At the space station, the construction of two objects. The history of the creation of the ISS.

International Space Station. This is 400 ton design, consisting of several dozen modules with an internal volume of over 900 cubic meters, which serves as a house for six space researchers. The ISS is not just the largest building ever created by a person in space, but also a real symbol of international cooperation. But this Mahina appeared not in an empty place - to create it, it took more than 30 launches.

It all started from the "Dawn" module, which was delivered to the orbit, the Proton carrier in such a distant November 1998.

Two weeks later, the "Uniti" module went on board the shuttle "Indebor".

The crew of "Indebore" docked two modules, which became the main for the future ISS.

The third element of the station, became the residential "Star" module, launched in the summer of 2000. Interestingly, it was originally a "star" was developed as a substitute for the basic module of the Orbital Station "Peace" (aka "World 2"). But the reality that followed after the collapse of the USSR made its own adjustments, and this module became the heart of the ISS that in general, it was also not bad, because only after its installation it became possible to send long-term expeditions to the station.

The first crew went to the ISS in October 2000. Since then, the station has been continuously inhabitants for over 13 years.

In the autumn of 2000, the ISS visited several shuttles that mounted the energy module with the first set of solar panels.

In the winter of 2001, the ISS was replenished with the Destiny laboratory module delivered to the orbit shuttle "Atlantis". "Destini" was docked to the "Uniti" module.

The main assembly of the station was carried out by shuttle. In 2001 - 2002, they delivered external warehouse platforms to the ISS.

Hand-manipulator "Canadarm2".

Gateway compartments "Quest" and "Pier".

And the most important thing is the elements of the enzyme structures that were used for storing cargo outside the station, the installation of radiators, new solar panels and other equipment. The total length of farms is currently reaching 109 meters.

2003. Due to the catastrophe of the Shattla "Colombia", the work on the assembly of the ISS is suspended by almost three years.

2005 year. Finally, the shutters return to space and the construction of the station is resumed

Shutters deliver all new elements of the enzyme structures into orbit.

With their help, new solar kits are installed on the ISS, which makes it possible to increase its energy efficiency.

In the fall of 2007, the ISS is replenished with the "Harmony" module (it is joined to the Module "Destiny"), which in the future will become a connecting node for two research laboratories: European "Columbus" and Japanese "Cybo".

In 2008, Columbus delivers a shuttle into orbit and is joined with "harmony" (the left lower module at the bottom of the station).

March 2009. Shuttle "Discovery" delivers the last fourth set of solar batteries into orbit. Now the station works in full capacity and can take a permanent carriage of 6 people.

In 2009, the station is replenished by the Russian "Search" module.

In addition, the build of Japanese "Cybo" begins (the module consists of three components).

February 2010. The "Unit" module is added to the "Unit" module.

With "tranquility" in turn, the famous "dome" is joined.

It is so good to conduct observations.

Summer 2011 - Shuttles retire.

But before that, they tried to deliver to the ISS as much as possible equipment and equipment, including specially trained to kill all people robots.

Fortunately, by the time of the resignation of shuttles, the ISS assembly is almost completed.

But still not completely. It is planned that in 2015 the Russian laboratory module "Science" will be launched, which will replace Pierce.

In addition, the experimental inflatable module "Bigelou", which is now created by Bigelow Aerosphere, will be asked for the ISS. In case of success, it will become the first module of the orbital station created by a private company.

However, there is nothing surprising in this - a private truck "Dragon" in 2012 has already flown to the ISS, and why not appear private modules? Although of course it is obvious that it will be even delayed before private companies can create structures similar to the ISS.

In the meantime, it did not happen, it is planned that the ISS will work in orbit at least until 2024 - although I personally hope that in reality this period will be much bigger. Nevertheless, too much human effort was invested in this project to close it due to a symptive economy, and not scientific considerations. And even more so, I sincerely hope that no political flies will affect the fate of this unique structure.

International Space Station, ISS (English International Space Station, ISS) - piloted multipurpose space research complex.

The creation of the ISS is involved: Russia (Federal Space Agency, Roscosmos); USA (National Aerospace Agency USA, NASA); Japan (Japanese Agency Aerospace Research, JAXA), 18 European countries (European Space Agency, ESA); Canada (Canadian Space Agency, CSA), Brazil (Brazil Space Agency, AEB).

Start of construction - 1998.

The first module is "Zarya".

Completion of construction (presumably) - 2012.

The deadline for the end of the work of the ISS (presumably) - 2020.

Orbit height - 350-460 kilometers from the ground.

Obligation of the orbit - 51.6 degrees.

The ISS makes 16 revolutions per day.

The weight of the station (at the time of construction) - 400 tons (for 2009 - 300 tons).

Interior space (at the time of construction) - 1, 2 thousand cubic meters.

Length (along the main axis, which lined up the main modules) is 44.5 meters.

Height - almost 27.5 meters.

Width (over solar panels) - more than 73 meters.

The ISS was visited by the first space tourists (sent by Roscosmos together with Space Adventures).

In 2007, the flight of the first Malaysian cosmonaut is organized - Sheikha Muzafar Shukor (Muszaphar Shukor).

The cost of building ICS by 2009 amounted to 100 billion dollars.

Flight Management:

the Russian segment is carried out from the TsUP-M (Zup-Moscow, the city of Korolev, Russia);

the American segment is from the Central Committee (Zup-Houston, Houston City, USA).

The work of the MCS laboratory modules are monitored:

european "Columbus" - the Office of the European Space Agency (the city of Oberpaffenhofen, Germany);

japanese "Kibo" - the PC of the Japanese Agency Agency Aerospace Research (Tsukuba, Japan).

Flight of the European Automatic Cargo Ship ATV "Jules Verne" ("Jules Verne"), designed to supply the ISS, together with the Central Commissions of the European Space Agency (the city of Toulouse, France).

The technical coordination of work on the Russian segment of the ISS and its integration with the American segment is carried out by the Council of the main designers under the leadership of the President, the General Designer of the RCC "Energy". S.P. Queen, Academician RAS Y.P. Semenova.
Guide to the preparation and implementation of the elements of the Russian segment of the ISS is carried out by an interstate commission to ensure flights and operation of orbital manned complexes.

According to the existing international agreement, each participant of the project belongs to its segments on the ISS.

The leading organization on the creation of the Russian segment and its integration with the American segment is the RKK "Energy". S.P. Queen, and in the American segment - the company "Boeing" ("Boeing").

About 200 organizations are involved in the manufacture of elements of the Russian segment, including: Russian Academy of Sciences; Factory of Experimental Mechanical Engineering RKK "Energy" them. S.P. Queen; Rocket and Space Plant GKNPC them. M.V. Khrunichev; GNP RCC "TsSKB-Progress"; CB of general engineering; Rye of cosmic instrument making; Recent instruments; RSyi CPK them. Yu.A. Gagarin.

Russian segment: Star service module; functional freight block "Zarya"; Docking compartment "Pierce".

American segment: UNITY nodular module ("Unity"); Quest Gateway Module ("Quest"); Laboratory Module "Destiny" ("Destiny").

Canada created for the ISS on the LAB module a manipulator - 17.6-meter hand-robot "Canadarm" ("Canadarm").

Italy supplies the so-called Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules, MPLM on the ISS (Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules, MPLM). By 2009, they were made three: "Leonardo", "Raphaello", "Donatello" ("Leonardo", "Raffaello", "donatello"). These are large cylinders (6.4 x 4.6 meters) with a docking node. An empty logistics module weighs 4.5 tons, it can be downloaded to 10 tons of equipment for experiments and consumables.

The delivery of people to the station provides Russian "unions" and American shuttles (reusable clamps); Loads deliver Russian "progress" and American shuttles.

Japan has created its first scientific orbital laboratory, which has become the largest MCS module, "Kibo" (translated from the Japanese "Nadezhda", an international abbreviation - JEM, Japanese Experiment Module).

