Methods for studying abilities and giftedness. Scientific work: The study of abilities and their influence on the choice of profession A person’s study of his abilities and the possibility of determining

Published according to edition: V. N. Myasishchev. Psychology of relationships.

The question of methods for studying abilities and giftedness is in some respects completely clear, in others it is difficult and unresolved. Difficult and unresolved issues include experimental methods for studying abilities and their experimental diagnostics. An even more complex issue is the combination of various methods in one system that provides objective scientific knowledge about the specific structure of a certain type of ability.

In this system, the first method is rightfully to study the history of personality development, inextricably linked with its biography. Speaking, not without reason, about biography, sometimes about psychography or psychobiography, it should be remembered that all this has only one meaning - the study of the emergence and manifestation of abilities in the life history of the person under study.

The main questions here are:

1) about the first manifestations of interest and inclinations towards the activity being studied;

2) about the environment in which the person being studied grew up and was brought up, in the sense of its promotion of development and a certain direction of both general and special development (essentially in connection with what has already been said, the study of unfavorable conditions that in one way or another impede the development of abilities);

3) about the process of learning and mastering an activity, about success, the pace of mastery, about the attitude of the student to this activity and about the dynamics of this attitude;

4) about successes and failures in this activity and the reaction of the person under study to difficulties;

a) about the first manifestations of “one’s own” creativity, both in the creation and in the implementation of already existing samples (taste, originality, first inventions, poems, compositions, etc.).

This method is beyond doubt and has always been used.

The degree of success of its application depends on the wealth of materials relating to the person under study, the researcher’s knowledge of the specialty in which the activity of the person under study developed, the depth and acuity of the researcher’s psychological understanding.

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The second method is the study of pedagogical experience in the formation of abilities.

This method is used involuntarily or voluntarily by any teacher and systematically by every thoughtful teacher; Outstanding figures of literature, art, science, being teachers in the field of their special activity, left significant literature, the value of which is especially great, since it often contains a description of their growth and development, the history of training, and the experience of transferring their skills to students. In these descriptions one can find valuable data about the manifestation of abilities and the progress of their development in the learning environment.

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The third method is to analyze the activities and their products of individuals with outstanding abilities.

It is important to study not only the product in its originality and originality, but the process of its creation - from concept to final design. Of course, in a number of cases the history of the gestation and formation of a wonderful work is visible. Painting provides especially many examples; a series of sketches, details, and options allow you to study the progress of the creative process. The history of invention and improvement in a series of inventions, successes and failures in the process of solving a problem also allows us to get closer to the laboratory of creativity of an outstanding figure. But in most cases, the finished product, a talented or even brilliant work or the execution of a work is known, but the creative process itself remains invisible and for some is covered with a mystical and miraculous fog. Regardless of the difficulty and its overcoming, the method aims to understand the features of creative activity expressed in its product, to establish the history and reasons for the emergence of the idea, the process of implementation, the external conditions that influenced it, as well as the internal characteristics of the author that determined this process and attitude (requirements, assessment, satisfaction) of the author towards his topic and its result. Of course, a psychological analysis of the product and process of activity is necessary. This is a very complex question, the difficulties of which arise, firstly, from the level of development of psychology in general and the psychology of creativity in particular, and secondly, from the degree of congeniality of understanding, which is a condition for correct illumination of the process of creative activity.

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The fourth method, specifically psychological, is experiment.

Since the remarkable works of the Russian psychologist A.F. Lazursky on the natural experiment (1910), this new, most vital method has been known. The meaning of a natural experiment, we remind you, is to select such problems, the solution and method of solving which is indicative of the issue being studied. For example, in relation to literary abilities, a natural experiment may consist in studying how the subject observed and describes the object of observation, how he perceives and describes some complex dramatic or plot work, how he describes nature, how he describes the physiognomy and appearance of a person, a real person or the hero of poetic works, how he writes an essay on a given topic, whether he can “compose” poetry.

In relation to a musician, this method consists of studying how he plays a known tune, how he repeats and how quickly he learns an unfamiliar melody, how he selects a tune on an instrument, how he selects an accompaniment to a tune, and how he improvises.

The natural experiment was used by A.F. Lazursky mostly as a method of experimental study of mental characteristics. But the application of this method in connection with the problem of abilities arises by itself, requiring only the consideration of certain features arising from the specifics of the task. Studying abilities is impossible without studying inclinations, i.e. attitude to activity. Therefore, when studying those types of activities of schoolchildren that provide material for a natural experiment, one cannot miss the role of personal attitude to the activity, the requirements that are presented to the student, and his attitude to these requirements. In this regard, the degree of interest in the activity and passion for it is studied. Accordingly, functional-characterological analysis includes taking into account interests and inclinations, needs and, thus, acquires the features of a functional-personal one. At the same time, since abilities are recognized in connection with indicators of success, not only qualitative features and gradations of functional properties, but also quantitative and qualitative indicators of activity should be taken into account. Finally, another significant point characterizes the data that underlies judgments about ability depending on the pace of training and education. This side reveals the dynamics of character and the degree of ability of the student.

From all that has been said, the main tasks of a natural experiment in the study of abilities follow. Its name emphasizes that a person is studied in natural conditions and, therefore, it is possible to register immediate reactions of the individual. This is the advantage of this method over a laboratory experiment, the fundamental disadvantage of which is that the subject knows that he is the subject of study.

This method, despite its wide acceptance, has not yet received sufficient application in psychological research and in the study of abilities, in particular. The issue of studying abilities has a theoretical and practical side. Of course, it is possible to study some aspects of the question of abilities using the laboratory experimental method. For example, for an artist - the degree of ability of figurative representation, the relationship between visual image and movement, color and shape discrimination, accuracy of perception, visual memory and their training. It would also be possible to study mathematical, design, musical, stage skills, etc. But in fact, foreign (and for some time ours) science was aimed at solving the practical problem of determining the degree of ability and, in connection with the development of experimental psychology, took the path of studying experimental samples, the so-called “tests”. The spread of this system was explained, firstly, by the desire to find a method for objectively measuring the mind (hence the term “mentimetry”); secondly, the need for psychologists to find a practical application of their knowledge in connection with the tasks of training and professional selection; thirdly, portability, ease of use and, apparently, ease of evaluation of the results.

Despite the shortcomings and fair criticism, the tests continued to be distributed in various modifications.

Here in the USSR, this system of testing schoolchildren was condemned in 1936 by the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of the USSR “On pedological perversions in the system of People's Commissariat for Education.”

From this condemnation by the Central Committee of the testing practices of departments and institutions, as well as many scientists (in this case, psychology and pedagogy), both correct and incorrect organizational conclusions were drawn. The latter consisted in the refusal to study current issues using truly scientific methods and the development of scientific methods for experimental diagnostics of educational and professional abilities, the development of methods for scientifically based consultation on issues of an educational, professional and industrial nature. Along with pedological practice, psychological experimental diagnostic work, which was most important for pedagogical and medical science, was eliminated.

Taking all this into account, it is necessary to correctly approach the tasks of experimental psychological research in the field of general and special talent.

Regarding the tests, it must be said that a test is a test , or task. A task may be difficult or easy, important or unimportant, chosen correctly or incorrectly, but the main thing is what conclusions can be drawn from its solution.

Since the existence of examination tests in schools, there have been their opponents who consider the exam to be an accident that does not mean anything; proponents of exams, on the contrary, say that despite the known shortcomings, the testing system still makes it possible to determine the degree of preparation, knowledge and development of students. The main weak point of the exam is the one-time nature of the test, which opens the door to chance. Those who recognize these test defects understand that at the same time the possibility of economical group testing is necessary.

It is important that in school exams we are talking about the subject passed and the main role is played by acquired skills and knowledge, and in those tests that are carried out by the test method, the focus is not so much on what has been learned, but on what is, to a lesser extent, the result of school education, knowledge and skills. At the same time, we cannot forget the huge experiment carried out under the methodological guidance of the famous physiologist and psychologist Yerkes, who developed army mental tests. During the First World War, 1 million 800 thousand conscripts were tested by these tests, and depending on the results, distribution was made by type of weapon. During World War II, 7 million people were tested in the United States. Under these conditions, it is unlikely that any country could afford a fruitless amusement, or that such a difficult and burdensome operation as examining 7 million people was hardly needed to better accommodate a privileged group in military conditions.

If testing is compulsory for admission into the British army, then the place it occupies in selection deserves attention.

Thus, in the work of Verna and Perry (R. E. Vernon, I. V. Parry, 1952) the following methodology is recommended, which makes it possible to orientate in the qualities of a candidate and classify them:

1) information about the candidate’s occupations;

2) biographical data from the survey and conversation (interview);

3) information about abilities, attitudes towards work and education;

4) tests and measurements, “the role of which should not be exaggerated”;

5) conversation on issues of “vital functions”.

According to military experts, these tests and the distribution based on them justified themselves. It follows that mass problems in which class-economic trends are not decisive can be important, according to the data of these authors.

To formulate this question very briefly, we can say the following:

1. A single sample must be carefully analyzed for its functional significance.

2. The results of the study must be assessed in connection with the cultural and economic conditions of the development of the subject.

3. Not only the decision must be evaluated, but also the very path of this decision.

4. Within the obtained results, not only gradations or distribution of the results of individual studies by degree should be established, but also qualitative typical or individual features of problem solving.

