heroes.
By the way, once in his youth, Clemenceau challenged the famous duelist Dantes. The very same one. But Dantes did not accept the challenge, and possible revenge for Pushkin did not take place.
The turning point in the first world war
1917 was the year of the final turning point in the war. Germany's offensive power was broken. The balance of power has changed radically. After the February Revolution, Russia practically stopped active military operations.
In April, however, America declared war on Germany, whose transport ships were regularly drowned by German submarines. By early 1918, the number of American troops in France exceeded one million. He fought in France and a Russian expeditionary force of up to 400 thousand people.
In March 1918, the German army made the last attempt at an offensive in Picardy, and the forces of Germany were inferior to the Entente in all respects: in number - 4 million people versus 5 million from the allies, in artillery - 15 thousand guns versus 16,000, in aviation - 3000 planes against 3800, for tanks - 10 against 800.
Nevertheless, at first, Germany was successful. The first blow fell on the British troops, which, after stubborn battles, began to retreat.
Only after this did the French army begin active operations, commanded by General Petain, the hero of Verdun and the future traitor to his homeland, the head of the Vichy puppet government in Nazi-occupied France.
But the French also failed to immediately stop the enemy's offensive. German units were approaching the forward lines of the defensive area of Paris. The capital of France was subjected to long-range shelling and night bombing raids.
However, as they approached Paris, the tenacity of the French grew.
In the end, the offensive of the German army was stopped at the turn of the Marne, in the same place as in 1914. And on August 8, the Allies launched a counteroffensive. The German defense line was broken, the losses of the German troops on the first day of the offensive amounted to 27,000 people, 400 guns, 62 aircraft. Germany could not continue the war.
Hunger raged in the country, mass actions of soldiers, workers, sailors began, which grew into armed uprisings and, ultimately, revolution. Wilhelm II fled to Holland, after which the new German government accepted the terms of the French ultimatum and signed a surrender on November 11, 1918. Germany's allies surrendered even earlier.
Capitulation of Germany
The act of surrender was signed in the Compiegne forest, in the staff car of Marshal Foch. Under the terms of surrender, Germany pledged to give the Allies a large number of warships, cannons, mortars, machine guns, cars, steam locomotives and carriages.
The country has pledged to pay huge reparations - 269 billion gold marks, equivalent to about 100,000 tons of gold. Subsequently, the amount was reduced to 132 billion. By the way, Germany completed the payment of reparations for the First World War only on October 3, 2010, transferring the last tranche of 70 million euros.
The entire German navy was to be disarmed. The left bank of the Rhine was occupied by allied troops, and a demilitarized zone was created on the right bank.
Later, during the Paris Peace Conference, territorial changes were formalized. France received back the coveted Alsace and Lorraine, the coal mines of the Saar basin, in Asia - Syria and Lebanon, in Africa - a part of Cameroon and Togo.
The French delegation insisted on the dismemberment of Germany in order to permanently deprive her of the opportunity to threaten France. However, the Allies united in a united front opposed this demand - the dominance of France in continental Europe did not suit them in any way.
Interestingly, in 1940, the carriage in the museum, in which Marshal Foch accepted the surrender, was brought to the Compiegne forest by Hitler's order. And already the Fuhrer himself, sitting in the same chair as Foch in the 18th, signed the act of surrender of France. When in 1945 it became clear that the defeat of Germany was inevitable, the SS men destroyed the carriage, and its remains were buried. Hitler was afraid that Germany would again be forced to sign surrender in the famous carriage.
France turned out to be the most affected party among all the participants in the war. On the territory of its most developed industrial regions, hostilities were fought for 4 years. The scale of the destruction was colossal. The losses of the French army in the killed amounted to about 1,300,000 people - twice as many as all the other allies on the Western Front combined.
However, France was not able to take full advantage of the fruits of victory. Yesterday's allies - England and the United States - insisted in 1924 on the adoption of the so-called "Dawes plan", supposedly designed to ensure the payment of German reparations to France.
Under this plan, French troops were withdrawn from Germany (France was losing Saar coal), and Germany received significant loans from the United States and England - up to $ 400 billion at the 1999 exchange rate. At the same time, there were no restrictions on the sale of the latest industrial technologies. All this allowed Germany to quickly restore its industry and prepare for revenge - World War II.