By order of the European Space Agency, the Consortium of European Aerospace Companies was made by the Columbus Research Module. It is intended for physical, material science, medical and biological and other experiments in the absence of gravity. By order of ESA, the Harmony module ("Harmony") was made, which connects the "Cybo" and "Columbus" modules, and also ensures their power supply and data exchange.

Additional modules and devices are also made on the ISS: the root segment and girodine module on the node-1 (Node 1); Energy module (SS section of AC) on Z1; mobile service system; device for moving equipment and crew; device "b" system of moving equipment and crew; Farms S0, S1, P1, P3 / P4, P5, S3 / S4, S5, S6.

All ISS laboratory modules have standardized stands for installing blocks with experimental equipment. Over time, the ISS will turn back to new nodes and modules: the Russian segment should be replenished with a scientific and energy platform, a multi-purpose research module "Enterprise" ("Enterprise") and the second functional freight block (FGB-2). The "Dome" assembly ("Cupola") will be mounted on the Node-3 module (NODE 3). This dome with a number of very large portholes through which the inhabitants of the station, as in the theater, will be able to observe the arrival of ships and control the work of their colleagues in open space.

The history of the creation of the ISS.

Work at the International Space Station began in 1993.

Russia proposed the United States to combine efforts to carry out manned programs. By the time Russia had a 25-year history of the operation of the Salute and World orbital stations, and there was also an invaluable experience in conducting long flights, research and developed space infrastructure. But by 1991 the country was in a serious economic situation. At the same time, financial difficulties were also experienced creators of the Freeda orbital station (USA).

March 15, 1993 General Director of the Agency Roskosmos A Yu.N. Copteis and General Designer NPO "Energia" Yu.P. Semenov turned to the head of the NASA Goldin with a proposal to create an international space station.

On September 2, 1993, Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation Viktor Chernomyrdin and Vice-President of the United States Albert Mountains signed a "joint statement on cooperation in space", which provided for the creation of a joint station. On November 1, 1993, a detailed plan of work on the International Space Station was signed, and in June 1994 - a contract between NASA and Roskosmos Agencies "On the supply and services for the Mir station and the International Space Station."

The initial stage of construction provides for the creation of a functionally completed structure of a station from a limited number of modules. The first to the orbit was removed by the "Proton-K" launch vehicle "Dawn" function and freight block (1998), made in Russia. The second is delivered by the shuttle ship and docked with the American docking module of Knot-1 - "Uniti" (December 1998). The third of the Russian service module "Star" (2000), which provides station management, crew life support, station orientation and orbit correction. The fourth is the American laboratory module "Destini" (2001).

The first main crew of the ISS, arriving at the station on November 2, 2000 on the ship "Union TM-31": William Shepherd (USA), Commander of the ISS, Soyuz-TM-31 ships; Sergey Krikalov (Russia), Soyuz-TM-31 ships flight engineer; Yuri Gyzenko (Russia), Pilot ISS, commander of the ship "Union TM-31".

The duration of the MKS-1 crew flight was about four months. His return to Earth was carried out by the American Space Shuttle ship, which delivered the crew of the second major expedition to the ISS. The ship "Union TM-31" remained as part of the ISS for six months and served as a rescuer ship for a crew operating on its board.

In 2001, the P6 energy module was installed on the root segment Z1, the Destiny Laboratory Module was delivered to the orbit, the Quest Camera, the Pier's docking compartment, two cargo telescopic arrows, remote manipulator. In 2002, the station was replenished with three fermented structures (S0, S1, P6), two of which are equipped with transporting devices to move the remote manipulator and astronauts during operation in open space.

The construction of the ISS was suspended in connection with the catastrophe of the American ship "Columbia" that occurred on February 1, 2003, and in 2006, construction works were resumed.

In 2001 and twice in 2007, the refusal to work computers in Russian and American segments was recorded. In 2006, a smoke occurred in the Russian segment of the station. In the fall of 2007, the station crew conducted the repair work of the solar battery.

New sections of solar panels were delivered to the station. At the end of 2007, the ISS was replenished with two hermetic modules. In October, the Shuttle "Discovery" STS-120 brings the connecting module-2 "harmony" connecting module into orbit, which became the main jettle for shuttles.

The European Laboratory Module "Columbus" was led into orbit on the Atlantis ship STS-122 and with the help of a manipulator of this ship put at his regular place (February 2008). The ISS was then introduced into the ISS Japanese module "Kibo" (June 2008), his first element was delivered to the ISS shuttle "Endeavor" STS-123 (March 2008).

Perspectives MKS.

According to some pessimistic experts, the ISS is in vain time and money. They believe that the station is not yet built, but already outdated.

However, in the implementation of the long-term program of space flights to the moon or to Mars, humanity without the ISS cannot do.

Since 2009, the permanent crew of the ISS will be increased to 9 people, the number of experiments will increase. Russia has planned to hold a 331 experiment on the ISS in the coming years. European Space Agency (ESA) and its partners have already built a new transporter ship - Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), which will be displayed on the basic orbit (300 kilometers height) Ariane-5 ES ATV rocket, from where ATV will go to orbit due to its engines ISS (400 kilometers above Earth). The useful load of this automatic ship with a length of 10.3 meters and a diameter of 4.5 meters is 7.5 tons. It will be experimental equipment, food, and air, and water for the crew of the ISS. The first of the ATV series (September 2008) received the name "Jules Verne"). After docking from the ISS in automatic mode, ATV can work in its composition half a year, after which the ship is loaded with garbage and in the controlled mode flooded in the Pacific Ocean. ATV is planned to be launched once a year, and in all of them will be built at least 7. The Japanese automatic truck H-II "Transfer Vehicle" (HTV) will be connected to the ISS program (HTV), displayed in the orbit of the Japanese carrier rocket H-IIB, which is still developing now . The total weight of HTV will be 16.5 tons, of which 6 tons - useful load for the station. He will be able to stay dashed to the ISS to one month.

Outdated shuttles will be removed from flights in 2010, and the new generation will appear no earlier than 2014-2015.
By 2010, Russian manned "unions" will be upgraded: first of all, electronic control systems and communication will be replaced, which will increase the payload of the ship by reducing the weight of electronic equipment. The updated "Union" will be able to be located in the station for almost a year. The Russian side will be built by the Clipper ship (according to plan the first test piloted flight in orbit - 2014, commissioning - 2016). This six-seater cruise shuttle for reusable use is conceived in two versions: with a household compartment (ABO) or motor compartment (up to). For the "clipper", which rose into space for a relatively low orbit, will fly the interboronal tug of "ferry". "Ferry" - a new development designed to change the freight "progress" over time. This tug must tighten with a low reference orbit to the ISS orbit so-called "containers", cargo "barrels" with a minimum of equipment (4-13 tons of cargo), deposited into space with the help of "unions" or "protons". The "ferry" has two docking nodes: one for the container, the second - for mooring to the ISS. After the container is output to the ferry orbit, due to its motor installation, it goes down to it, it is joined with it and raises it to the ISS. And after the unloading of the container, "steam" descends it to a lower orbit, where he is uncovered and independently slows down to burn in the atmosphere. The tug will also leave to wait for the new container to deliver it to the ISS.

Official website of the RKK "Energia": http://www.energia.ru/rus/iss/iss.html

Official site of the Boeing Corporation (Boeing): http://www.boeing.com

Official website of the Flight Management Center: http://www.mcc.rsa.ru

Official website of the US National Aerospace Agency (NASA): http://www.nasa.gov

Official site of the European Space Agency (ESA): http://www.esa.int/esacp/index.html

Official website of the Japanese Agency Agency Aerospace Research: http://www.jaxa.jp/index_e.html

Official website of the Canadian Space Agency (CSA): http://www.space.gc.ca/index.html

Official site of Brazil Space Agency (AEB):

International Space Station

International Space Station, Socre. (eng. International Space Station, Sokr. ISS.) - manned, used as a multipurpose space research complex. The ISS is a joint international project, which involves 14 countries (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. Initially, the participants were Brazil and the United Kingdom.