5. The results obtained have only design significance, i.e. show in which direction one can expect the manifestations of what is being studied in life.

6. Evaluation of these results presupposes knowledge of the limits of possible fluctuations in one person during repeated tests.

One of the major research specialists, Spearman, as mentioned above, based on the statistical development of materials, came to the conclusion that it is necessary to separate the general general factor (O and the special factor (C)) in these studies.

The issue of general talent and development is of paramount importance, since it concerns the development prospects of the entire mass of young people receiving education. Of course, the question of special abilities is also an important issue, but while the question of special abilities is quite convincingly resolved by professional tests and relates to small, compared to the general mass, groups of students, the question of determining learning abilities and the degree of this ability arises decisively in relation to each subject.

Factorial theory later identified 7 and even 16 common factors (Thurston), and in further development the theory of a single common factor (G) came closer to the position of a complex of factors. Speaking about tests, it is important to note that in the process of development of this test method, at least four main groups of tests were identified: a) giftedness; b) school success or awareness; c) personality and character and, finally, d) determination of special qualities (abilities) in connection with professional and technical tasks.

The most erroneous is the opposition between tests of success and tests of giftedness.

Success is associated with the result of special training, but what relates to giftedness is also the general result of training mental qualities in the process of mastering each individual subject. In this sense, it is significant that “intelligence,” being seemingly not a special result of experience, but an expression of general talent, clearly differs depending on the nature of the special experience - in logical, technical, mathematical and other special types of problems. Awareness or success tests, when used judiciously, can serve as an aid to testing a student's breadth of knowledge and can be taken into account in the same way as response types to add to a student's understanding of a teacher's interview or examination test.

As for the study of giftedness, due to the difficulty of not fundamentally verbal, but actually distinguishing it from success, it is necessary to emphasize another and, one might say, opposite to usual practice, possible position in experimental diagnostics, which unites our position with social and pedagogical practice, contrasting it artificial test practice. The usual premise of a gifted test is independence from experience, or at least independence from schooling. It should be contrasted with the proposition that it is possible to judge ability only with experience and training based on the relationship between the results of activity and the conditions of its training.

Since ancient times, competitions, competitions, and olympiads have been a widespread method of identifying gifted people. This is the case in art, in science, in entertainment, in admission to special schools. The winner of the competition is enrolled in the position for which he is applying, receives laurels, a prize, and better opportunities for further activities. What is characteristic of these tests? The fact that participants prepare, train and show mastery or skill as a single result of talent and work. It is clear that these are also tests, but that the actual position here is the opposite of the theory of giftedness tests. On the one hand, the experience of struggle for mastering an activity, for perfection in mastering it, on the other, a lifeless abstraction of innate talent that does not depend on experience. We are for tests of skill, possession and knowledge, but against tests of innate talent. As for the name - “test”, “check”, “sample”, “test” - it doesn’t matter.

It is necessary to develop, cultivate, and scientifically substantiate test methods. At the same time, in assessing test methods, one must take a historical position.

Tests serve to correctly evaluate skill as a derivative of talent and work, to promote the development of individuals and the masses as a whole. When establishing mastery and superiority as a result of a combination of work and abilities, revealed by tests, the degree of perfection in mastering an activity is established in comparison with the conditions of development and the labor expended, and from here a conclusion is made about abilities and talent. Naturally, a mass, mechanical test methodology that is not accompanied by a deep scientific analysis and the method of their practical application for diagnosing the level of mental development should not be supported. Therefore, to solve this problem, one should turn to pedagogical experience. At the same time, educational success can serve as an indicator of educational, i.e. general mental abilities, taking into account the efforts that the implementation of the program requires on the part of the student. The gradation of the ratio of success to effort is a measure of ability. If a student refuses home rest, if he does not have time to do something that is not academic, but interesting to him, or to read a book, if he is forced to sit for a long time preparing lessons, then it is clear that the curriculum exceeds the measure of his abilities, even with condition of more or less successful completion of the task under satisfactory external conditions of educational work.

The educational natural gradation is as follows:

1. Does not cope with work with help provided to him by others.

2. Doesn’t cope with work when working independently and hard.

3. Copes with great stress while studying satisfactorily.

4. The same with good academic performance.

5. Performs excellently in some subjects but not fully or satisfactorily in others.

6. Excellent student, fully completing the program in all subjects.

7. Completes extra-curricular tasks in a favorite subject while successfully working in other subjects.

8. Completes above-program assignments in individual subjects with excellent success in all subjects.

Points 6, 7 and 8 concern very important issues. An excellent student who excels evenly in all subjects, although he is often the pride and consolation of those teachers who are not farsighted, causes concern for his equal readiness, which may hide an equal sense of obligation and a lack of individual interest. This is a faceless excellent student. In contrast, a student who exceeds the required syllabus in a favorite subject, while performing averagely in other subjects, clearly loves, is interested in, and is likely to have ability in that subject. The eighth category, which combines excellent performance with high interest in some subjects, obviously represents people with high abilities, since only students with good abilities can excel in all subjects given the large program of our school and, in addition, perform above-the-program work.

The goal here is not to characterize all typical categories of students, but from what has been said it is clear that school success, taking into account the student’s attitude to responsibilities and his material, cultural and living conditions, reflects a differentiated scale of degrees of students’ general ability. Of course, the school curriculum and its implementation are an indicator of general talent, but performance and failure in individual subjects also make it possible to approach a qualitative assessment of the student’s abilities and development. The following groups are typical: “mathematical”, “humanitarian”, “constructive-technical” and, perhaps, “biological”. Two often antagonistic groups emerge most clearly - literary and mathematical. Here, undoubtedly, within the framework of general talent, the features of individual talent and special characteristics already appear very clearly.

To summarize the above, we can say that methods of experimental psychological research of abilities are still awaiting their development. In terms of this development, it must be emphasized that the main feature of the ability is the potential for advancement, i.e. increased productivity through work and experience; Therefore, a one-time test, even taking into account what is said above regarding abilities, is unconvincing if it does not contain repeating tasks in its system, the dynamics of which can reveal the possibilities of progress, i.e. not the achieved level, but the possibility of increasing it.

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Drawing up personality characteristics based on the principles of relationship theory

(short plan)

I. The general task of the characterization, which must be carried out in its conclusion:

a) establish the main features of X’s characteristics and personality;

b) explain their origin;

c) imagine how the person being studied combines positive and negative traits, in particular, the traits of collectivistic psychology and the traits of individualistic psychology;

d) outline the necessary action plan.

II. Materials on which the characteristics are based. Observational data, diaries, reviews of institutions and organizations. Materials of special research. Products of X's activities. Photo-phono-film documents.

III. General information about the present:

1) age; 2) social and professional status; 3) partisanship; 4) features of living conditions (economic, sanitary and hygienic), immediate circle of friends; relationships in the immediate circle; individuals, groups and circumstances particularly affecting X.

IV. Past information:

1) who the parents are (profession, socio-political figure, cultural level, character traits, attitude towards the person being studied);

2) the main features of the conditions in which X. grew up and was brought up: favorable in a physical or mental sense or unfavorable; attitude: attentive, sensitive, loving, indifferent, cruel; good and bad examples, abandonment, neglect;

3) features of the team of which X was a member, with which he came into contact and under the influence of which X was. Relationships in the team and his role in X’s life;

4) what especially influenced the formation of X. (features of conditions, special circumstances, the most powerful and lasting experiences, relationships in the team and with people in the family, at school, at work; love, friendship, enmity, respect, devotion, etc. .).

Present the data on the course of development and its stages in infancy, preschool, preschool, school and adulthood.

I. Characteristics diagram

1. Relationships with the team, its members and individuals.

Sociable, friendly (deeply or superficially). Responsive or cold. Motives of sympathy or antipathy. A utilitarian or principled attitude towards people. Frank, stubborn, closed, secretive, hypocritical.

Attitude towards his team and in the team: organized, strives for dominance, ambitious, initiative, independent, disciplined, dependent, is a good friend, values ​​​​the team.

Selectively positive or negative attitude - towards whom and for what reasons (personal or principled). What qualities do people like most and what qualities are repulsed by them? What is most valued in a person? Is there an image - an ideal of a person (one’s own, literary, social, historical).

External form of social behavior: polite, disciplined, rude, cheeky, impudent.

2. Attitude towards yourself and self-esteem.

Preoccupied with himself, selfish, calculating, personal attitude replaces principled ones or vice versa. Self-confident, unsure of himself. Touchy, pretentious, proud, vain. Attitude towards your shortcomings.

3. Attitude to activity and work.

What does he do most? Love and passion for work.

A utilitarian attitude towards work, an attitude towards work only as a necessity. Ethical attitude to work. Does he stand out for his educational or work achievements, is he invisible, or lags behind? Attitude to physical, household, mental work and social activities. What would you most willingly work for or would work for? Does he carry out social work, what kind of work, why and how does he relate to it?

4. Needs (degree of their expression and method of satisfaction).

Ideological needs: social, mental and aesthetic. Need for labor. Need for communication. Need for entertainment. Physiological needs (food, sexual).

5. Interests and inclinations.

Direction, expression, consistency, depth and breadth of interests. Ideological interests. Material interests.