World War I - VIDEO
The First World War created new international tensions. In Europe and the Middle East, the old Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were destroyed. The clash of political or economic interests of people led to the emergence of new power conflicts.
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On Monday, December 10, French President Emmanuel Macron addressed the citizens of his country. The video message was broadcast by the main French TV channels.
Macron announced an increase in the minimum wage (SMIC) and the abolition of social charges for overtime hours from 2019, and also asked employers to pay employees New Year's bonuses. This will cost the government at least 15 billion euros, wrote in Twitter Paris Match journalist with reference to the calculations of the National Assembly Commission on Social Affairs.
“The events of recent weeks have deeply agitated France. They mixed both the legitimate demands of the people and unacceptable acts of violence., - Emmanuel Macron began his address.
Experts heard this as a threat to all those responsible for the riots and pogroms in many cities in France. They will be punished. The president called everyone who took part in the protests "opportunists" who used "legitimate" popular anger to achieve their goals. Among these opportunists, Macron also mentioned "irresponsible politicians" who are leading the country "to chaos and anarchy." However, he did not become personal.
In a video message, the French president announced four key measures that should improve the well-being of the population and calm the disaffected. In other words, he made concessions and practically announced the fulfillment of all the requirements of the "yellow vests".
First, the minimum wage will be increased in France in the near future. In 2019, it will grow by 100 euros. “It will not cost the enterprises one euro more,” the president stressed. That is, the increase will be provided from the state treasury.
Second, overtime taxes will be a thing of the past again next year. At one time, such a reform was introduced by Nicolas Sarkozy, but François Hollande canceled it.
Thirdly, Macron asked employers to pay employees a bonus for the year, or, as it is popularly called, a “New Year's bonus”. In some countries, this is called the thirteenth salary. The President stressed that it will also not be taxed.
And fourthly, Macron promised to cancel the planned 2019 increase in CSG collection for pensioners - social benefits that finance the state health system and the unemployed fund. The increase has been implemented in France since 1991 and increases with each new government. But this will not apply to all pensioners, but only to those whose income is less than 2000 euros per month.
All these measures should increase the purchasing power of the French, Macron is sure.
In his video message, the president also literally declared war on "tax fugitives" who register in countries with lower taxes and work in the Fifth Republic. Macron promised to ensure that branches of foreign enterprises operating in the country pay their taxes in France.
- When violence begins, freedom ends. Now France must return to republican order and tranquility. We will do everything for this. We will not be able to build anything while we fear for peace in our streets. And I have already given the government the most stringent instructions on this matter. But at the same time, I do not forget that there is anger in the country. Many of us feel it. And this anger is expressed not only in the unacceptable destruction of which I spoke. Of course, this is anger against the tax, and the Prime Minister has already canceled its increase, which was scheduled for the beginning of the year. But this anger may be our opportunity. It was felt for the last 40 years: the workers felt it, it was felt in the villages, where government services were provided less and less ... For 40 years people felt that they were not heard. All this came to us from afar, but it is happening here, now! For a year and a half, we have not been able to find a quick and effective solution to the problem. And I feel my responsibility - Macron's speech lasted about 13 minutes.
Emmanuel Macron's proposals could threaten France's compliance with one of the main requirements of the European Union, according to which the budget deficit should be less than 3% of GDP. The European Commission said they would closely monitor the economic situation in France.
Leaders of opposition parties condemned the president's statements. Some of them called on the French for a "civil revolution".
At the same time, as the LCI edition notes, referring to the data of a sociological survey, the majority of the French support the economic measures of the President of France and are satisfied with his video message. This was stated by 54% of the respondents.
Unlike 2005, when cars in Paris were mostly burned by migrants and their children, this time the urban middle class is involved in the protests, outraged by the rise in fuel prices.
The protests, which have been shaking France for two weeks now, are gradually turning into a factor of European politics and make one think about the forms and methods of optimal interaction between the people and the authorities in modern society.