The management of the ISS is carried out: the Russian segment is from the Center for Space Flight Management in Korolev, the American segment - from the center of flight management named after Lyndon Johnson in Houston. The management of laboratory modules - the European "Columbus" and the Japanese "Cybo" - control the centers of the Office of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the centers.

History of creation

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on creating an American orbital station. In 1988, the projected station was called "Freedom" ("Freedom"). At that time it was a joint draft USA, ESA, Canada and Japan. The large-sized managed station was planned, the modules of which will be delivered in turn into the orbit of Space Shuttle. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it turned out that the cost of development of the project was too large and only international cooperation will allow you to create such a station. The USSR, who has already had experience in creating and removing the Salute orbital stations, as well as the Mir station, planned in the early 1990s the creation of the Mir-2 station, but due to the economic difficulties, the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States concluded an agreement on cooperation in the study of space. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RCA) and NASA developed a joint program "World - Shuttle". This program provided for flights of American reusable Space Shuttle ships to the Russian Space Station "Peace", the inclusion of Russian astronauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz ships and the World Station.

During the implementation of the program "Peace - Shuttle", the idea of \u200b\u200buniting national programs for creating orbital stations was born.

In March 1993, the Director-General of the Republic of Kazakhstan Yuri Koptev and the General Designer of the NGO Energia, Yuri Semenov, was offered to the head of NASA Daniel Goldin to create an international space station.

In 1993, in the United States, many politicians were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, a proposal for the creation of the International Space Station was discussed in the US Congress. This proposal was not accepted with a translate only in one voice: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for the construction of the station.

On September 2, 1993, Vice President of the USA Albert Mountains and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Federation Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project "Genuinely International Space Station". From that moment on, the official name of the station was the "International Space Station", although the unofficial - Space station Alpha was used in parallel.

ISS, July 1999. At the top of the Unity module, downstairs, with deployed solar panels - dawn

On November 1, 1993, RKA and NASA signed a "detailed work plan for the International Space Station."

On June 23, 1994, Yuri Coptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington "Temporary agreement on the work leading to Russian partnership in a permanent piloted civil space station", in which Russia officially connected to work on the ISS.

November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were concluded with project company firms - "Boeing" and the RCC "Energia". S. P. Korolev.

March 1995 - in the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston was approved by a draft station.

1996 - approved station configuration. It consists of two segments - the Russian (modernized version "Mir-2") and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, members of the European Space Agency and Brazil).

On November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS - the functional-cargo block "Zarya", the proton-K (FGB) rocket was replaced.

On December 7, 1998, the American Module "Uniti", Node-1) docked the Shuttle "Endeavor" to the "Zarya" module ("Unity", "Node-1").

On December 10, 1998, Luke was opened in the Uniti module and Kaban and Crycalev, as representatives of the United States and Russia, entered the station.

On July 26, 2000, a service module (see) "star" was docked to the functionally and cargo unit "Zarya".

On November 2, 2000, the transport pilotable ship (TPK) "Union TM-31" delivered the crew of the first major expedition on board an ISS.

ISS, July 2000. Doodled modules from top to bottom: Unit, Zarya, Star and Ship Progress

On February 7, 2001, the Atlantis Shuttle crew during the STS-98 mission to the "Uniti" module is attached to the American scientific module "Destini".

On April 18, 2005, the head of NASA Michael Griffin on the hearings of the Senate Commission on Space and Science announced the need to temporarily reduce scientific research on the American segment of the station. It was required to release funds on the forced development and the construction of a new manned ship (CEV). The new manned ship was necessary to ensure independent US access to the station, since after the Catastrophe of Colombia on February 1, 2003, the United States temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when the shuttle flights resumed.

After the Catastrophe of Colombia, it was reduced from three to two number of members of the long-term crews of the ISS. This was due to the fact that the supply of the station with the materials necessary for the vital activity of the crew was carried out only by Russian progress cargo ships.

On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed by a successful start of the Shuttle "Discovery". Until the end of the operation, the shuttles was planned to make 17 flights until 2010, during these flights to the ISS, the equipment and modules were delivered to both for the completion of the station and to modernize the part of the equipment, in particular, the Canadian manipulator.

The second flight of the shuttle after the Catastrophe "Colombia" (Shattl "Discovery" STS-121) took place in July 2006. The German cosmonaut Thomas Ryter arrived on this shuttle on the ISS, who joined the crew of a long-term expedition of the ISS-13. Thus, in a long-term expedition, three astronauts began to work on the ISS after a three-year break.

ISS, April 2002

Atlantis's shuttle, which started on September 9, 2006, delivered two segments of the ISS enzyme structures, two solar panels, as well as radiators of the thermostat of the American segment.

On October 23, 2007, the American Module "Harmony" arrived on board the Shuttle "Discovery". He was temporarily staged to the "Uniti" module. After reloading on November 14, 2007, the "Harmony" module was on a permanent basis connected to the Destiny module. The construction of the main American segment of the ISS ended.

ISS, August 2005

In 2008, the station increased by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus module, created by order of the European Space Agency, was downtrended, and on March 14 and June 4, two of the three main compartments of the Cybo laboratory module were docked, developed by the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency - the hermetic section of the Experimental Freight Caching (ELM PS) and sealed compartment (PM).

In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport ships was launched: the European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, the useful load - 7.7 tons, 1 flight a year) and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency "H-II Transport Vehicle "(The first launch took place on September 10, 2009, the useful cargo is 6 tons, 1 flight per year).

From May 29, 2009, a long-term crew of an ISS-20 number of six people, delivered in two receptions, began his work: the first three people arrived at the "Union of TMA-14", then the crew "Union TMA-15" was joined. In a large extent, the increase in the crew has occurred due to the fact that the possibility of delivery of goods to the station increased.

ISS, September 2006

On November 12, 2009, a small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, shortly before the launch of the name "Search". This is the fourth module of the Russian station of the station, developed on the basis of the docking node "Pierce". The possibilities of the module allow you to produce some scientific experiments on it, as well as simultaneously perform the function of the pier for Russian ships.

On May 18, 2010, the Russian Small Research Module "Dawn" (MIM-1) was successfully dashed to the ISS. The operation on the dawn's dawn to the Russian functional and freight block "Zarya" was carried out by a manipulator of the American space shuttle "Atlantis", and then the MCS manipulator.

ISS, August 2007

In February 2010, the Multilateral Council for the Management of the International Space Station confirmed that there are no technical restrictions on the continuation of the ISS operation known at this stage after 2015, and the US administration has envisaged the Further use of the ISS at least until 2020. NASA and Roscosmos consider the extension of this period at least until 2024, and it is possible to extend until 2027. In May 2014, the Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said: "Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station after 2020."

In 2011, the flights of reusable ships like "Space Shuttle" were completed.

ISS, June 2008

On May 22, 2012, the "Falcon 9" carrier launch vehicle with a private space freight ship "Dragon" launched from the Cape Canaveral. This is the first test flight to the International Space Station of the Private Space Ship.

On May 25, 2012, the QC "Dragon" became the first commercial apparatus, docked from the ISS.

On September 18, 2013, for the first time came close to the ISS and the private automatic freight spacecraft of the Signus supply ship was docked.

ISS, March 2011

Planned events

The plans are a significant modernization of the Russian Soyuz Spacecraft and "Progress".

In 2017, a Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) "Science" is planned to the ISS. It will rise to the Pier Module, which will be refused and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will fully assume the functions of Pierce.

"NAM-1" (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned in 2018;

"NAM-2" (scientific and energy module) is the second module.

The mind (knotting module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned in 2017.

Station device

The station's device is based on a modular principle. The assembly of the ISS occurs by consistently adding to the set of another module or block, which is connected to the orbit already delivered.