6. Level of development of consciousness X.

His worldview and attitude to life. Social development, consciousness and activity X. The nature and motives of social activity.

Does he have and what are his life goals? Do you have a worldview (beliefs). What is it like? Does he strive to develop it?

What does he see as the meaning and value of life? Some features of the worldview are realist, romantic, optimist, pessimist, trusting or distrustful in relation to people.

7. Ethical and aesthetic qualities.

Honest, truthful, high consciousness of duty and responsibilities, ideological, modest, prone to moral remorse and hesitation. Reaction to social and ethical influence, to criticism, to penalties and rewards. Moral defects X. Reaction to beauty. Level of development of aesthetic taste. The criterion of beauty and its role in the life of X. Indifference to beauty.

‘Culture of behavior, skills: polite, rude; neat, tidy, unclean, sloppy. Organized in behavior or not.

II. Level of mental development

1. Features of speech and thinking.

Intelligence, activity, mobility, subtlety, correct emotional thinking. The relationship between the visual-sensory and the abstract-logical (especially the human type, according to Pavlov). Richness of speech and thinking, expressiveness of speech.

2. Strong-willed qualities.

Capable of effort, self-controlled. The degree of volitional endurance, mobility and stability. Directions in which strong-willed qualities or lack thereof are clearly manifested.

3. Features of the properties of sensory skills, motor skills, memory, attention, fantasy.

4. Special abilities:

technical, artistic, poetic, mental, motor, etc.

III. Temperament

1. Strength, weakness, activity, passivity, performance, fatigue, balance or imbalance (excited, balanced), mobility (motor mobility and general mental mobility or slowness).

Type of temperament according to Pavlov. Manifestation of temperament in relationships and in complex processes of neuropsychic activity.

2. Emotional characteristics: degree of expression, stability, instability of emotions. What emotions predominate? Does your mood fluctuate and how? What causes joy, sadness, anger, indignation, resentment more (how strong emotions are and determine behavior or obey).

IV. Structural and psychological qualities

Balance, integrity; the breadth or narrowness of the reactivity range.

Superficiality, depth of reactions and experiences;

the relationship between the form and content of behavior.

Conclusion

The main positive and negative personality traits: their origin, activities and methods necessary to strengthen positive traits and eliminate shortcomings.

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Personality and relationships of a person (instead of conclusion)

A person, a member of society, is considered by sociology, psychology and pedagogy as a person, although he remains an organism; all aspects of personality activity are based on brain activity. The unit considered in the listed sciences is not the organism, but the personality of a person, which characterizes him as an activist and a more or less noticeable participant in the socio-historical process. Personality is basically defined as a socio-historically conditioned higher, integral mental formation, characteristic only of man, as a conscious potential regulator of his mental activity and behavior.

Note to the reader : — Don’t forget that this work was written in the 60-70s of the last century :)

In this regard, we can say a few words about mental formations and the potential psychic. The term “mental education” is used from time to time by various authors, although its meaning is not fully specified. Thus, the process of visual perception differs logically and empirically from memory of images; thinking as a process of mental mastery differs from intellect or mind as the basis of one or another level of the thought process.

In the psyche, two categories can be established:

a) procedural;

b) potential.

The procedural and potential do not exist without each other, this is unity, but at the same time these are different, not identical concepts.

The potential psyche is not the subject of direct observation, but is determined on the basis of inference. This is a latent variable, as defined by B. Green (B. F. Green, 1963), as well as P. Lazarsfeld. In this regard, the relationship between the procedural and potential mental and human relationships is important. D. Krech and R. S. Crutchfied (1948) define attitude as the consolidated organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual and cognitive processes in relation to some aspect of the individual. G. Allport (G. W. AUport, 1935) defines attitude as a mental and nervous state of readiness to carry out directive influence, the individual’s response to objects and situations with which he relates. Fuson (M. M. Fuson, 1942) characterizes attitude as the probability of identifying a certain behavior in a certain situation.

The mentioned authors characterize attitude and inclination as a conclusion about the likelihood of a certain reaction to certain circumstances. Various methods have been proposed for measuring propensities and attitudes, which cannot be discussed here.

At the same time, experimental psychology still reveals a deep misunderstanding of the diversity of personality in connection with the diversity of its attitudes. Such prominent psychologists as P. Fresse, J. Piaget (1966) in the experimental psychology they edited in the paragraph “Behavior and Attitude” use the behavior formula: S (situation), P (person, personality), R (reaction). Establishing the relationships between the members of this formula, they provide for variants of the situation (C(; C2, C3) and variants of reactions (P,; P2; P3), but consider the personality as one undifferentiated whole. They say that they are studying the influence of changes in C on changes in P, or different relationships for different situations. The personality characteristics taken into account (gender, age) remain formal, and the relationship of individuals to the content of the situation or task is not taken into account. This shows that a meaningful study of personality in its relationships has not yet taken its proper place in experimental psychology.

Mental formations are potential mental, realized, formed in the process of mental activity. Human personality is the most complex and highest formation in the human psyche. It is supreme in the sense that it is directly determined by the influences and demands of the social environment and the socio-historical process. Social demands relate primarily to the ideological side of human behavior and experiences.

One of the shortcomings of psychological research is the still not completely outdated formalism in the consideration of its psyche.

The processes of mental activity, as well as the mental formations underlying them, are considered without sufficient connection with the contents of mental activity.

Consideration of the mental process in connection with its subject and the circumstances that cause it is the basis of meaningful research. Features of the content with which mental activity is associated determine the functional side of the mental process. But this structure, the activity of the process, its character (in the sense of a positive or negative reaction to an object), its dominance in consciousness and behavior depend on the person’s attitude, on the positive or negative significance of the content of the process, on the degree of this significance for the person. Without taking into account this role of mental activity of relationships, no process can be correctly illuminated, the abilities of a person carrying out this or that activity cannot be correctly determined; the nature of the process under study is determined not only by the characteristics of the activity task, but also by the person’s attitude to this task. It must be emphasized that we are talking only about human relationships or human relationships. This needs to be emphasized because without this, the term of relations used widely and in various ways will turn out to be fuzzy and vague.

In this sense, a person’s relationships are a potential manifested by the conscious active selectivity of a person’s experiences and actions, based on his individual, social experience.

The more elementary the organism, the more its selectivity is based on the innate connection of reactions with the object. This is physiologically defined as an unconditioned, or simple, reflex.

I. P. Pavlov owns the formula: “Mental relationships are temporary connections,” that is, conditioned reflex formations; temporary, acquired connections represent, according to Pavlov, mental relationships.

I.P. Pavlov did not give any definition or characteristics of human relationships, therefore, speaking about Pavlov, here we will point out only two points:

1) mental relationships as conditional temporary connections draw their strength from unconditional ones;

2) In humans, all relationships have moved to the 2nd signaling system.

This means that relationships based on individual, or personal, experience, relying on unconditional, “instinctive” tendencies, are realized in systems of higher “secondary signal” human processes that determine and regulate human activity. And these higher relationships and the underlying neuro-physiological and at the same time neuro-psychic formations are inextricably linked with conscious thinking and the rational will of a person.

There is no need to say that the actual human level of relations is a product of a person’s socio-historical existence, his communication with members of the human collective, his upbringing, his conscious work activity in the team. Here it is appropriate to recall that K. Marx and F. Engels noted that “an animal does not “relate” to anything and does not “relate” at all; for an animal, its relation to others does not exist as a relation” (Marx K. and Engels F. Soch. T.Z. P. 29). The statement that for animals their relationships “do not exist as relationships” means that these relationships are not consciously recognized by animals.

Returning to Pavlov, we point out that the dependence he established of the strength of conditioned reflex cortical processes on the power of subcortical ones charging them is of decisive importance for understanding the dynamics of higher processes in animals. Conditioned food reflexes are clearly detected if the animal is hungry, and are not detected if it is full. But this distinct dependence has less of an impact on a person’s specific personal relationships, for example, in attachments to someone or interests in something.

It does not at all affect higher ideological relations, although they also arise on the basis of physical temporary connections. Their strength and durability are determined by the psychosocial significance of the object and the emotional nature of the person’s relationships.

We can say: the more this or that manifestation characterizes a personality, the less it is connected with vital-biological relations and the more clearly its dependence on the history of personality formation appears. Man is a socio-historical formation that has absorbed all the social conditions and influences of the specific history of its development and the manifestations of which are conditioned and can be understood only on the basis of this history.

Summarizing everything said here and earlier about human relationships, we can consider them as the potential for a person’s selective activity in connection with various aspects of reality. They meaningfully characterize human activity; they are not manifested by any one functional aspect of the psyche, but express the entire personality in its connection with one or another aspect of activity. They are characterized by the greater activity of mental processes, the more significant the object of the relationship is for the individual, differing in a positive or negative sign (gravity - disgust, love - enmity, interest - indifference). The higher the level of personality development, the more complex the processes of mental activity and the more differentiated and richer its relationships.

A.F. Lazursky (1921), the founder of the psychological doctrine of human relationships, wrote that the exopsyche, in other words, relationships, and the endopsyche represent two sides of the human psyche. It would be wrong to reproach A.F. Lazursky for dualism. His position does not denote duality, not dualism, but a synthesis of two obligatory plans of consideration. Similarly, the characteristic of electric current strength exists simultaneously with the characteristic of current voltage, which does not at all indicate dualism in understanding the nature of electricity.