The background of the problem is well known: against the background of the global trend with oil prices rising and in the context of a whirlwind romance between the French socialists and the “green” lobby, motor fuel prices in France have grown significantly faster in the last two years than in other EU countries. A special piquancy of the situation was made by the fact that diesel fuel, which always remained 10-15% cheaper than gasoline, began to rise in price at an accelerated pace in 2013 due to the introduction of various “environmental charges”. In the last 12 months alone, its prices have increased by 22% and diesel has caught up in price with gasoline. As of November 30, diesel fuel was sold at a price of € 1.43 per 1 liter (which corresponds to 108 rubles at the current exchange rate), and at some gas stations it is even more expensive. In this price, taxes are about 59%, but the state wanted more, because in the price of 95th gasoline this share reaches 66%, and it was decided to increase taxes on "harmful" diesel from January 1, 2019. This threatens to lead to an additional rise in fuel prices by 7.6 eurocents per liter, or almost 5%.
Here the people could not restrain themselves. The protests began peacefully, as, in fact, happens in Europe in most cases. But they immediately received wide support from the population, since people have long been tired of the government's insane claims, even by European standards (taxes in France are the highest in Europe - to get their hands on € 100, an employee and his employer must pay “on top” € 131 more) ... On November 24, the number of protesters across the country exceeded 100,000. The French Interior Minister accused the leader of the far-right National Front, Marine Le Pen, who was Emmanuel Macron's rival in the 2017 presidential election, of organizing the riots. Of course, among the protesters there could and certainly were her supporters, but for the majority, these arguments became additional proof of the inadequacy of the authorities, and the situation escalated. As a result: one hundred burned cars, nearly a thousand arrested protesters, two hundred injured police officers and four dead, including an 80-year-old pensioner who was accidentally killed in Marseille by a police noise grenade.
At the direction of President Macron, Prime Minister Edouard Philippe began negotiations with the protesters, but the degree of confrontation has not yet subsided.
It can be stated that today the French protests significantly surpassed those that took place in 1995, when the country was paralyzed by general strikes provoked by the reform of the pension system (more simply - raising the retirement age), launched by the cabinet of Prime Minister Alain Juppe after fourteen years of the rule of a socialist president Francois Mitterrand.
It must be admitted that modern democracy is becoming less and less stable. In countries where democratic choice is real and rich, victory is increasingly achieved by a very small majority (or even a minority), and the scale of disagreements between opposing political camps is so great that each side then begins to be guided exclusively by hatred of the opposite. Where there is no real choice due to all kinds of "filters" and party restrictions, but democratic procedures are still formally observed, turnout decreases everywhere, and the winner then faces indifference and mistrust. In both cases, the legitimacy of the authorities turns out to be relatively conditional, and therefore, to its traditional logic - "there are still five [four, three] years before the elections, so you can do almost anything I want" - you should definitely add elementary caution and understanding that the electorate should not be pissed off. Maidans of all sorts in the world of postmodern politics and social networks are becoming more widespread and successful precisely because the slightest disappointment in power demoralizes its supporters and at the same time rallies opponents who are convinced that the legitimacy of institutions is relative.
In France today we are witnessing just such a situation, and not a banal strike, of which there have been many. Now a number of analysts are keeping track of the losses and losses this fall, comparing what is happening with the events of 2005. In my opinion, this is completely wrong. Then the protests began in the suburbs of Paris, in poor and predominantly immigrant areas, and the cars were burned mainly by migrants and their children, thereby expressing their outrage at the prevailing "injustice". Today, the situation is the opposite: the urban middle class is taking to the streets - and the central ones - who no longer want to pay fierce taxes, a significant part of which is spent on benefits and SMIC (minimum wage) for those who trashed everything around 13 years ago. The authorities faced what was arguably the most serious protest since the revolutionary 1968. It merged everything: dissatisfaction with high taxes and the cost of living, disappointment with the current social policy, fear of growing immigration, a sense of isolation of French and European politicians from the people. The French president, who was elected last year almost as the savior of the nation, now enjoys the support of only 25% of voters.