For 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian - "Zarya", "Star", Pierce, "Search", "Dawn"; American - "Uniti", "Destini", "Quest", "Tranquiliti", "Dome", "Leonardo", "Harmony", European - "Columbus" and Japanese - "Kibo".

• "Zarya" - Functional and freight module "Zarya", the first of the ISS modules delivered to the orbit. The mass of the module is 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with reactive engines for correction of the station orbit and large solar panels. The service life of the module will be expected at least 15 years. American financial contribution to the creation of "Dawn" is about $ 250 million, Russian - over $ 150 million;
• P. M. Panel - a illegal panel or antimicrometeor protection, which at the insistence of the American side is mounted on the "Star" module;
• "Star" - the service module "Star", which contains flight management systems, livelihood systems, energy and information center, as well as cabins for astronauts. Mass module - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking nodes. All its systems and blocks are Russian, with the exception of the on-board computing complex created with the participation of European and American specialists;
• MIME - Small research modules, two Russian freight modules "Search" and "Dawn", designed to store equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments. "Search" is dashed to the anti-airborne docking unit of the star module, and "Dawn" - to the nadar port of the "Zarya" module;
• "The science" - Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides for the conditions for storing scientific equipment, conducting scientific experiments, temporary accumulation of the crew. Also ensures the functionality of the European manipulator;
• ERA - European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be fixed on the Russian scientific laboratory MLM;
• Hermadapter - a hermetic docking adapter, designed to connect the modules of the ISS, and to ensure the docks of the shuttles;
• "Calm" - MCS module that performs livelihood functions. Contains systems for the processing of water, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. is connected to the "Uniti" module;
• "Unity" - the first of the three MCS connecting modules, which performs the role of the docking unit and the electricity switch for the Quest modules, "Nod-3", the Z1 farms and connecting it through the Hermadapter-3 transport ships;
• "Pier" - the port of mooring, designed to carry out the docks of Russian "progress" and "unions"; installed on the "Star" module;
• Pm - External warehouse platforms: three external leakage platforms intended exclusively for storing goods and equipment;
• Farm. - Combined fermented structure, on the elements of which are installed solar panels, radiators panels and remote manipulators. Also intended for leakage of goods and various equipment;
• "Canadarm2", or "mobile serving system" - a Canadian remote manipulator system, which serves as the main tool for unloading transport ships and move external equipment;
• "Dext" - Canadian system of two remote manipulators, serving to move equipment located outside the station;
• "Quest" - a specialized gateway module designed to carry out the exits of cosmonauts and astronauts in open space with the possibility of pre-conducting desaturation (nitrogen leaching from human blood);
• "Harmony" - a connecting module that performs the role of the docking unit and the electricity switch for three scientific laboratories and connecting it through the Hermadapter-2 transport ships. Contains additional livelihood systems;
• "Columbus" - European laboratory module, in which, in addition to the scientific equipment, installed network switches (hubs), ensuring communication between computer equipment station. Docked to the "Harmony" module;
• "Destini" - American laboratory module, docked with the "Harmony" module;
• "Kibo" - Japanese laboratory module consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in hermetic and leather conditions. In addition, thanks to a special design, it allows you to carry out unplanned experiments. Docked to the "Harmony" module;

Panoramic Dome of the ISS.

• "Dome" - Transparent overview dome. Its seven portholes (the largest - 80 cm in diameter) are used to conduct experiments, observation of space and, when docking spacecraft, as well as as a control panel of the main remote manipulator station. Place for recreation crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the knotting module "Tranquiliti";
• TSP - Four lenger platforms, fixed on farms 3 and 4, designed to accommodate the equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in vacuo. Provide processing and transmission of experimental results by high-speed channels to the station.
• Sealed multifunctional module - Warehouse for storing goods, docked to the nadrid docking unit of the Destiny module.

In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: "Leonardo", "Rafael" and "Donatello", periodically delivered to orbit for the retrofitting of the ISS necessary scientific equipment and other goods. Modules having a common name "Multipurpose supply module", Delivered in the cargo compartment of shuttles and were stripped with the "Uniti" module. The re-equipped Module "Leonardo" starting from March 2011 is among the station modules called "a hermetic multifunction module" (Permanent Multipurpose Module, PMM).

Power supply station

ISS in 2001. Sunny batteries of "Zarya" and "Star" modules are visible, as well as the P6 enzyme construction with American solar panels.

The only source of electrical energy for the ISS is, the light of which the solar panels are converted into electricity.

In the Russian segment of the ISS, a constant voltage of 28 volts is used, similar to the Space Shuttle and Soymatic Space Ships. Electricity is produced directly by the solar batteries "Zarya" and "Star" modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to Russian through the ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian Converter Unit) and in the opposite direction through the RACU voltage converter ( Russian-to-american converter unit).

It was originally planned that the station would be ensured by electricity with the help of the Russian module of the Scientific and Energy Platform (NEP). However, after the catastrophe of the Shattla "Colombia", the station assembly program and schedule of shuttle flights were revised. Among other things, they also refused to ship and install the NEP, so at the moment most of the electricity is made by the solar batteries of the American sector.

In the American segment, solar panels are organized as follows: two flexible folding solar panels form the so-called solar battery wing ( Solar Array Wing., Saw.) Four pairs of such wings are placed in total on the enzyme structures of the station. Each wing has a length of 35 m and a width of 11.6 m, and its useful area is 298 m², with the total power produced by it can reach 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate primary constant voltage from 115 to 173 volts, which is then using DDCU blocks (eng. Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), transformed into a secondary stabilized constant voltage of 124 volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.

Solar Battery on the ISS

The station makes one turn around the land in 90 minutes and approximately half of this time it spends in the shade of the Earth, where solar batteries do not work. Then its power supply comes from buffer nickel-hydrogen batteries that are recharged when the ISS goes back to sunlight. The battery life of 6.5 years is expected that during the life of the station they will repeatedly replace. The first replacement of batteries was carried out in the R6 segment during the output of astronauts into open space during the flight of the SHTTTL "ENEVOR" STS-127 in July 2009.

Under normal conditions, the solar batteries of the American sector track the sun to zoom in to maximum energy generation. Solar panels are subject to the sun using the Alfa and Beta drives. At the station installed two alpha drives, which turn around the longitudinal axis of the truzy structures at once several sections with solar batteries located on them: the first drive rotates the sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery corresponds to its beta drive, which ensures the rotation of the wing relative to its longitudinal axis.

When the ISS is in the shade of land, the solar panels are transferred to Night Glider Mode ( english) ("Night Planning Mode"), while they rotate the edge in the direction of movement to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere, which is present at the height of the station flight.

Means of communication

Transfer of telemetry and the exchange of scientific data between the station and the flight control center is carried out using radio communications. In addition, radio communications are used during rapprochement and dock operations, they are used for audio and video communications between members of the crew and with flight control experts on Earth, as well as relatives and close astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multipurpose communications systems.

The Russian segment of the ISS supports the connection with the Earth directly using the LIRA radio antenna installed on the "Star" module. Lira makes it possible to use the Satellite Ray Data Relay System. This system was used to communicate with the "Peace station", but in the 1990s it fell into decline and is currently not applicable. To restore the performance of the system in 2012, "Luch-5a" was launched. In May 2014, there are 3 multifunctional space system for the beam - "beam-5a," beam-5b and "beam-5B" in orbit. In 2014, the installation on the Russian segment of the station of specialized subscriber equipment was planned.

Another Russian communication system, "Sunrise-M", provides a telephone connection between the "Star" modules, "Zarya", Pierce, "Search" and the American segment, as well as VHF -Rodiosyaz with land-based management centers, using external antennas for this Module "Star".

In the American segment for communication in the S-range (sound transmission) and K u -Diapazone (sound transmission, video, data) two separate systems located on the Z1 enzyme construction are used. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to American geostationary TDRSS satellites, which allows you to maintain almost continuous contact with the flight control center in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European module "Columbus" and the Japanese "Cybo" are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the US TDRSS data transmission system will complement the European satellite system (EDRS) and similar Japanese. Communication between modules is carried out on the internal digital wireless network.