As I have repeatedly pointed out, a person’s relationships are not a part of the personality, but the potential of its mental reaction in connection with any object, process or fact of reality.

The attitude is holistic, like the personality itself. The study of personality is, to a large extent, its study in its relationships. Personal development represents the process of formation of increasingly complex, enriching, deepening connections with reality, accumulation in the brain of the potential for actions and experiences. Personal development is the development of the psyche, which means it is the development and complication of mental processes and the accumulation of experience - mental potential.

Experience is carried out in the form of accumulation:

1) knowledge;

2) skills;

3) skills;

4) relationships.

All four types of potential mentality characterize personality to one degree or another. But, at the same time, it is clear that a person is characterized not by knowledge, skills and abilities, but, as mentioned above, by relationships. The study of personality in its development represents the historical study of personality in the dynamics of its meaningful relationships.

The study of relationships represents that approach necessary for psychology, which combines the objective with the subjective, the external with the internal. Relationships exist between a person’s personality - the subject and the object of his relationship. The attitude is realized or manifested in an external factor, but at the same time the attitude expresses the internal “subjective” world of the individual. Personality is a subject of relationships as well as a subject of external activity. Materialistic psychology is based on this unity of internal and external, objective and subjective.

The principle of systematicity and integrity, which most clearly entered into the doctrine of the brain, body and personality in the light of its objective research since the work of I. P. Pavlov, forces us to consider personality as a system and unity of mental processes and formations, in which the system is effectively potential relationships. The personality of mental processes lies in the fact that in them the potential of the conscious relationships of the individual is realized.

A number of integral psychological concepts are closely related to the psychological problem of personality and its relationships. First of all, this includes the concept of directionality (Richtungsdispositionen), coming from W. Stern (W. Stem, 1921). In our country, the term “directionality” is quite widely used in psychology, and especially in connection with the doctrine of personality. This term, in fact, characterizes the concept topographically and vectorially; when applied to psychology, this means a dominant relationship. The term “directionality” is, however, very general. Its use raises the question not only of what is what is aimed at, but also of what is directed. Thus, they talk about the direction of tastes, views, desires, dreams, interests, likes, inclinations, etc. Direction of interests is a legitimate concept. It characterizes the dominant interests of the individual.

But directionality is less applicable to the concept of personality. Personality is multilaterally selective. Personality has a non-linear and non-planar characteristic. If we use a spatial image, a person is not only a three-dimensional quantity, like a statue, but, unlike it, like all living things, it is dynamic and changes differently in different systems in the process of life. The personality characteristic of direction is not only one-sided and poor, but it is not suitable for understanding the majority of people whose behavior is determined by external factors; they do not have a dominant rudder. Human relationships are diverse, and therefore they can reveal the diversity of the human psyche.

Many Soviet authors used the concept of a personality position, which was first proposed in this sense by A. Adler (A. Adler, 1912). The position of the individual means, in essence, the integration of the dominant selective relations of a person in any issue that is significant to him.

The multifaceted concept of attitude, developed by Georgian psychologists, also refers to mental integral formations, especially when it comes to the attitude of the individual. In this case, in contrast to the sensorimotor attitude developed experimentally, this concept is close to the just mentioned concept of a personality position. However, the attitude as an unconscious formation is impersonal.

An attitude is an acquired readiness for the experimentally determined features of the course of mental processes.

There may be a system of installations, an integral installation, separate and private installations. D.N. Uznadze characterized the attitude as the readiness of the individual for a certain activity determined by the need, as a mechanism based on effective experience that predetermines the characteristics of the response. It should be noted that in the attitude, as in the unconscious inertia of the past, the consciousness of the present and the prospects for the future, united in every action and experience of a person, are opposed.

In this sense, the attitude is similar to a conditioned reflex, although according to the mechanism of its development it is not necessarily connected with an unconditioned stimulus. The theory of attitude with great justification includes the concept of need, which, however, is absent in the main experiment on the study of attitude. This shows that the concept of attitude, used in psychology, is broader, richer and deeper than the experimental model that illustrates the concept itself, demonstrating only inertia and its acquired mechanism.

In motivational psychology, the concept of motive occupies a special place.

This concept is significant for any psychology and important for the psychology of relationships.

At the same time, you need to be aware that the concept of motive has a double meaning:

a) the driving force behind behavior or experience, or

b) the basis of an action, decision, opinion.

The so-called motivated action is based on the driving force of motivation and the basis of action. The so-called unmotivated action has only one motivational category - motivation, while the other, representing the basis for the action, is absent. In the so-called unmotivated action, its basis is not realized. Attitude can be the basis of a motive, for example, when a student learns out of love for knowledge, out of love for parents, out of a tendency to ambitious self-affirmation, etc.

The motive for the attitude can be one or another experience, for example, the experience of academic failure can become the motive for a negative attitude towards learning; the success of another student can become a motive for a hostile and envious attitude towards him. Thus, the concept of “motive” does not have a specific one-dimensional psychological content. The effectiveness of a particular circumstance is always connected with a person’s attitude towards it, but it is wrong to confuse motives and attitudes or to talk about motives independently of attitude and replacing attitude with motives.

There is no need to talk about the need to distinguish between the concepts of personality traits and character when they are close and sometimes coincide. No one doubts the need to distinguish them, however, it is appropriate to say this, because this distinction is not always clear.

Character is the mental uniqueness of a person, the integral of all his properties. Basically, character is the unity of relationships and the way they are implemented in a person’s experiences and actions.

Personality is a person considered from the point of view of his strictly human social characteristics. Some mental properties can relate to both character and personality, while some only to one or the other. For example, decent or dishonest, ideological or unideal, conscious or unconscious, creative or uncreative. These are all personality traits. Collectivism or individualism, honesty or dishonesty, nobility or meanness - these traits characterize a person. They indicate the level of social and moral development of a person. Some of these traits can be classified as character, such as nobility or meanness. In this case, they have a decisive significance in the system of all mental properties of a person.

The listed features are so closely related to the characteristics of a person’s attitude that it would not be a mistake to speak of a person as a person in his relationship to reality. The relationships themselves, being of a personal nature, are the elements in which the personality is realized in the process of its activity. Man as a personality is not only a conscious transformer of reality, but also a conscious relation to it.

The integral concepts just considered, therefore, have essential significance; they cannot be rejected, but they receive clarification, and in this clarification their various connections with the concept of relations occupy an essential place.

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In connection with the issue of personality development, the issue of relationship development was mentioned. Here we will touch upon only one more aspect, namely, the variability and stability of personality reactions. Often stability and lability or variability are considered in a formal-dynamic sense, but this consideration becomes meaningful only when relationships are taken into account. In this case, perseverance is considered in connection with certain contents, for example, perseverance and attachment to a loved one, perseverance of beliefs, moral fortitude. These traits express a person’s attitude. The reactions expressing these relationships, and therefore the relationships themselves, can be stable or unstable, ranging from momentary situational lability to high stability. But stable relationships can also be inertly persistent. This stability is not the basis for the development of relations; fundamental stability is important. Fundamental sustainability is based on some conscious and generalized principle.

Establishing differences in the stability of relationships depending on the inertia of the mechanism or the stability of the principle requires consideration of the relationships of the individual and the psychophysiological mechanisms of the activity in which they are carried out. There is no relationship without reflection, i.e. relationships are always connected with an object that is reflected in consciousness. To understand personality and psyche, it is important not only their unity, but also their difference. Human judgment, thinking in general, can be dispassionate, passionate and partial. The first does not prevent adequate reflection, but is not enough for its depth, the second contributes to the depth and richness of the reflection, and the third is distorted by tendencies in which the subjective components of the relationship make the reflection inadequate and incorrect.

In the special field of mental disorders, mainly psychogenic, we encounter three categories of pathogenesis associated with disruption of the mechanisms of neuropsychic activity and with painful disruption of relationships.

These are: a) reactive depression; b) paranoid formations; c) personality disintegration.

Reactive depression is associated with the loss of an object caused by death, betrayal, or injustice. In this case, a state of oppression develops, and the entire neuropsychic and neurovegetative dynamics of a person turns out to be painfully altered. A person is deprived of what was essential in the system of his evaluative relations, his values. Paranoid ideas and paranoid relationships represent, first of all, emotive-conative (conative from the Latin conage - to strive, to covet) conditioned distortions, in which, while maintaining mainly intellectual operations, thinking and representation are distorted in the area of ​​​​painful, emotionally aggravated relationships associated with a state of dissatisfaction. Moreover, paranoid delusions of grandeur, jealousy, and persecution arise. Finally, the third category is personality regression, in which the connections formed by life, selective relationships disintegrate, the personality regresses (progressive paralysis, senile dementia, acute psychotic states of toxic or infectious origin).

If influence and its developing relationship with reality play a role in the pathogenesis of painful psychogenic states of the individual, as well as the body, then their role in the formation of personality is of decisive importance.

Pedagogy and management of the entire psychodynamics of both an adult and a growing person are significantly related to the formation of human relationships.

Everything a person does, he does for the sake of or for something.

When we form in a person the ability to manage his behavior, self-control, self-control, self-regulation, then both the development of this ability and implementation are always carried out for the sake of something or for something. The driving force of this development, the motive, is ideological and social requirements.