However, the problem is not limited to the scale of the protest and the depth of frustration. Two factors significantly complicate the matter. On the one hand, this is the support of the protesters by the population: according to the latest data, it is close to 84%, which makes it almost impossible to use any tough measures against the protesters. On the other hand, the current protest, in contrast to the events of half a century ago, does not have an organized nucleus - leaders with whom, if desired, the authorities could initiate a dialogue. All this extremely restricts the actions of the government, reducing them, in fact, only to the arrest of the instigators and the most active participants in the protest. Such tactics have little chances of success, because in no European country today can several thousand people be arrested in the hope of keeping them in cells for more than one or two days. And street protests in the country are not going to decline yet. And all this leaves the Elysee Palace no choice but to retreat. Victory in the confrontation in which President Macron has been drawn is impossible. Concessions are necessary here and now, otherwise it may be too late.
I think that the current French authorities have enough political wisdom to understand this and to reject unpopular decisions with dignity. It is quite possible that in the remaining few years in office, the "technocratic" president will be able to regain the confidence of the voters.
The protests in France, in my opinion, show that even in prosperous and wealthy societies with relatively uncorrupted power, the population has a long list of complaints against their rulers. It is obvious that in the politics of the XXI century there are no and cannot be firmly established terms of stay in power, guaranteed obedience of the people against the background of arbitrarily adopted laws and rules. Today the state rises not above the masses and classes, as it was a hundred years ago, but above a mobile multitude of individuals who are sometimes able to mobilize for reasons in which it is difficult to discern a reason for discontent in advance.
Observing the events in France, first of all, I would like to ask myself, can something similar happen in Russia, where gasoline has long been accustomed to rising in price against the background of declining oil prices? On the one hand, both in Russia and in most other countries of the post-Soviet space, the population is not ready to go out into the streets against the systemic deterioration of the economic situation, which affects the majority of citizens. Such performances have not been seen in these countries since the early 1990s. And even the pension reform, not to mention the increase in VAT or the rise in gasoline prices, did not provoke anything in Russia comparable in scale and ferocity to the French protest.
On the other hand, the Paris protests raise another very important question: how will the Russian authorities respond to protests, even remotely similar in scale and character to the French? Personally, I have no doubts here: the reaction will be many times more radical than in Europe. And if this happens, then no one will be able to predict the reaction of the crowd. Moreover, no one can guarantee the loyalty of ordinary policemen or riot police to the authorities if, instead of sending giggling teenagers to police wagons, it comes to real street clashes.
§7. A hard road to peace. Versailles-Washington system
Goals and results of the 1st World War (§§3-5, 7, 9 A.A. Kreder)
| Country | Goals | Outcomes |
| Germany | Germany planned to create a Baltic Duchy headed by one of the representatives of the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty [§9]. |
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|
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| Austro-hungary | Strove to establish control over the Balkans [§3]. Since the beginning of the century Russia has been drawing closer to Serbia and Montenegro, acting as the guarantor of their independence in the face of hostile actions by Austria-Hungary [§4]. | The Yugoslavian peoples united around Serbia in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes [§7]. |
| Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919):
|
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| Ottoman Empire | Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty (March 3, 1918): |
|
| Bulgaria | Claimed to Macedonia, like Serbia [§7]. | |
| England | the destruction of the German fleet [§7]; | the destruction of the German fleet (Germany could not have submarines, military and naval aviation) [§7]; |
| British dominions took control of part of the German colonies (probably in Africa and Oceania) [§§4, 7]; |
||
| According to the Anglo-French-Russian agreement on the division of the Ottoman Empire (1916): Russia - Constantinople (Istanbul) and part of the Transcaucasia, the rest was shared between England and France[§5]. | the metropolis took control of a part of the Ottoman Empire; |
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| ensuring peace through disarmament; | Germany was only entitled to an army of 100,000; |
|
| ensuring peace through the creation of the League of Nations; | Creation of the League of Nations; |
|
| When defining the boundaries in post-war Europe, she suggested proceeding from the principles of self-determination [§7]. | The Paris Peace Conference authorized the creation of two new states - Poland and Czechoslovakia. |
|
| received 22% of reparations [§7], |
||
| France | imposing on Germany the maximum possible reparations; | received 52% of reparations, |
| claimed part of the legacy of the Ottoman Empire; | ||
| the creation of a buffer independent German state on the left bank of the Rhine; | Germany had no right to place garrisons in the Rhineland [§7], German territory on the coast of the Baltic Sea - Memel (Klaipeda) came under the control of France [§9], |
|
| the return of Alsace and Lorraine [§7]; | return of Alsace and Lorraine [§7], |
|
| Russia |
| Peace of Brest (March 3, 1918):
|
| Belgium | to Belgium - districts of Germany [§7], |
|
| Serbia |
| Yugoslavian peoples united around Serbia in Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes[§7] . |
| Japan | She demanded that Germany transfer her territories in China to her (1914) [§4]. | it was decided to transfer the German colonies in China to Japan [§7], |
| Italy |
|
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| Romania | Transylvania, Bukovina and Banat (1916) [§5]; | captured Bessarabia [§7]; |
| USA | saving the world by creating a more democratic order based on new principles: | |
| ||
| ||
| ||
| ||
| the creation of the League of Nations, but the US Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles [§7]; |
Questions 7.