During outputs in open space, cosmonauts use the CHEM transmitter of the decimeter range. The VHF radio communications also use the Soyuz, Progress, Progress, HTV, ATV, and Space Shuttle spacecraft (True, the transmitters of S- and K U -Diapazones using TDRSS are also used). With its help, these spaceships receive teams from the field of flight management or from the members of the ISS crew. Automatic spacecraft are equipped with their own communications. So, ATV ships use a specialized system during rapprochement and docking Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE)whose equipment is located on the ATV and on the "Star" module. Communication is carried out through two fully independent S-band radio channels. PCE begins to function, starting with relative ranges about 30 kilometers, and turns off after ATV docking to the ISS and transition to the interaction on the onboard bus MIL-STD-1553. To accurately determine the relative position ATV and the ISS, the system of laser rangefinders installed on ATV makes a possible accurate dock with the station.

The station is equipped with approximately a hundred portable ThinkPad computers from IBM and Lenovo, A31 and T61P models running Debian GNU / Linux. These are the usual serial computers, which, however, were finalized to use under the conditions of the ISS, in particular, the connectors, the cooling system, the 28 volt voltage used at the station used at the station, and the safety requirements were made to work in weightlessness. From January 2010, direct access to the Internet was organized at the station for the American segment. Computers on board the ISS are connected to Wi-Fi in a wireless network and are associated with the ground at a speed of 3 Mbps to download and 10 Mbps on downloading, which is comparable to home ADSL connections.

Bathroom for cosmonauts

The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women, looks like the same as on Earth, but has a number of constructive features. The toilet is equipped with foot retainers and hollow holders, powerful air pumps are mounted in it. The cosmonaut is fastened with a special spring fastening to the toilet seat, then turns on the powerful fan and opens the suction hole where the air flow takes all the waste.

On the ISS, the air from the toilets before entering the living quarters is be filtered for cleaning from bacteria and odor.

Greenhouse for cosmonauts

Fresh greens grown in microgravity, first officially included in the menu at the International Space Station. August 10, 2015 Astronauts will try a lettuce salad collected from Veggie orbital plantation. Many publications of the media reported that for the first time cosmonauts tried their proven food itself, but this experiment was held at the Mir station.

Scientific research

One of the main objectives in the creation of the ISS was the possibility of conducting experiments at the station requiring the presence of unique space flight conditions: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation, not weakened by the earth's atmosphere. The main areas of research include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, material education and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology and meteorology. Studies are carried out with the help of scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories, part of the equipment for experiments requiring vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its produce.

Scientific modules MKS.

At the moment (January 2012), three special scientific modules are located in the station - the American laboratory "Destini", launched in February 2001, the European Research Module "Columbus", delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese Research Module "Cybo " In the European Research Module, 10 racks are equipped in which instruments are installed for research in various sections of science. Some racks are specialized and equipped for research in biology, biomedicine and fluids physics. The rest of the racks are universal, the equipment may vary depending on the experiments carried out.

The Japanese Research Module "Cybo" consists of several parts that were consistently delivered and mounted in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a hermetic experimental transport compartment (eng. JEM EXPERIMENT LOGISTICS MODULE - PRESSURIZED SECTION ) It was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of Shuttle "Endeavor" STS-123. The last part of the Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when Shtttl delivered a leakage experimental and transport compartment to the ISS (English. EXPERIMENT LOGISTICS MODULE, UNPRESSURIZED SECTION ).

Russia has two "small research modules" (MIM) - "Search" and "Dawn" on the orbital station. It is also planned to deliver a multifunctional laboratory module "Science" (MLM) in orbit. Only the last, the number of scientific apparatus placed two mimes will have full scientific opportunities, minimally.

Joint experiments

The International Nature of the ISS project contributes to joint scientific experiments. The most widely similar cooperation is developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Federal Space Agency of Russia. The experiment "Plasma Crystal", dedicated to the physics of the dusty plasma, and conducted by the Institute of Extraterrestrial Physics of the Max Plasma Society, the Institute of High Temperatures and the Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics, RAS, as well as a number of other scientific institutions in Russia and Germany, a medical and biological experiment " Matryshka-P ", in which mannequins are used to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation - equivalents of biological objects created at the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Cologne Institute of Space Medicine.

The Russian side is also a contractor in conducting contractual experiments of ESA and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency. For example, Russian astronauts conducted tests of the robototechnical experimental system Rokviss (English. Robotic Components Verification On Iss - Tests of robototechnical components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechanotronics, located in Web, not far from Munich, Germany.

Russian studies

Comparison between the burning of the candle on the ground (left) and in microgravity conditions on the ISS (right)

In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations for scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. At eleven, the main areas of research received 406 applications from eighty organizations. After evaluating the RCC Energy Specialists of the technical realizability of these applications, in 1999, a "long-term program of scientific and applied research and experiments planned on the Russian segment of the ICC" was adopted. The program was approved by the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu. S. Osipov and the Director General of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first studies on the Russian segment of the ISS were initiated by the first piloted expedition in 2000. According to the initial project of the ISS, the removal of two major Russian research modules (im) was supposed. The electricity required for scientific experiments should be provided by the Scientific and Energy Platform (NEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were abolished in favor of the construction of a single scientific module that did not require high costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research conducted by Russia on the ISS is a contract or joint with foreign partners.

Currently, various medical, biological, physical research is conducted on the ISS.

Research on the US segment

Epstein - Barr Virus, shown by using fluorescent antibodies

The United States holds a wide program of research on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of research held in the flights of shuttles with the Spacelab modules and in the world-shuttle program together with Russia. As an example, it is possible to study the pathogenicity of one of the pathogens of herpes, Epstein Virus - Barr. According to statistics, 90% of the US adult population are carriers of the latent form of this virus. Under the conditions of space flight there is a weakening of the work of the immune system, the virus can be activated and caused the disease of the crew member. Experiments on the study of the virus were started in the STS-108 shuttle flight.

European studies

Solar Observatory installed on the "Columbus" module

On the European Scientific Module "Columbus" there are 10 unified racks for the placement of payload (ISPR), however, some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of Eka in racks, the following scientific equipment: BioLab laboratory for biological experiments, Laboratory Fluid Science Laboratory for Fluid Physics Research, Installation for EUROPEAN Physiology Modules Physiology, as well as Universal EUROPEAN Drawer Rack Stand, containing equipment for experiments By crystallization of proteins (PCDF).

During STS-122, external experimental settings for the Kolumbus module were installed: a remote platform for EUTEF technological experiments and Solar Solar Observatory. It is planned to add an external laboratory for checking out from and the theory of strings atomic clock ensemble in space.

Japanese studies

The program of studies conducted on the KIBO module includes the study of global warming processes on Earth, ozone layer and desertification of the surface, carrying out astronomical studies in the X-ray range.

Experiments on the creation of large and identical protein crystals are planned, which are designed to help understand the mechanisms of disease and develop new treatments. In addition, the action of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, and experiments will be carried out on robotics, in the field of communications and energy.

In April 2009, the Japanese Astronaut of Koiti Vacata on the ISS conducted a series of experiments that were selected from among those proposed by ordinary citizens. Astronaut tried to "swim" in weightlessness, using various styles, including Krol and Butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut even to move away. Astronaut noticed at the same time that it would not be able to fix the situation, "even large sheets of paper, if they are in hand and use as flippers." In addition, the astronaut wanted to fire a soccer ball, but this attempt was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back above his head. Having finished these difficult in the conditions of weightless exercise, the Japanese astronaut tried to sneak from the floor and make rotation on the spot.