The successful development of the regulatory dominant role of ideological relations leads to the formation of full-fledged personalities. The education of a person is, first of all, the education of his relationships. The role of relationships in education has been repeatedly emphasized by A. S. Makarenko.

These concepts are not only vitally important, but therefore also scientifically and theoretically important. Without denying the role of the functional procedural consideration of human psychology, one cannot help but take into account that content-synthetic perception is both the initial and final moment of psychological research and psychological characterization. This raises the question about the place of the concept of mental or personal, or human relationship in the system of psychological concepts. Based on the fact that this concept of relationship is irreducible to others and indecomposable into others, we must admit that it represents an independent class of psychological concepts. The identification of this class is especially important in the struggle for personal psychology against impersonal functional-procedural psychology and for meaningful personality psychology.

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People have always been interested in what lies beyond ordinary perception, in what is inaccessible to the majority. However, along with interest, there was also fear due to the lack of reliable information and the unknown.

Recently, paranormal or unusual abilities of people have become the subject of social and scientific research, philistine gossip and newspaper publications. What kind of abilities are these? Where do they come from?

Despite the fact that the human body has already been well studied by doctors and scientists, still...

...mysteries remain that are beyond our understanding.

There are many amazing cases that happened to ordinary people and were published in the press. Some events simply cannot be explained by modern science.

So, perhaps the most famous case occurred when a mother was walking with her little son and got distracted. The child ran out onto the road and was hit by a car. Seeing this picture, the baby’s mother rushed to his aid and lifted the car. It is this case that in our time is most often described by scientists as proof that the human body has hidden abilities.

Another fairly famous incident occurred during the war. The pilot's steering became jammed due to a bolt caught in the mechanism. Fearing death, the pilot began to pull the handle with all his strength and miraculously was able to right the plane. After landing, the mechanics carefully examined the controls and found a sheared bolt. As a result of the examination, it turned out that in order to cut such a bolt, a force of 500 kilograms would be required.

One man was walking through the forest and accidentally came across a sleeping bear. Out of fear, he grabbed a log lying nearby and rushed to run towards the nearby village. When the danger was over, he threw the log to the ground, caught his breath and looked at it. It turned out to be a huge tree trunk, which he later could not drag alone from the road. The man couldn’t even explain to himself why he grabbed this log.

But such incredible stories happen not only when it comes to one’s own salvation.

There is another case. When the child fell out of the 7th floor window, his mother managed to grab him with one hand, and with the other she held on to the brick of the cornice, with only two fingers - the index and middle. She held on like that until the rescuers arrived, and then with difficulty they unclenched her fingers.

A 70-year-old woman carried her 40-year-old son, who was involved in an accident, for 13 kilometers on her back, never stopping or lowering him to the ground.

Some researchers claim that a person uses only 10% of his abilities. And this applies to both the body and the brain.

The hypnologist Vul demonstrated an amazing ability - he had the ability to suggest at a distance. Wohl sent a letter by mail, in which the word was written in his handwriting: “Sleep!” If the patient had already been to see this doctor before, then upon receiving the letter he immediately fell asleep.

The pop artist from France Michel Lotito had an amazing ability - he can eat everything he sees. When he was still a child, he “ate” a television, and from the age of 15 he began to entertain people for money, eating rubber, glass and metal. Because Michel ate the plane (although it took about 2 years to eat it), he was included in the Guinness Book of Records. Biologist K. Richardson can spend an entire night in a cage with lions. For unknown reasons, the lions accept Richardson as one of their own. Thai Ngoc from Vietnam has not slept at all since 1973 - it started after he had a fever.

The phenomenon of Monica Tejada

There are many such inexplicable phenomena in our world. An amazing phenomenon is demonstrated to scientists by Monica Tejada from Spain. Even metal objects bend under her gaze.

There are no tricks here. The scientists placed steel wire in a sealed glass vessel. However, this did not stop Monica from bending the solid thread into the shape of a dinosaur with a closed mouth. During this process, instruments recorded an increase in the girl’s body temperature and a decrease in her blood pressure. This combination leads doctors to a dead end. At the same time, the electroencephalograph showed biocurrents characteristic of a sleeping person. Monica has another gift - she can diagnose diseases.

In New Jersey, on the outskirts of Trenton, in the 40s, there lived a 90-year-old man named Al Herpin. There was neither a trestle bed nor a bed in his shack - Al Herpin had never slept in his entire life. The old man, who lived to that age, outlived the doctors who examined him. Al Herpin's appetite and health were good, and his mental abilities were average. Of course, after a day's work he was tired, but he could not sleep. The old man would simply sit in a chair and read until he felt rested. After regaining his physical strength, he returned to work. Doctors were unable to explain their patient’s chronic insomnia, just as they could not explain the source of his longevity.

There is a known case that occurred in a Russian village. There lived an old sick woman named Matryona. She could not hear well, could not see, and could hardly walk. One night her house caught fire. The whole village ran to the fire. Imagine the surprise of the people when they saw this old woman climbing over the high fence. Moreover, she was holding a large chest in her hands, which several men later could not lift. Where are the limits of human capabilities? And do they exist at all?

In Mexico City at the Olympic Games in 1968, an athlete named Robert Beamon was able to jump almost 9 meters. Of course, it seems impossible, but Robert's record was broken. And the record, which was set in 500 BC in Ancient Greece, looks absolutely fantastic - the athlete Fail then jumped almost 17 meters in length.

In New York in 1935, an absolutely normal-looking child was born. However, he lived only 26 days. After an autopsy, it turned out that the child had no brain. Although it is known that even the slightest damage to the cerebral cortex can lead to death.

The fact that there are people in the world who live with foreign objects in their bodies does not surprise anyone now. But an incident that occurred in one of the New York hospitals seems simply incredible. A person came to the hospital with a slight illness. Doctors conducted an examination and found more than 250 objects in his body. There were only 26 keys in the patient’s body. The man did not say where there were so many objects in his body.

An equally striking case occurred with a 12-year-old Russian boy who went to the hospital in a small town with complaints of dizziness and weakness. Upon examination, doctors discovered a bullet wound in the heart area. It is unknown how the boy received such a wound, and most importantly, how he survived. X-ray determined that the bullet was in the solar artery. The boy was urgently sent to Moscow, where the bullet was removed from his body. She made an incredible journey in the body - she pierced the lung and entered the heart, which pushed her into the aorta. The bullet moved along the vessel until it hit the solar artery.

The famous psychiatrist and neuropathologist Cesare Lombroso had a very solid reputation in the scientific world. In his book “What After Death,” he told an incident that happened to a 14-year-old girl. She became blind, but at the same time she had a completely new and amazing ability to see.

Dr. Lombroso conducted research, which revealed that the girl sees through her left earlobe and nose. To exclude the slightest possibility of the girl’s eyes being involved, during the experiment the doctors covered them with a bandage so that peeking was completely excluded. However, despite the measures taken, the girl could easily read blindfolded and distinguish colors perfectly.

When a bright light flashed near her earlobe, she blinked, and when the doctor wanted to put his finger to the tip of her nose, she jumped back screaming that he wanted to blind her. There was an astonishing shift in the senses that affected more than just vision. When the experimenter brought a solution of ammonia to the girl’s nose, she did not react. But as soon as he brought the solution to her chin, she jerked in pain. She could smell scents with her chin.

It must be said that some people are able to completely control the abilities of their body. These include primarily Indian yogis. Perhaps the most amazing ability of yogis is that they can stop the beating of their own heart. Yogis can put themselves in a state of “death” - the work of the heart and breathing slow down, and other vital processes stop.

A yogi can remain in this state for quite a long time. So what powers are hidden in a person? Based on the above, we can assume that the capabilities of the human body are limitless. You just need to learn to control them.

Diamond tears

A woman named Hanuma, living in Africa, earned the nickname "Diamond" for her unusual ability to cry diamonds. Since childhood, Hanuma has not cried. The first time this happened was at the age of nine, when the girl peeled onions for the first time. Imagine the surprise of the girl’s parents when hard crystals began to fall from her eyes instead of tears.

The girl's father was a jeweler and, having examined the small crystals, he easily determined that they were real diamonds. The parents decided to keep Hanuma's unusual abilities a secret, and the father used his daughter's crystals to make jewelry, which was in great demand. One of the clients suspected something was wrong and submitted the diamond for examination, as a result of which it turned out that the stone was of organic origin. The girl became famous throughout the world. But scientists have not yet been able to uncover the secret of diamond tears.

Ice man

Dutch resident Wim Hof ​​is not sensitive to any cold. Thanks to his unusual abilities, the Dutchman conquered mountain peaks in only his underwear, swam for a long time in icy water and performed many similar feats.

Doctors carried out examinations of the body of an amazing person, but the results of the studies did not show any deviations from the norm in Vim’s body after cold procedures. The Dutchman's unusual abilities allow him to feel comfortable in conditions that would be fatal for any other person.

"Perpetual motion machine"

The baby, named Ret Lamba, who is three years old, has never slept in his life. He is awake around the clock. Ret’s parents, of course, were not delighted with their son’s abilities, but most of all they were concerned about the child’s health. However, as repeated medical examinations have shown, lack of sleep does not affect Ret’s health in any way; the boy is absolutely healthy.