1. When and why did Soviet Russia withdraw from the war?
2. What events accelerated the defeat of Germany and its allies?
3. What were the conditions of the armistice concluded by the Entente countries with defeated Germany?
January 18, 1919
in Paris, a conference of the victorious powers in the world war began, at which 27 states who fought with Germany. The most important positions at the conference were UK, USA and France.
1. Contradictions between the victorious powers [§7, clause 1 Zagladin].
Serious disagreements arose between the conference participants - British Prime Minister D. Lloyd George, US President W. Wilson, French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau and other leaders.France sought to expand its colonial empire and to the maximum weakening of Germany through reparations and the seizure of territories from her along the western bank of the Rhine.
United Kingdom intended to expand her colonial empire, but did not want an excessive weakening of Germany, so as not to upset the balance of power in Europe in favor of France.
Special conditions for peace were defended by the president USA W. Wilson. During the war, American exports quadrupled. The leading European countries owed the United States $ 12 billion for wartime supplies. The enormous economic and financial potential determined the particular interest of the United States in free access to world markets. Therefore, the United States did not support the aspirations of the European powers to expand their colonial empires, did not want to undermine the power of Germany with reparations, because this would reduce its purchasing power.
Even before the end of the war, W. Wilson defined his views on the principles of the future world order. In order for the survived war to become the last, the conditions of peace, according to Wilson, should not humiliate the dignity of the vanquished. At the beginning of 1918 W. Wilson formulated 14 basic principles of the post-war world. They assumed ensuring freedom of trade and navigation, taking into account the interests of the peoples of all, including the colonial countries.
The preservation of peace for the future must be guaranteed by a new international organization - The League of nations
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ensuring strict observance of international legal norms by all countries. In the event of disputes between states, the League of Nations should play a role arbitrator, and in the event of a military conflict - to organize collective actions to end the aggression.
Arbitration court- resolution of the conflict between states by peaceful means with the involvement of a third, neutral party as an arbitrator (judge), who is trusted by both parties to the conflict. The arbitrator can be an international organization or a neutral state.
The proposed Charter of the League allowed for the possibility of introducing international sanctions against the aggressor country, ranging from an economic blockade to the use of military force. At the same time, the US delegation insisted that the League Charter should be included as an integral part of the peace treaty with Germany.
2. Conditions of the Versailles Peace [§7, clause 2 Zagladin].
The ideas of W. Wilson seemed to the European leaders either hypocritical or naive and idealistic. With great difficulty, a compromise was found, recorded in the peace treaty with Germany, signed by June 28, 1919Compromise- settlement of the conflict through mutual concessions of its participants. A compromise is, for example, the division of the disputed territory, the rejection of such demands addressed to another state, which are unacceptable for it.
Great Britain and France agreed to create the League of Nations.
The colonies captured from Germany and Turkey were declared to be under the control of the League of Nations. She transferred to the Entente countries mandates, that is, the right to manage them. France received Syria and Lebanon, Great Britain - Iraq, Palestine and most of the German colonies in Africa.
She regained Alsace and Lorraine, annexed to Germany after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.
The former German region of Saar, rich in coal, was transferred to the control of the League of Nations, its fate was to be decided by a popular vote - plebiscite.
demilitarized zone, that is, no fortifications were to be built there and German troops were not to be located, except for police formations.