Security questions

Space garbage

Hole in the shuttle radiator panel ENEVOR STS-118, resulting from a collision with cosmic garbage

Since the ISS moves at a relatively low orbit, there is a certain probability of a collision of a station or astronauts overlooking open space with the so-called cosmic garbage. Such can be counted as large objects like rocket steps or disposed of satellites and small sort of slag from hard-fuel rocket engines, refrigerants from the reactor installations of the satellites of the UC-A series, other substances and objects. In addition, there is an additional threat to themselves natural objects like micrometeorites. Given the space speeds in orbit, even small objects are able to cause a serious damage station, and in the case of a possible hitting in the astronaut's spacesuit, micrometeorites may break the trim and cause depressurization.

To avoid such collisions, a remote monitoring of the movement of the elements of cosmic garbage is underway. If at a certain distance from the ISS, such a threat appears, the station crew receives the appropriate warning. Cosmonauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system (eng. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre.), which is a group of motor installations from the Russian segment of the station. Included engines are able to display the station to a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In the case of late detection, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on Soyuz Spaceships. Partial evacuation occurred at the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011. March 24, 2012.

Radiation

In the absence of a massive atmospheric layer, which surrounds people on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are subjected to more intensive irradiation by constant streams of cosmic rays. On the day, crew members receive a radiation dose of about 1 millisitive, which is approximately equivalent to human irradiation on Earth for the year. This leads to an increased risk of developing malignant tumors from astronauts, as well as the weakening of the immune system. Weak cosmonaut immunity can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases among crew members, especially in a closed space of the station. Despite the attempts undertaken to improve radiation protection mechanisms, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much compared with the indicators of previous studies conducted, for example, at the Mir station.

The surface of the station housing

During the inspection of the outer sheaving of the ISS, on the scraps from the surface of the case and the portholes, traces of the marine plankton vital activity were discovered. Also confirmed the need to clean the outer surface of the station due to pollution from the operation of spacecraft engines.

Legal

Legal levels

The legal structure regulating the legal aspects of the space station is diverse and consists of four levels:

• First The level that establishes the rights and obligations of the parties is the "Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement" (English. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - IGA ), signed on January 29, 1998, fifteen governments participating in the project of countries - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven Member States of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Dania, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article No. 1 of this document reflects the basic principles of the project:
  This agreement is a long-term international structure based on sincere partnership, for comprehensive design, creation, development and long-term use of a civilized cosmic station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.. When writing this agreement, the "Cosmos Agreement" from 1967 was taken, ratified by 98 countries, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law.
• The first level of partnership is based on second The level called "Memorandums of Understanding" (English. Memoranda of Understanding - Mou.s. ). These memorandums are agreements between NASA and four national space agencies: FKA, ESA, CKA and JAXA. Memorandums are used for a more detailed description of the roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is an appointed ISS manager, there are no separate agreements directly between these organizations, only with NASA.
• TO third The level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the Parties - for example, the Commercial Agreement of 2005 between NASA and Roscosmos, in which one guaranteed place for the American astronaut included the crews of the Soyuz ships and part of the useful volume for American goods on unmanned " Progress. "
• Fourth Legal level complements the second ("Memorandums") and puts into force individual positions from it. An example of it is the "Code of Conduct on the ISS", which was developed pursuant to paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - the legal aspects of ensuring subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.

Structure of ownership

The project ownership structure does not provide for its members a clearly established percentage on the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article No. 5 (IgA), the jurisdiction of each partner applies only to that component of the station, which is registered behind it, and violations of legal norms, inside or outside the station, are subject to proceedings according to the laws of the country, whose citizens are those are.

Interior of the "Zarya" module

Agreements on the use of ISS resources are more complex. Russian modules "Star", "Pierce", "Search" and "Dawn" are manufactured and belonging to Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned "Science" module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The "Zarya" module was built and delivered to orbit by the Russian side, but it was done on the US funds, so the owner of this module is officially officially officially. For the use of Russian modules and other components, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the aforementioned third and fourth legal levels).

The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, enzyme structures, solar panels and two robot manipulator) are used as follows (in% of total utilization time):

1. "Columbus" - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
2. "Kibo" - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
3. "Destini" - 100% for NASA

In addition to this:

• NASA can use a 100% area of \u200b\u200benzyme structures;
• By agreement with NASA, the CCA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
• Working crew, solar power, use of auxiliary services (loading / unloading, communication services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CKA.

Legal curiors

Prior to the flight of the first space tourist, there was no regulatory framework regulating flights into space for individuals. But after the flight of Dennis Tito, the project participating countries developed "principles", which determined such a concept as a "space tourist", and all the necessary issues for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such flight is possible only in the presence of specific medical indicators, psychological suitability, language training, and money fee.

In the same situation, the participants in the first space wedding in 2003 were also, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.

In 2000, the republican majority in the US Congress adopted a legislative act on the non-proliferation of rocket and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not acquire equipment and ships necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the disaster "Colombia", when the fate of the project depended on Russian "unions" and "progress", on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to adopt amendments to this bill, removing all restrictions for "any protocols, agreements, memorandums about mutual understanding or contracts" , before January 1, 2012.

Costs

The costs of construction and operation of the ISS turned out to be much more than it was originally planned. In 2005, on ESA assessment, from the beginning of work on the ISS project from the late 1980s to its intended ending in 2010, about 100 billion euros would be spent (157 billion dollars or 65.3 billion pounds) \\. However, today the end of the operation of the station is planned not earlier than 2024, due to the US request not to reflect its segment and continue to fly, the total costs of all countries are estimated in a large amount.

To make an accurate estimate of the cost of the ISS is very difficult. For example, it is incomprehensible how the contribution of Russia should pay, as Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar prices than other partners.

NASA

Evaluating the project as a whole, the most of the cost of NASA is a set of activities to ensure flights and the cost of management of the ISS. In other words, current operating costs make up much more of the tools spent than the cost of building modules and other station devices, to prepare crews, and delivery ships.

NASA expenses on the ISS, without taking into account the costs of "Shuttles", from 1994 to 2005 amounted to $ 25.6 billion. In 2005 and 2006, approximately $ 1.8 billion. It is assumed that annual expenses will increase, and by 2010 they will amount to 2.3 billion dollars. Then, before the completion of the project in 2016, an increase is not planned, only inflation adjustments.

Distribution of budget funds

Assessment of a distribution list of NASA costs, for example, according to the document published by the Space Agency, from which $ 1.8 billion spent by NASA in the ISS in 2005 was distributed:

• Research and development of new equipment - 70 million dollars. This amount was, in particular, put on the development of navigation systems, on informational support, on technology to reduce environmental pollution.
• Providing flights - 800 million dollars. This amount included: from the calculation for each ship, 125 million dollars on software, outputs into open space, supply and maintenance of shuttles; Additionally, 150 million dollars were spent on the flights themselves, onboard radio electronic equipment and on the crew and ship interaction systems; The remaining 250 million dollars went to the general administration of the ISS.
• Launches of ships and conducting expeditions - 125 million dollars on pre-road operations on the cosmodrome; $ 25 million for medical care; 300 million dollars spent on the management of expeditions;
• Flight program - 350 million dollars are spent on the production of flight programs, to maintain ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
• Loads and crews - 140 million dollars were spent on the purchase of consumables, as well as the opportunity to deliver goods and crews on Russian "progress" and "unions".

The cost of "shuttles" as part of the costs of the ISS

Of the ten planned flights that remained until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope

As mentioned above, NASA does not include the costs of the "Shuttle" program to the main state of the station's costs, since it positions it as a separate project, regardless of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 of 31 flights of the shuttles were not associated with the ISS, and from the one remaining until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

The approximate costs of the Shuttle program on the delivery of goods and crews of astronauts on the ISS was:

• Excluded first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, expenses amounted to $ 24 billion. Of these, 20% ($ 5 billion) did not relate to the ISS. Total - 19 billion dollars.
• From 1996 to 2006, 20.5 billion dollars were planned to spend 20.5 billion dollars on flights under the Shattle Program. If you have a flight from this amount to "Hubble", then in the end we will get the same 19 billion dollars.