Recent research has cleared up the picture a little. It turned out that the brain and nervous system of the amazing child are arranged in a special way, thanks to which the boy does not need sleep, his brain rests while awake.

Man is a reptile

History knows of cases where people had the ability to replace their skin with a new one, just like reptiles do. Born in 1851 in Missouri, S. Buskirk began changing his skin as a child. The most amazing thing is that this always happened on the same day - June 27th. The skin began to become rough, and then fell off in large pieces. She came off her arms and legs like gloves or socks.

After the old skin fell off, one could see in its place young, pink and tender skin, similar to that of newborn babies. Over the course of several years, Mr. Buskirk assembled a “leather” collection.

Glowing patient

Anna Monaro, who suffered from asthma, began to look like a fluorescent lamp in 1934. During her illness, a bluish glow emanated from her chest. This phenomenon lasted for several weeks and was documented by doctors. Sometimes the color of the glow changed to red and green. No one has been able to explain this phenomenon.

One psychiatrist suggested that "the phenomenon is caused by electrical and magnetic organisms that have become quite developed in this woman's body and are therefore emitting a radiance" - in other words, another way of saying, "I don't know." Another doctor proposed the theory of electromagnetic radiation, linking it with certain chemical components found in the patient’s skin, which was close to the then fashionable theory of bioluminescence.

Dr. Protti, who made a lengthy statement regarding his observations of Signora Monaro, suggested that her poor health, together with fasting and piety, had increased the amount of sulphides in the blood. Human blood emits rays in the ultraviolet range, and sulfides can be made to luminesce by ultraviolet irradiation, which explains the glow emanating from Signora Monaro's breast (The Times, May 5, 1934).

Anna Monaro

The proposed theory did not explain the strange periodicity or localization of the bluish flashes, and soon the confused researchers fell completely silent.

Gould and Pyle's 1937 book Anomalies and Curiosities in Medicine describes the case of a woman suffering from breast cancer. The light emanating from the sore area of ​​the chest was sufficient to see the dial of a clock several feet away...

In Hareward Carrington's book Death: Its Causes and Related Phenomena, there is a mention of a child who died of indigestion. After death, the boy's body began to emit a bluish glow and spread heat. Attempts to extinguish this radiance led to nothing, but it soon stopped on its own. When the body was lifted from the bed, it was discovered that the sheet under it was burned... The only case of light emission by a practically healthy person (not counting, of course, saints) was described in the journal “English Mechanic” dated September 24, 1869:

“One American woman, going to bed, discovered a glow on the top of the fourth toe of her right foot. When she rubbed her leg, the glow increased and some unknown force pushed her fingers apart. A stench emanated from the leg, and both the light emission and the smell did not stop even when the leg was immersed in a basin of water. Even soap could not extinguish or reduce the glow. This phenomenon lasted three quarters of an hour, and was observed by the woman’s husband.”

The Church views the phenomenon of “firefly people” approvingly. Pope Benedict XIV wrote: “...It must be recognized as a fact that there is a natural flame that sometimes becomes visible around the human head, and it also seems true that sometimes fire can emanate from the whole body of a person, but not like a fire rushing upward, but rather in the form of sparks flying in all directions.”

People are lightning

The body of an ordinary person is capable of generating electricity in small quantities, but not storing it. However, there are people whose unusual abilities are that they can accumulate electricity within themselves, and, when appropriate, release it onto surrounding objects.

For example, the journal Prediction published an article in 1953 that talked about a baby who electrocuted doctors. For another whole day, he retained tension within himself and was dangerous to others.

But it also happens that unusual abilities awaken in people only with age. A Chinese worker in 1988 began to notice some changes in his body, but could not understand what it was until he accidentally shocked his colleague, knocking him down with a shock.

Rif Mukharyanov is one of those people who were able to survive a lightning strike.

Back in 1965, Reef was struck by ball lightning, and he miraculously survived. Over time, he began to see strange dreams, which soon began to come true - his psychic abilities began to awaken.

When he had completely recovered from his illness, his good friend fell seriously ill. The doctors did not know what to do and just shrugged, and it was then that Reef decided to take advantage of his new opportunities. Literally two weeks later, the friend stood firmly on his feet.

Living magnet

There are also people who have magnetism. The most amazing case of manifestation of magnetic abilities is the case of the American Frank McKinstry. His body was pulled towards the ground. Magnetism manifested itself especially strongly in the mornings. Frank had to move very quickly, without stopping, because his body would stick to the ground if he stopped for a couple of seconds, and then the man could no longer continue moving without outside help.

Often people do not realize that they have some unusual abilities. A resident of Germany, Erika Zur Strindberg, discovered the magnetic abilities of her body after watching a TV show that talked about the magnetism of a Russian woman, Natalia Petrasova.

Just for fun, the German woman put a spoon to her chest and it “stuck” to the woman. Then Eric was hung with almost all the cutlery to make sure he had an unusual ability.

Unusual abilities remain to be unraveled

Many scientists agree that this kind of ability is potentially inherent in every person, but they manifest themselves only in extreme situations or after severe life shocks. An example of this hypothesis is the fortuneteller Vanga, who, having lost her sight, gained the ability to foresee the future, the present of people and their past.

Also, the famous German clairvoyant Wolf Messing became the owner of his unusual abilities after spending a long time in a state of clinical death. This happened when Messing was eleven years old.

There are many cases where people, having recovered from clinical death, acquired the ability to read minds and speak in previously unknown or even dead languages. An amazing incident happened to the polar explorer pilot Grigory Popov. While repairing the plane, Grigory heard some rustling behind him, turned around and saw a polar bear - one of the most dangerous predators. The pilot did not have time to understand anything, as he already found himself at a two-meter height - on the wing of the plane. He climbed there in one leap.

are not limited to the individual’s knowledge, skills and abilities. They manifest themselves in the speed and strength of mastering the methods of certain activities, and act as regulatory features of the mental activity of the individual.

Nature of abilities

In the middle of the 18th century. abilities were assessed as a global psychological problem (X. Wolf). For a long time they were interpreted as comprehensive properties of the soul, originally inherent in the individual, as his hereditary predestination. French materialists of the 18th century. put forward the opposite thesis about the complete dependence of abilities on the living conditions of the individual. Meanwhile, the problem of abilities is a problem of the dialectical relationship between internal and external.

The Problem of Abilities became the subject of scientific study in the 19th century. in connection with the research of F. Galton, who applied experimental and statistical approaches to this problem and became the founder of differential psychology. Using the “method of twins,” Galton opened up the possibility of studying the relationship between heredity and external influences. Galton also came up with the idea of ​​using tests to determine individual differences (“An Inquiry into Human Abilities and Their Development” (1883)).

The development of abilities should not be understood as a quantitative increase in natural inclinations, the maturation of what is given to a person by nature. The development of abilities is determined by the requirements put forward to a person in the process of his activity, the diversity and content of this activity. Each person has only his inherent abilities, both in individual types of activity and in broad areas of life.

The ability to perform one or another activity can determine a person’s aspiration for one or another type of activity and manifest itself in the form inclinations. Along with this, each person has characteristics that are unfavorable for certain types of activity, an inability to perform certain types of activity. There are no good or bad abilities, there is an individual's ability or inability to perform a certain activity.

Human abilities and inclinations

From birth a person has no abilities. But it has certain natural prerequisites - makings of for their subsequent development under certain conditions. Thus, the corresponding properties of the visual analyzer and the artistic type of higher nervous activity are innate prerequisites for the formation of artistic abilities.

The makings of abilities are the characteristics of the nervous system, which determine the functioning of various individual cortical zones and hemispheres of the brain. Congenital inclinations determine the rate of formation of temporary nerve connections, their stability, and the relationship between the first and second signaling systems.

Natural prerequisites for abilities ambiguous- on their basis, various abilities can be formed. Abilities lend themselves perestroika(recombination). This provides compensatory possibilities mental regulation: the weakness of some neurophysiological components is compensated by the strength of others.

The psychophysical capabilities of a person, his abilities are inexhaustible. However, not every person knows about their capabilities and uses them properly. Meanwhile, the highest self-realization of the individual is the main meaning of human existence.

People have long attached great importance to their development and assessment of their own abilities. Centuries ago, there was an opinion that people chose the wrong vector of development. In what sense? Instead of making efforts and engaging in self-development, people do not stop working on what surrounds them. With little or no attention to self-care, a person tries to make the conditions around him as comfortable as possible. On the other hand, not all people have a materialistic mindset. Many people value things that money cannot buy. It is important to realize that the best "investment" is the effort made to improve a person's spiritual, social and physical capabilities.

Do you have potential?

One famous philosopher and psychologist William James, who lived in the 20th century, came to the conclusion that most people do not realize the potential that was originally inherent in them. According to him, every baby has prospects that its parents do not even think about. This is why most people remain at a low level of development of their talents - they do not realize how wide the horizon of their abilities is.

Let's look at examples of how human capabilities develop. New social skills are formed quite quickly. If people understood that they could learn something so quickly, their lives would turn out completely differently. For example, to be able to play a musical instrument well and be considered a master of his craft, the average individual will need about one year. Is this too much? Not at all! The possibilities are so incredible that even in such a short period of time he can learn something truly beautiful. Therefore, thoughts that you will not achieve a certain level of development or a specific goal are often formed based on stereotypes of lazy people. To see how amazing they are, you just need to set a goal and pursue it. But what will help you achieve your goals and reveal new human capabilities?

