Forms of interpersonal interaction. Types of human interaction

A person is a social, social being living in conditions of interaction and communication with other people.

The unit of interaction is called transaction . Eric Berne singled out the positions of people who create the real process of interaction - Parent, Adult, Child. Parent position. The position of the Parent implies a tendency to dominance, competition, to the manifestation of power and a sense of high self-worth, to teaching and critical condemnation. Position of the Adult - a tendency to equal cooperation, recognition of oneself and others of equal rights and responsibility for the outcome of interaction. The position of the Child is a tendency to submit, to seek support and protection (“obedient child”) or to emotional impulsive protest, rebellion, unpredictable whims (“rebellious child”).

It is possible to distinguish various forms of interpersonal interaction: attachment, friendship, love, competition, withdrawal, pastime, operation, game, social influence, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc. They are characterized by specific positions.

ritual interaction is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the status of a person in a group and society. These are religious ceremonies, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular customs, holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous norms of behavior: receiving guests, greeting acquaintances, addressing strangers, etc.

Rituals and ceremonies are prescribed formal behavior. They are important for maintaining continuity between different generations in an organization, for preserving traditions and transferring accumulated experience through symbols.

The ritual acts as a special form of interaction invented by people to satisfy the need for recognition. In this case, the Parent-Parent relationship dominates. Thanks to such interaction, the value of the group is revealed, people express what affects them most, constitutes their social value orientations.

If a person's need for recognition is not realized, then aggressive behavior begins to develop. The ritual is precisely designed to remove this aggression, to satisfy the need to be recognized at least minimally.

At operations - the transaction is carried out from the position of "Adult-Adult". We meet with him every day: at work, at school, when we cook food, repair an apartment, etc. Having successfully completed an operation, a person is established in his competence and receives confirmation from others.

Labor interaction, distribution and performance of professional, family functions, skillful and efficient implementation of these duties - these are the operations that fill people's lives.

Competition- a form of social interaction when there is a clear goal that needs to be achieved, and all the actions of various people are correlated with this goal in mind so that they do not conflict. At the same time, a person does not come into conflict with himself, adhering to the attitude of another team player, although he has an inherent desire to achieve better results than other team members. Since a person accepts the attitudes of other people and allows him to determine what he will do in accordance with some common goal, to the extent that he becomes an organic member of his group, society, accepting its morality and becoming its significant member.

In a number of cases, being with other people in the same room and performing seemingly joint activities, a person mentally stays in a completely different place, talks with imaginary interlocutors, dreams about his own. This specific interaction is called leaving . This is a common and natural form of interaction, but still more often resorted to by people who have problems with interpersonal interaction. If a person does not have other forms of interaction, except for care, then this is already a pathology - psychosis.

The next type of approved fixed interactions is pastime, providing at least some pleasant sensations, signs of attention from partners, designed to satisfy people's need for recognition.

If this form is realized from the position of "Parent-Parent", then most often it is expressed as follows: everything that deviates from the norm (children, women, men, power, television, etc.) is discussed and condemned; “Things” (comparison of cars, televisions, etc. in possession), “Who won yesterday”, etc. In the process of this, the partners and the prospects for developing relations with them are evaluated.

The stable interaction of people can be due to the appearance of mutual sympathy, attractions. Close relationships that provide support and companionship (i.e., we feel loved, approved, and encouraged by friends and loved ones) are associated with feelings of happiness. Studies have shown that such positive relationships improve health, reduce the likelihood of premature death.

Factors that contribute to the formation of attraction (attachment, sympathy):

1. The frequency of mutual social contacts, geographical proximity (most people begin to make friends and marry those who live in the neighborhood, study in the same class, work in the same company, i.e. with those who live, study, work nearby ; people can partly meet, find similarities in each other, exchange signs of attention). Physical attractiveness (men tend to love women for their appearance, but women also like attractive men - they like beauty).

2. The phenomenon of "equal" (people tend to choose their friends and especially marry those who are equal in intellectual level and as attractive as they are). E. Fromm wrote: “Love is often nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the participants in the transaction get the most out of what they can count on, taking into account their value in the personality market.” In couples where partners differed in their degree of attractiveness, the yielder usually has a compensatory quality. Men offer status on their part, trying to find attractiveness, and women do rather the opposite, so young beauties often marry older men who occupy a high position in society.

3. The more attractive a person, the more likely it is to attribute positive qualities to him (this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness: what is beautiful is good). People unconsciously believe that other things being equal, the more beautiful are happier, sexier, more sociable, smarter and luckier, although they are not at all more honest or caring towards other people. People who are attractive have more prestigious jobs and earn more.

4. The “contrast effect” negatively affects attraction: for example, men who have just looked at magazine beauties find ordinary women and wives less attractive; after watching pornographic films, sexual satisfaction with a partner decreases.

5. The "amplification effect": when we find traits similar to ours in someone, this makes the person more attractive to us. The more two people love each other, the more physically attractive they find each other and the less attractive all other people of the opposite sex seem to them.

6. The similarity of social origin, interests, views is important for establishing relationships (“We love those who are like us and do the same as we do,” Aristotle pointed out).