That is, the total costs of NASA on flights to the ISS for the entire period will be approximately 38 billion dollars.

TOTAL

Taking into account the NASA plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, in the first approximation, it is possible to obtain an average annual flow rate - $ 2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will be $ 27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 (25.6 billion dollars) and folding these numbers, we will receive a final official result - $ 53 billion.

It should also be noted that this figure does not include significant costs for the design of the Fridom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participation in a joint program with Russia on the use of the Mir station, in the 1990s. The developments of these two projects were repeatedly used in the construction of the ISS. Given this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the "Shuttle", we can talk about more than double increasing the amount of expenses, compared with the official - more than $ 100 billion only for the United States.

Eka

ESA has calculated that its contribution over 15 years of project existence will be 9 billion euros. The costs of the Kolumbus module exceed 1.4 billion euros (approximately $ 2.1 billion), including the costs of ground control and management systems. The total cost of developing ATV is approximately 1.35 billion euros, while each Run "Arian-5" costs approximately 150 million euros.

Jaxa.

The development of the Japanese experimental module, the main contribution of JAXA in the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (about 2.8 billion dollars).

In 2005, JAXA was allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The annual operational expenses of the Japanese experimental module amount to 350-400 million dollars. In addition, JAXA pledged to develop and launch the H-II transport ship, the total cost of development of which is 1 billion dollars. The expenses of JAXA for 24 years of participation in the ISS program will exceed 10 billion dollars.

Roscosmos

A significant part of the budget of the Russian Space Agency is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen flights of the Soyuz and Progress ships were committed, which since 2003 became the main means of delivery of goods and crews. However, the question of how much Russia spends at the station (in US dollars), is not simple. The current 2 modules in orbit are the "Peace" derivatives, and therefore the cost of developing them is much lower than for other modules, but in this case, by analogy with American programs, the costs of developing the corresponding station modules should also be taken into account. Peace". In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately evaluate the actual costs of Roskosmos.

An approximate view of the expenditures of the Russian Space Agency for the ISS can be obtained based on its total budget, which for 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, for 2006 - 31,806, for 2007 - 32,985 and 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the station takes less than one and a half billion dollars of the USA per year.

CSA.

Canadian Space Agency (Canadian Space Agency, CSA) is a constant NASA partner, so Canada has been participating in the ISS project from the very beginning. The contribution of Canada to the ISS is a mobile maintenance system, consisting of three parts: a movable cart, which can move along the truss station, canadarm2, which is installed on the moving cart, and the special manipulator "Dextre" ). Over the past 20 years, CSA has invested 1.4 billion Canadian dollars station.

Criticism

In the history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps the most criticized space project. It can be considered a constructive or short-sighted criticism, you can agree with it or dispute it, but one remains unchanged: the station exists, its existence, it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and increases the experience of humanity in space flights, spending enormous financial resources.

Criticism in the USA

The criticism of the American side is mainly aimed at the cost of the project, which is already exceeding 100 billion dollars. This money, according to critics, it would be possible to spend more use on automatic (unmanned) flights for the study of the near space or to scientific projects conducted on Earth. In response to some of these critical comments, the defenders of the piloted space flights say that the criticism of the ISS project is a mining and that the return from the manned cosmonautics and research in space in the material plan is expressed by billions of dollars. Jerome Shnai (eng. Jerome Schnee.) Assessed the indirect economic component from additional income related to the study of space, as many times larger than initial public investment.

However, in the statement of the Federation of American scientists, it is argued that the NASA rate from additional income is actually very low, with the exception of developments in the aeronautics, which improve the sales of aircraft.

Critics also say that NASA often sues to its achievements of the development of third-party companies, the ideas and development of which, possibly, NASA was used, but had other prerequisites independent of astronautics. In fact, the income useful and bringing, according to critics, are unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites. NASA widely illuminates additional income from the construction of the ISS and from the works performed on it, while the official list of NASA's expenses is much more brief and secret.

Criticism of scientific aspects

According to Professor Robert Park (English. Robert Park.), Most of the planned scientific research do not have priority importance. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in the space laboratory is to hold them in microgravity, which can be done much cheaper in the conditions of artificial weightlessness (in a special aircraft who flies through a parabolic trajectory (English. reduced Gravity Aircraft.).

The construction plans of the ISS included two high-tech components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and the centrifuges module (Eng. CENTRIFUGE ACCOMMODATIONS MODULE) . The first operates at the station since May 2011. From the creation of the second refused in 2005 as a result of the correction of plans for the completion of the construction of the station. A highly specialized experiments conducted on the ISS are limited to the absence of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were studied by the influence of space flight factors on the human body, affecting such aspects as kidney stones, circidal rhythm (cyclicity of biological processes in the human body), the effect of cosmic radiation on the human nervous system. Critics argue that these studies have a small practical value, since the realities of today's studies of the near space are unmanned automatic ships.

Criticism of technical aspects

American journalist Jeff Faust (English. Jeff Foust.) I argued that for MCS maintenance requires too many expensive and dangerous exits in open space. Pacific Astronomical Society (eng. The Astronomical Society of The Pacific) At the beginning of the design of the ISS, attention paid attention to the station orbit. If for the Russian side it changes the launches, then for American it is unprofitable. The assignment that NASA made for the Russian Federation due to the geographical position of Baikonur, ultimately, perhaps will increase the total costs of the construction of the ISS.

In general, the debate in the American society is reduced to the discussion of the feasibility of the ISS, in the aspect of cosmonautics in a broader sense. Some defenders argue that in addition to its scientific value, this is an important example of international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS is potentially, with due effort and improvements, could make flights to and more economical. One way or another, the main essence of the statements of answers to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS, rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight opportunities.

Criticism in Russia

In Russia, the criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FKA) to defend Russian interests compared with the American party, which is always clearly monitored by compliance with their national priorities.

For example, journalists ask questions about why in Russia there is no own project of the orbital station, and why is the money for the project, the owner of which are the United States, while these funds could be used to fully Russian development. According to the head of the RSC Energia, Vitaly Lopoto, the reason for this are contractual obligations and lack of financing.

At one time, the Mir station has become a source of experience in construction and research on the USA, and after the accident "Colombia", the Russian side, acting under the partner agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and astronauts to the station, and almost alone saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to critical statements against FKA on the underestimation of the role of Russia in the project. So, for example, the cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia's scientific and technical contribution to the project is undervalued, and that the partner agreement with NASA does not meet national interests in the financial plan. However, it is worth considering that at the beginning of the ISS construction, the Russian segment of the station was paid by the United States, providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only for the end of construction.

Speaking about the scientific and technical component, journalists celebrate a small number of new scientific experiments conducted at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot make and put the necessary equipment for the station due to the lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopoto, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS will increase to 6 people. In addition, questions about safety measures in force majeure situations associated with the possible loss of station management. So, according to the cosmonaut, Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes unmanaged, it cannot be flooded as the Mir station.

According to critics, international cooperation, which is one of the main arguments in favor of the station is also controversial. As you know, under the condition of the international agreement, countries are not required to share their scientific developers at the station. For 2006-2007, there were no new large initiatives and major projects in the Space Sphere between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that the country investing 75% of funds into his project is unlikely to want to have a full partner, which is also its main competitor in the struggle for the leading position in outer space.

It is also criticized that significant funds were aimed at manned programs, and a number of programs for the development of satellites failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev in an interview with Izvestia stated that in the please of the ISS, space science was again left on Earth.

In 2014-2015, among the experts of the Space Industry of Russia, there was an opinion that practical benefits from orbital stations were already exhausted - over the past decades, all practically important research and discoveries were made:

The era of the orbital stations, which began in 1971, will go to the past. Experts do not see practical feasibility of neither in supporting the ISS after 2020, nor in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: "Scientific and practical returns from the Russian segment of the ISS is significantly lower than from the" Salute-7 "orbital complexes. Scientific organizations are not interested in repeating already done.