The importance of systematic effort

Most people never achieve success because they are not persistent enough in their aspirations.

Patience and a little effort. This proverb accurately emphasizes the importance of systematic effort. Even if, in an effort to develop some kind of talent or quality, the attempts look unconvincing, and the results cannot be called victorious, it is important to continue to push the road in the intended direction every day and not give up.

Many people believe that they are special from birth.

So, people celebrate talented individuals. This is how many justify themselves. Don't think that talented people were born that way. In most cases, we see not so much gifted people, but hardworking and purposeful ones. It is important to make every effort to develop your personality. Such efforts bring great inner satisfaction.

Human physical capabilities develop according to the same principle. In this regard, of course, much does not depend on us. For example, a person whose height is 160 centimeters cannot become a professional basketball player, no matter how hard he tries. However, he is still capable of succeeding in this matter if he persistently strives for the goal.

Concentration

To stimulate the development of human capabilities, it is important to make the right choices and be able to concentrate efforts. Let’s remember the proverb again: “If you chase two hares, you won’t catch either.” To develop individual abilities and talents, it is important not only to follow your own path, no matter what, but also to choose this path correctly, completely focusing on it.

Let's return to the example of a short man who is confident that human capabilities are limitless. He set his goal to become a professional basketball player. What can be noted on the positive side in this situation? Firstly, the fact that a person is not afraid to set ambitious goals. Secondly, he makes every effort and does not give up, despite the difficulties that he will definitely have to face. However, a person will still not be able to achieve his goal and become a professional basketball player. What's wrong? It's all about taking the wrong road.

To best realize their opportunities, people should soberly assess their abilities and circumstances in order to set achievable goals. At the same time, it is important not to be distracted by extraneous tasks, the incidental solution of which can stop development and interfere with conquering peaks.

Motivation

Opportunities can only be revealed if he is able to overcome such qualities of any personality as laziness and inertia. Understanding the value of the task at hand - motivation - will help you cope with such obstacles on the path to developing your personality. In sports, people are motivated by the desire to be a winner, to gain fame, fame, and wealth. All this helps them constantly improve and become more self-confident.

Unusual Potential

Most people around him are much more interested in seeing not a person’s social capabilities, but his unusual talents and body abilities. This happens because extraordinary mental qualities do not catch the eye, while the phenomenal capabilities of the human body are noticed by everyone.

People are used to thinking that they have their limits. According to scientists, it is partly for this reason that a person sometimes cannot overcome some obstacle or height, although he has the potential for this. The limits of human capabilities can be tested in stressful situations, when the mental boundary - that which is holding back - ceases to function as usual. This is proven by many examples. Surely you have heard more than once about people who, out of fear of danger, covered a height of more than two meters in seconds or showed strength tens of times greater than their usual strength. All this suggests that human capabilities are much greater than we used to think. With this in mind, we shouldn’t think that we can’t do anything.

Let's consider what human capabilities have been demonstrated in different areas. These real cases confirm that almost anything is achievable.

Being in a cold environment

The time a person can spend in water is an hour or an hour and a half. During this short period, death occurs due to shock, difficulty breathing or cardiac arrest. It would seem that human physical capabilities simply do not allow expanding this boundary. But there are other facts.

During the Second World War, a Soviet sergeant swam 20 kilometers in cold water, thereby completing his combat mission. It took the soldier 9 hours to cover such a distance! Doesn't this mean that the world of human possibilities is much greater than we imagine?!

One British fisherman proves this fact. Within 10 minutes of the shipwreck in cold water, all his comrades died due to hypothermia, but this man survived for about five hours. And after he got to the shore, he walked for another three hours barefoot. Indeed, when it comes to cold environments, human capabilities are much wider than is commonly believed. What can be said about other areas?

Feeling hungry, or How long can you live without food

There is a general consensus among experts that a person can survive without food for about two weeks. However, doctors in some countries have witnessed amazing records that help to realize the fantastic potential of the human body.

For example, one woman fasted for 119 days. During this period, she received a daily dose of vitamins to maintain the functioning of her internal organs. But such a 119-day hunger strike is not the limit of human capabilities.

In Scotland, two women registered at a clinic and began fasting in order to lose excess weight. It’s hard to believe, but one of them did not eat food for 236 days, and the second for 249 days. The second indicator has not yet been surpassed by anyone. The resources of our body are indeed very rich. But if a person can go without eating for so long, the question arises of how long he can go without drinking.

Is water life?

They say that without water a person can survive no more than 2-3 days. In fact, this indicator depends on the individual capabilities of a person, his physical activity and ambient temperature. Scientists say that under optimal circumstances, the maximum you can live without water is only 9-10 days. Is it so? Is that the limit?

In the fifties, in the city of Frunze, a man was found who had suffered a head injury and had lain without help for 20 days in a cold and deserted place. When he was discovered, he was not moving, and his pulse was barely palpable. However, the next day the 53-year-old man could speak freely.

And another case. A steamship sank in England at the end of World War II. shipwrecked in the Atlantic Ocean, he escaped on a boat and stayed on it for four and a half months!

Other fantastic records

People can achieve much greater results than what is considered the norm, and sometimes an incredible achievement. It's all about our brain, which on a subconscious level shows a person his limit. This mechanism undoubtedly brings benefits to our body. However, by understanding how such a system works, we can achieve much greater success in the area in which we have decided to develop.

It is impossible to list all the records that show that human capabilities are incredibly great. Such achievements have been made in sports, including in the field of strength training. There are also people who cannot breathe for a very long time. Extraordinary abilities indicate the broadest opportunities and prospects.

The fact that a person’s potential is greater than he thinks is shown by one category of people, which many, unfortunately, do not treat with due respect. These are people with disabilities. How do such individuals confirm that the human body has enormous potential?

Demonstration of strengths

Many people with disabilities are adept at how to pursue their goals and not give up despite great obstacles. Human development in such difficult conditions not only produces results, but also strengthens character. Thus, among the disabled there are a huge number of excellent writers, poets, artists, musicians, athletes, and so on. All these talents are largely the result of heredity, but it is the character that people with certain characteristics exhibit that makes them professionals in their field.

History knows many great people who achieved success in various fields of activity, although they were sometimes considered inferior. Here's just one example. Polina Gorenshtein was a ballerina. After she fell ill with encephalitis, she became paralyzed. The woman lost her sight. Despite all the troubles that arose due to a serious illness, the woman began to engage in artistic modeling. As a result, her few works are still among the exhibits of the Tretyakov Gallery.

Where is the limit?

We can rightly believe that our capabilities are truly limitless, both physically and mentally. Therefore, the level of development at which a person is at a given moment in time depends solely on his desires and efforts. It is important to strive for excellence at all costs, despite the obstacles that arise.

Lecture: Human abilities

General characteristics of human abilities

Usually Abilities are understood as such individual characteristics that are conditions for the successful implementation of one or more activities. However, the term “ability,” despite its long-standing and widespread use in psychology, is interpreted ambiguously by many authors. If we summarize all the possible options for currently existing approaches to the study of abilities, they can be reduced to three main types. In the first case Abilities are understood as the totality of all possible mental processes and states. This is the broadest and oldest interpretation of the term “ability.” From the point of view of the second approach Abilities are understood as a high level of development of general and specialized knowledge, skills and abilities that ensure a person’s successful performance of various types of activities. This definition appeared and was accepted in the psychology of the 18th-19th centuries. and is quite common nowadays. Third approach is based on the assertion that abilities are something that cannot be reduced to knowledge, skills and abilities, but ensures their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice.

In Russian psychology, experimental studies of abilities are most often based on the latter approach. The greatest contribution to its development was made by the famous domestic scientist B. M. Teplov. He identified the following three main features of the concept of “ability”.

Firstly, abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another; no one will talk about abilities when we are talking about properties in respect of which all people are equal.

Secondly, abilities are not called all individual characteristics, but only those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities.

Thirdly, the concept of “ability” is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person.

Abilities can be classified into:

Natural (or natural) abilities, basically biologically determined, associated with innate inclinations, formed on their basis in the presence of elementary life experience through learning mechanisms such as conditioned reflex connections (for example, such elementary abilities are perception, memory, the ability for elementary communication);

Specific human abilities, having a socio-historical origin and ensuring life and development in the social environment.

Specific human abilities are in turn divided into: A) general which determine a person’s success in a wide variety of activities and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of hand movements, etc.), and special

, which determine a person’s success in certain types of activity and communication, where a special kind of inclinations and their development are needed (mathematical, technical, literary and linguistic, artistic and creative abilities, sports, etc.). B) theoretical, determining a person’s propensity for abstract-logical thinking, and practical,

underlying the propensity for concrete practical actions. The combination of these abilities is characteristic only of multi-talented people; B) educational, which influence the success of pedagogical influence, a person’s assimilation of knowledge, abilities, skills, the formation of personality qualities, and creative

associated with success in creating works of material and spiritual culture, new ideas, discoveries, inventions; D) abilities to communicate, interact with people and subject-related abilities,

related to the interaction of people with nature, technology, symbolic information, artistic images, etc.