Germany was found guilty of unleashing the war, it was ordered to pay compensation for the damage caused (reparations ). The advance was determined in 20 billion marks
Photo 6.D. Lloyd George, J. Clemenceau and W. Wilson heading for the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty
Germany
| What goals did you pursue? | What concessions have you made? |
| France got Syria and Lebanon. |
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| Germany ordered to pay compensation for damage caused (reparations ). The advance was determined in 20 billion marks, and the final amount was to be calculated later. |
| A special conference in 1921 set the total volume of reparations at 132 billion gold marks, of which France (52%), England (22%) and Italy (10%) were to receive (§§3-5, 7, 9 Kroeder). |
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| France after defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 paid 5 billion francs in gold, i.e. 10 times less! [AND I.] |
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| Germany according to the contract was losing1/8 part of its territory:
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| German district Saar rich in coal, was placed under the control of the League of Nations, its fate was to be decided by a popular vote - plebiscite. |
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| The territory of Germany along the west bank of the Rhine was proclaimed demilitarized zone . |
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| Germany it was forbidden to have armed forces number of more than 100 thousand people, create a military aviation and submarine fleet, build surface warships. |
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| Without an army, Germany is now no one and there is no way to call [A.Ya.]. |
The Paris Conferencethe borders of new European states were recognized - Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Hungary. Poland was transferred to the eastern lands of Germany, Romania - Transylvania (formerly part of Austria-Hungary) and part of the border area with Bulgaria. The largest territorial increments were received by Serbia, which became the nucleus of a new state - Yugoslavia (the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes).
3. Contradictions of the Versailles system [§7 p.3 Zagladin].
Pledged by the allies basics of postwar European and world order wereimperfect , carried in themselves the beginnings of many problems and conflicts.According to one of the most famous economists of the XX century. J. Keynes, a serious mistake of the Entente was underestimating the importance of the economic problems of the post-war world order , desire to get as much as possible from the vanquished, while it was necessary to think about helping them to restore the economy. This led to social and political upheavals in Central and Eastern Europe, aggravation of ethnic problems.
The borders of the new states in Europe were determined without taking into account the interests of the peoples inhabiting their territories.
About 30 million people found themselves in the positionnational minorities (Germans in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungarians in Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ukrainians and Belarusians in Poland). Many of them were forced to emigrate, but dreamed of returning to their native lands.
After the creation of Yugoslavia, Croats and Slovenes professing Catholicism (31% of the population), and Muslims living in Bosnia and Macedonia (10%), found themselves in the position religious minority... Orthodox Serbs (43% of the population) considered the reunification of the Slavs to be their merit, controlled the army and the central government of the new state, acquired a decisive role in it, which carried the embryo of future conflicts.
Germany accepted the terms of the Versailles Peace only after the threat of renewed hostilities from the Allies.
In Germany, Hungary and Bulgaria the problem the return of territorial losses became the main thing in domestic politics, the basis for the consolidation of militaristic, revanchist forces.
Italy belonged to the victorious camp, but most of its politicians believed that the Paris Conference did not take into account its interests in the division of the colonies.
It did not include Russia, engulfed in civil war.
The supporters of the isolationist policy in the US Congress thwarted the ratification of the Charter of the League of Nations, because some of its provisions contradicted the "Monroe Doctrine", according to which the United States could not participate in conflicts outside the Western Hemisphere.
Ratification- approval of the signed international agreement by the supreme legislative body of the country. It is generally accepted that without ratification, agreements that assume that the state assumes certain obligations do not enter into force.
4. "Russian question" at the Paris Peace Conference [§7, clause 4 Zagladin].
The most important source of weakness of the Versailles system was the non-participation of Russia in it.In April - June 1918, after the conclusion of peace between Russia and Germany, the allies landed troops in the port cities of Russia (Japan - in Vladivostok, England - in Murmansk), in order to prevent the transfer to the Germans of the stocks of weapons previously delivered to these cities. After the surrender of Germany, the Allies also occupied port cities of the Black Sea region. The territories occupied by the troops of the Entente countries became the base for the activities of anti-Bolshevik forces - from monarchists to left SRs.
Chairman of the Supreme Military Council of the Entente Marshal F. Foch proposed to solve the problems of Russia through open intervention.
However, discontent among the troops, tired of the war, demanding demobilization, public protests, fears that interference in the internal affairs of Russia would result in a protracted and unpopular war in Western countries, forced the allies in the summer of 1919, to evacuate troops from the European part of Russia. They decided to confine themselves to the economic blockade of Soviet Russia, help anti-Bolshevik movements, and supply him with weapons.