Journal "Expert" 2015

Ships delivery

The crews of the piloted expeditions on the ISS are delivered to the station to the TPK Union on the "short" six-hour scheme. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day scheme. Until July 2011, the delivery of goods, installation of station elements, rotation of the crews, in addition to the TPK Union, was carried out under the Space Shuttle program until the program was completed.

Table of flights of all piloted and transport ships to the ISS:

The idea of \u200b\u200bcreating an international space station originated in the early 1990s. The project became international when Canada joined the United States, Japan and European Space Agency. In December 1993, the United States in conjunction with other countries involved in the creation of the Alpha Space Station offered Russia to become a partner of this project. The Russian government adopted a proposal, after which some experts began to call the "Ralph" project, that is, "Russian alpha", "recalls the NASA representative of Ellen Klein's public relations.

According to experts, the construction of Alfa-P can be completed by 2002 and will cost about $ 17.5 billion. "It's very cheap," said NASA Daniel Goldin. - If we worked alone, the costs would be big. And so, thanks to cooperation with the Russians, we receive not only political, but also material benefits ... "

It is finance, more precisely their drawback, and forced NASA to see partners. The initial project - he was called "Freedom" - was very grandiose. It was assumed that at the station it would be possible to repair satellites and entire spaceships, study the functioning of the human body with a long stay in weightlessness, to lead astronomical studies and even to improve production.

They attracted Americans and unique techniques to which millions of rubles and years of work of Soviet scientists and engineers were laid. Having worked in one "sled" with the Russians, they received and quite complete ideas about Russian techniques, technologies, etc. related to long-term orbital stations. It is difficult to assess how many billion dollars they cost.

The Americans manufactured a scientific laboratory for the station, residential module, docking blocks "Noud-1" and "Noud-2". The Russian side has developed and delivered a functional-cargo unit, a universal docking module, supply ships, a service module and a proton carrier rocket.

Most of the work was performed by the State Space Scientific and Production Center named after M.V. Khrunichev. The central part of the station was the functional and cargo unit, in size and main elements of the design, similar to the "Kvant-2" and "Crystal" modules of the Mir station. Its diameter is 4 meters, length - 13 meters, mass - more than 19 tons. The block serves as a house for astronauts in the initial period of assembling station, as well as to ensure its electricity from solar panels and storing fuel reserves for motor installations. The service module was created on the basis of the central part of the Mir-2 station developed in the 1980s. In it, astronauts live constantly and conduct experiments.

The participants of the European Space Agency developed the Columbus laboratory and the automatic transport ship under the carrier rocket

"Arian-5", Canada put a mobile service system, Japan is an experimental module.

To build the International Space Station, it was necessary to perform approximately 28 flights on American Space Shuttle Spaceships, 17 launch of Russian carrier missiles and one "Ariana-5" launch. Deliver the crews and equipment to the station were to have 29 Russian ships "Soyuz-TM" and "Progress".

The total internal volume of the station after assembling it in orbit amounted to 1217 square meters, weight - 377 tons, of which 140 tons - Russian components, 37 tons - American. The estimated work time of the international station is 15 years.

Due to the financial turmoil pursuing the Russian Aerospace Agency, the construction of the ISS was embarrassed from the schedule for two years. But finally on July 20, 1998, the Proton Baikonur rocket launched a functional block "Zarya" into orbit, the first element of the International Space Station. And on July 26, 2000, our "star" connected with the ISS.

This day entered the story of its creation as one of the most important. In the center of the piloted space flights of Johnson in Houston and in the Russian PCA in the city of Korolev, the arrows on the clock show different times, but ovations were killed at the same time.

Until that time, the ISS was a set of lifeless building blocks, the "star" breathed in her "soul": a scientific laboratory appeared in orbit and a long-term fruitful work. This is a fundamentally new stage of a grand international experiment, in which 16 countries participate.

"Now the gate is open to continue the construction of the International Space Station," the NASA Kyle Herring spoke with satisfaction. At the moment, the ISS consists of three elements - the service module "Star" and the functional freight block "Zarya", created by Russia, as well as the docking node "Uniti", built by the United States. With the dragging of the new module, the station not only has grown noticeably, but also sick, as far as possible in conditions of weightlessness, typing about 60 tons in the amount.

After that, at an near-earth orbit, a kind of rod was assembled, which can be "riding" all new and new design elements. "Star" is the cornerstone of the entire future of the cosmic facilities comparable to the size with the city district. Scientists argue that a fully mounted brightness station will be in the star sky by the third object - after the Moon and Venus. It can be observed even with a naked eye.

The Russian block, by 340 million dollars, is the key element that provides the transition of quantity in quality. "Star" is the "brain" of the ISS. The Russian module is not only a place of residence of the first crews of the station. "Star" carries a powerful central on-board computer and equipment to maintain communication, life support system and a motor installation that will provide the orientation of the ISS and the height of the orbit. In hencefight, all the crews flying on the shuttles during work on board the station will be relying no longer on the system of the American spacecraft, but on the life support itself. And it guarantees this "star".

"The docking of the Russian module and the station took place at about an altitude of 370 kilometers above the surface of the planet," Vladimir Rogachev writes in the magazine "Echo. - At this point, spacecraft raced at a speed of about 27 thousand kilometers per hour. The survey has earned the highest assessments of experts, once again confirming the reliability of Russian technology and the highest professionalism of its creators. As the representative of Rosaviakosmos, who was in Houston, stressed in Houston, a representative of Rosaviakosmos, Sergey Kulik, and American, and Russian specialists perfectly understood that they were witnessing a historical event. My interlocutor also noted that the specialists of the European Space Agency, which created the central on-board computer "Stars" have also made an important contribution to ensuring docking.

Then the phone took Sergei Krikalev, who, as part of the first crew of a long stay, the first crew of a long stay to do with the first crew of a long stay. Sergey noted that all those located in Houston expected the moment of touching spacecraft with a huge tension. Especially since after an automatic docking mode has joined, to make "from the side" could be very little. The accomplishment of the event, explained the cosmonaut, opens up the prospect for unfolding work on the ISS and continue the program of manned flights. In essence, it is ".. the Soyuz program is" Apollo ", the 25th anniversary of which is marked these days. The Russians have already flown on the "Shuttle", the Americans on the "world", now the new stage comes. "

Maria Ivatsevich, representing the Scientific and Production Space Center named after M.V. Khrunichev, especially noted that the docking performed without any failures and comments "became the most serious, nodal stage of the program."

The result was summed up the commander of the first planned long-term expedition on the ISS American William Sheppard. "It is obvious that the Torch of the Competitions now switched from Russia to the United States and the rest of the international project partners," he said. "We are ready to accept this load, realizing that it depends on the maintenance of the station construction schedule."

In March 2001, the ISS was barely affected by the impact of cosmic garbage. It is noteworthy that it could be broken by the item from the same station, which was lost during the exit to the open space of James Emps astronauts and Susan Helms. As a result, the MANS maneuver managed to avoid a collision.

For the ISS, it was no longer the first threat, which emanated from flying in the outer space of garbage. In June 1999, when the station was still uninhabited, there was a threat to its collision with a debris of the upper stage of the cosmic rocket. Then experts from the Russian Center for Flight Management, in the city of Queen, managed to give a team to maneuver. As a result, the debris flew past a distance of 6.5 kilometers, which, according to the cosmic standards, Mizer.

Now his ability to act in a critical situation demonstrated the American Flight Management Center in Houston. After receiving information from the center of tracking space on the orbit movement in the immediate vicinity of the ISS of the Space District, Houston specialists immediately gave the command to turn on the engines dashped to the ISS Discovery. As a result of the orbit stations was raised by four kilometers.

If the maneuver could not produce, then the flying item could damage, first of all, the solar batteries of the station. The Housing of the ISS cannot break such a fragment: each of its modules are securely covered with anti-stage protection.