Levels of ability development and individual differences

In psychology, the following classification of levels of development of abilities is most often found: ability, giftedness, talent, genius. All abilities in the process of their development go through a number of stages, and in order for a certain ability to rise in its development to a higher level, it is necessary that it has already been sufficiently developed at the previous level. But for the development of abilities, there must initially be a certain foundation, which constitutes makings.

It should be noted that the innate anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the brain, sensory organs and movement, or innate inclinations, determine the natural basis of individual differences between people. According to I.P. Pavlov, the basis of individual differences is determined by the predominant type of higher nervous activity and the peculiarities of the relationship of signaling systems. Based on these criteria, three typological groups of people can be distinguished: artistic type (predominance of the first signaling system), thinking type (predominance of the second signaling system) and average type (equal representation).

The typological groups identified by Pavlov suggest the presence of various innate inclinations in representatives of one or another group. Thus, the main differences between the artistic type and the thinking type appear in the sphere of perception, where the “artist” is characterized by holistic perception, and the “thinker” is characterized by fragmentation of it into separate parts; in the sphere of imagination and thinking, “artists” have a predominance of figurative thinking and imagination, while “thinkers” are more characterized by abstract, theoretical thinking; in the emotional sphere, persons of the artistic type are distinguished by increased emotionality, while representatives of the thinking type are more characterized by rational, intellectual reactions to events.

It should be emphasized that the presence of certain inclinations in a person does not mean that he will develop certain abilities. For example, an essential prerequisite for the development of musical abilities is a keen ear. But the structure of the peripheral (auditory) and central nervous system is only a prerequisite for the development of musical abilities. The structure of the brain does not provide for what professions and specialties related to musical hearing may arise in human society. It is also not provided for what area of ​​activity a person will choose for himself and what opportunities will be provided to him for the development of his existing inclinations. Consequently, to what extent a person’s inclinations will be developed depends on the conditions of his individual development.

Thus, the development of inclinations is a socially conditioned process that is associated with the conditions of upbringing and the characteristics of the development of society. Inclinations develop and transform into abilities, provided that there is a need in society for certain professions, in particular, where a fine ear for music is needed. The second significant factor in the development of inclinations is the characteristics of upbringing.

The makings are non-specific. The presence of a certain type of inclinations in a person does not mean that on their basis, under favorable conditions, some specific ability must necessarily develop. Based on the same inclinations, different abilities can be developed depending on the nature of the requirements imposed by the activity. Thus, a person with good hearing and a sense of rhythm can become a musical performer, conductor, dancer, singer, music critic, teacher, composer, etc. At the same time, it cannot be assumed that inclinations do not influence the nature of future abilities. Thus, the features of the auditory analyzer will affect precisely those abilities that require a special level of development of this analyzer.

The next level of development is abilities. These are individual psychological characteristics of a person that ensure success in activities, communication and ease of mastering them.

Abilities are largely social and are formed in the process of specific human activities. Depending on whether conditions for the development of abilities exist or not, they can be potential And relevant.

Potential abilities are understood as those that are not realized in a specific type of activity, but are capable of being updated when the corresponding social conditions change. Actual abilities, as a rule, include those that are needed at a given moment and are implemented in a specific type of activity. Potential and actual abilities are an indirect indicator of the nature of the social conditions in which a person’s abilities develop. It is the nature of social conditions that hinders or promotes the development of potential abilities, and ensures or does not ensure their transformation into actual ones.

It should be noted that no single ability can by itself ensure the successful performance of an activity. The success of any activity always depends on a number of abilities. Observation alone, no matter how perfect, is not enough to become a good writer. For a writer, observation, imaginative memory, a number of thinking qualities, abilities related to writing, the ability to concentrate and a number of other abilities are of paramount importance.

On the other hand, the structure of any specific ability includes universal or general qualities that meet the requirements of various types of activity, and special qualities that ensure success in only one type of activity. For example, while studying mathematical abilities, V. A. Krutetsky found that to successfully perform mathematical activities it is necessary:

1) an active, positive attitude towards the subject, a tendency to engage in it, which turns into passion at a high level of development;

2) a number of character traits, primarily hard work, organization, independence, determination, perseverance, as well as stable intellectual feelings;

3) the presence during the activity of mental states favorable for its implementation;

4) a certain fund of knowledge, skills and abilities in the relevant field;

5) individual psychological characteristics in the sensory and mental spheres that meet the requirements of this activity.

Moreover, the first four the categories of the listed properties should be considered as general properties necessary for any activity, and not considered as components of abilities, since otherwise components of abilities should interests and inclinations, character traits, mental states, as well as skills and abilities.

The next level of ability development is giftedness. Giftedness is a unique combination of abilities that provides a person with the opportunity to successfully perform any activity.

In this definition, it is necessary to emphasize that it is not the successful performance of an activity that depends on giftedness, but only the possibility of such successful performance. To successfully perform any activity, it is necessary not only to have the appropriate combination of abilities, but also to master the necessary knowledge and skills. No matter how phenomenally mathematically gifted a person may be, if he has never studied mathematics, he will not be able to successfully perform the functions of the most ordinary specialist in this field. Giftedness determines only the possibility of achieving success in a particular activity, while the realization of this opportunity is determined by the extent to which the corresponding abilities will be developed and what knowledge and skills will be acquired.

Individual differences in gifted people are found mainly in the direction of their interests. Some people, for example, stop at mathematics, others at history, and still others at social work. Further development of abilities occurs in specific activities.

It should be noted that in the structure of abilities two groups of components can be distinguished. Some occupy a leading position, while others are auxiliary. Thus, in the structure of visual abilities, the leading properties will be the high natural sensitivity of the visual analyzer - a sense of line, proportion, shape, light and shade, color, rhythm, as well as the sensorimotor qualities of the artist’s hand, highly developed figurative memory, etc. The auxiliary qualities include the properties artistic imagination, emotional mood, emotional attitude towards what is depicted, etc.

Leading and auxiliary components of abilities form a unity that ensures the success of activities. However, the structure of abilities is a very flexible education. The ratio of leading and auxiliary qualities in a specific ability varies from person to person. Depending on which quality a person has as a leader, the formation of auxiliary qualities necessary for performing the activity occurs. Moreover, even within the same activity, people may have different combinations of qualities that will allow them to equally successfully perform this activity, compensating for shortcomings.

It should be noted that the lack of abilities does not mean that a person is unfit to perform a particular activity, since there are psychological mechanisms for compensating for missing abilities. Often, activities have to be carried out not only by those who have the ability to do it, but also by those who do not have them. If a person is forced to continue in this activity, he will consciously or unconsciously compensate for the lack of abilities by relying on the strengths of his personality. According to E.P. Ilyin, compensation can be carried out through acquired knowledge or skills, or through the formation of an individual-typical style of activity, or through another, more developed ability. The possibility of widespread compensation of some properties by others leads to the fact that the relative weakness of any one ability does not at all exclude the possibility of successfully performing the activity most closely related to this ability. The missing ability can be compensated within very wide limits by others that are highly developed in a given person. This is probably what ensures the possibility of successful human activity in a wide variety of areas.

When characterizing a person’s abilities, they often distinguish the level of their development as skill, i.e., excellence in a specific activity. When they talk about a person’s skill, they primarily mean his ability to successfully engage in productive activities. However, it does not follow from this that mastery is expressed in the corresponding amount of ready-made skills and abilities. Mastery in any profession presupposes psychological readiness for creative solutions to emerging problems. It’s not without reason that they say: “Mastery is when the “what” and “how” come at the same time,” emphasizing that for a master there is no gap between recognizing a creative task and finding ways to solve it.

The next level of development of human abilities is talent. The word “talent” is found in the Bible, where it has the meaning of a measure of silver that a lazy slave received from his master during his absence and chose to bury in the ground, instead of putting it into circulation and making a profit (hence the saying “bury your talent in the ground” ). Currently, talent is understood as a high level of development of special abilities (musical, literary, etc.). Just like abilities, talent manifests itself and develops in activity. The activity of a talented person is distinguished by its fundamental novelty and originality of approach.

The awakening of talent, as well as abilities in general, is socially conditioned. Which talents will receive the most favorable conditions for full development depends on the needs of the era and the characteristics of the specific tasks facing a given society.

It should be noted that talent is a certain combination of abilities, their totality. A separate isolated ability, even a very highly developed one, cannot be called a talent. For example, among outstanding talents you can find many people with both good and bad memory. This is due to the fact , that in human creative activity, memory is only one of the factors on which its success depends. But the results will not be achieved by inflexibility of the mind, rich imagination, strong will, and deep interest.

The highest level of development of abilities is called genius. ABOUT genius is said when a person’s creative achievements constitute an entire era in the life of society, in the development of culture. There are very few people of genius. It is generally accepted that over the entire five-thousand-year history of civilization there were no more than 400 people. The high level of talent that characterizes a genius is inevitably associated with excellence in various fields of activity. Among the geniuses who achieved such universalism are Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci, R. Descartes, G. V. Leibniz, M. V. Lomonosov. For example, M.V. Lomonosov achieved outstanding results in various fields of knowledge: chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, and at the same time he was an artist, writer, linguist, and had an excellent knowledge of poetry. However, this does not mean that all individual qualities of a genius are developed to the same extent. Genius, as a rule, has its own “profile”, some side dominates in it, some abilities manifest themselves more clearly.