5. Washington Conference [§7 p.5 Zagladin].
During the war years, Japan approximately quadrupled its industrial output, approaching France's share in world industrial production in terms of its share.This violated China's pre-war "open door" and "equal opportunity" principles. In addition, Japanese troops invaded Russian territory in the Far East and occupied the northern part of Sakhalin.
Similar strengthening Japan expanding its spheres of influence causedanxiety the rest of the great powers.
1) “The Pact of Nine”.
She had to make serious concessions. Japan:
abandoned "21 conditions" to China,
returned to him the captured former German port of Qingdao,
reaffirmed its commitment to the "open door" principle.
2) "The Treaty of Five".
It was concludednaval arms limitation agreement , which was supposed to prevent the emergence of rivalry in sea power between the winners.The conference found that for ships of the line, which were considered the main striking force of the fleet, the proportions between the United States, Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy could be approximately 5: 5: 3: 1.75: 1.75.
The only concession that was made to Japan was the US commitment to refrain from military construction on the islands belonging to them in the Western Pacific and the Philippines.
At the Paris and Washington conferences the interests of the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries were not taken into account. This exacerbated the contradictions between the leading industrial countries and metropolises. in the 1920s-1930s
Questions and tasks
Explain the essence of the principles of the post-war world structure proposed by W. Wilson. What do you think were dictated by them? Was their implementation real after the war? Why?
Fill the table "Intentions of the victorious powers at the Paris Conference".
Draw a conclusion why, after the end of the war, contradictions arose between the victorious powers.
Describe the main terms of the post-war peace treaties. Show on the map the territorial changes in the world after the First World War.
Explain what was the weakness of the Versailles-Washington system. What reasons determined it?
When, for what purpose was the League of Nations created? Why didn't the USA and Russia join it?
How did World War I change the map of Europe?
Documentary materials
From the message of W. Wilson to the US Congress (January 8, 1918):In this war, we do not demand anything special for ourselves. We demand that the world be able to live in security, that the world becomes safe for every peace-loving nation, which, like ours, would like to lead its own way of life, establish its own institutions, be confident in justice and honesty on the part of other peoples of the world, not allowing the use of force and aggression.
From the works of J. Keynes:
The peace treaty did nothing for the economic recovery of Europe, nothing to turn the defeated Central Powers into good neighbors, to give stability to the newly created states, to bring Russia to reason. He did not prepare the way for the realization of economic solidarity among the allies themselves. In Paris, no agreement was reached on the restoration of the disorganized finances of France and Italy, nothing was done to harmonize the system of Europe and the New World.
Clemenceau thought about how to stifle the economic life of the enemy. Lloyd George - how would it be better to make a deal and bring home something that will stand up to criticism for a week. The President of the United States - how not to do something contrary to justice and law<...>.
The main economic problem of Europe, exhausted and decaying before our eyes, was the only issue to which it turned out to be impossible to attract attention.
Question 8.How does J. Keynes feel about the signed peace treaty? Find in the text of the document the assessments of the performance of the leaders of the victorious powers.
XX century in faces
Thomas Woodrow Wilson(1856-1924) - President of the United States in 1913-1921. from the Democratic Party.Coming from a Presbyterian pastor's family, he was raised in the spirit of Protestant religious traditions. Renowned scholar, specialist in the field of law and state building, rector of Princeton University. He left this post, having come into conflict with the trustees and teachers of the university, who did not like Wilson's toughness, his penchant for administrative experimentation.
However, in 1910, Wilson won election to the post of governor of New Jersey, and in 1913 he became president of the United States. Under Wilson, reforms were carried out in the field of customs, tax, banking policies (the introduction of a system of progressive taxation, state control over banking activities), the rights of trade unions were expanded, and antimonopoly legislation was tightened.
V. Wilson believed that the policy of the state should be aimed at the implementation of moral, ethical and religious norms. He strove for the United States to play an active role in the international arena, guaranteeing with its power a stable order in the world. The refusal of the US Congress to support Wilson's idea of the League of Nations was a heavy blow to him. He fell ill and retired, leaving control of the White House apparatus to his wife.
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