7. To continue relations, mutual complementation, competence in a field close to our interests is necessary.

8. We like those who like us.

9. If a person’s self-esteem was hurt in some previous situation, then he will like a new acquaintance who kindly pays him attention (this helps to explain why sometimes people fall so passionately in love after they were previously rejected by another, thereby affecting their selfishness).

10. Reward theory of attraction: according to it, we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate events that are beneficial to us.

11. The principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: what you and your partner receive from your relationship should be proportional to what each of you invests in it.

12. If two or more people have a lot in common, a closeness factor is formed. With the strengthening of relationships, when people do something nice for each other, sympathy is formed. When they mutually discover dignity and recognize the right for themselves and others to be as they are, respect is formed.

Forms of interaction such as friendship And Love satisfy people's need for acceptance. They look like a pastime, but in these cases the partner is fixed, and sympathy arises towards him. Friendship includes sympathy and respect, love differs from it in an enhanced sexual component, that is, it is sexual attraction + sympathy + respect. In the case of falling in love, there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy.

These forms of interaction differ from all others in that they necessarily contain hidden Child-Child transactions expressing mutual recognition and sympathy. People can discuss any problems they want, even at a completely adult and serious level, but in their every word and gesture will be read: "I like you." Some features are characteristic of all friendships and love attachments: mutual understanding, self-giving, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (discovery of innermost thoughts and experiences in front of another person).

Games(or “games”, from the English game) is a stereotypical series of interactions leading to a predictable result, this is a series of manipulations that are designed to change the behavior of another person into the pastime, operations, friendship, love necessary for the initiator of transactions, - interactions are dishonest, because they include traps, undercuts, retributions.

Games differ from other ways of structuring time in two ways: ulterior motives; having a win.

Each participant in the game, even those who have been defeated, receives a win, but it is extremely specific - in the form of negative feelings of resentment, fear, guilt, hatred, suspicion, humiliation, contempt, arrogance, which serves as a kind of confirmation of the correctness of the life position of these people, according to which "people are bad I'm bad, life is bad.

Berne noted that many people play these unconscious games with specific negative gains, as such is an important part of a person's unconscious life plan or script. Each game begins with a bait that the active participant, the initiator, offers to the passive one, taking into account the characteristics of the character and the “weakness” of that one. This is followed by a series of double transactions, which invariably lead to a pre-planned result. Once you start a game, it is almost impossible to get out of it, especially if you are a passive participant, resulting in a payoff or a win.

In order not to become a victim of other people's manipulations, it is important to turn double transactions into open, direct ones, since the game is possible only if there is a hidden subtext in words, transactions.

Analysis manipulation shows that with all the differences they have much in common, and this allows you to build a fairly reliable protection against them. It can be done according to the following flowchart:

1. Show no weakness(do not fall for the bait, realize what your weakness is being exploited). All scams - from the smallest to the largest - are built, as a rule, on the use of people's greed, the desire to get rich quickly. The thirst for easy profit is so strong that it paralyzes the most elementary caution. Another human weakness is curiosity, in particular the desire to know one's future, destiny. This weakness has been successfully exploited by fortune-tellers and seers for many centuries. The other is a thirst for thrills. It is realized in gambling. It affects mainly the strong sex. The desire to impress, to show off is also used by manipulators.

2. Realize that you are being manipulated. A sign of manipulation is a feeling of discomfort: you don’t want to do something, say something, but you have to - otherwise it’s uncomfortable, you will “look bad”. It is enough to say to yourself: “Stop, manipulation!”.

3. Apply passive or active protection. It is recommended to use the first one if you do not know what to do, how to answer the manipulator. Don't say anything. Pretend that you did not hear, did not understand, or even ask about something else. With active defense, "dot the i's" or resort to countermanipulation.

4. Countermanipulation. The manipulator usually exploits our desire to look good, so do not be afraid to look bad: “I'm afraid you greatly exaggerate my virtues” (generosity, opportunities, abilities) - these words relieve you of all obligations and open up unlimited scope for improvisation.

Social influence occurs if, as a result of interaction, a person's repeated response to a certain problem is closer to the answer of another than to his own initial one, i.e., the behavior of one person becomes similar to the behavior of other people.

In connection with the problem of social influence, one should distinguish between the concepts of conformity and suggestibility.

Conformity- this is a person's susceptibility to group pressure, a change in one's behavior under the influence of other persons, a person's conscious compliance with the opinion of the majority of the group in order to avoid conflict with it.

Suggestibility(or suggestion)- involuntary susceptibility of a person to the opinion of other persons or groups (the person himself did not notice how his views, behavior have changed, this happens by itself, sincerely).

Distinguish:

1. Internal personal conformity(assimilated conformal reaction): a person’s opinion really changes under the influence of the group, he agrees that that group is right, and changes his initial position in accordance with the group, subsequently demonstrating the learned group opinion, behavior and in the absence of the group.

2. External, public conformity: demonstrative agreement with the group for various reasons (most often to avoid conflicts, troubles for yourself or loved ones while maintaining your own opinion at heart).

Excessive conformism is a psychologically detrimental phenomenon. Then a person, like a “weather vane”, follows the group opinion, not having his own views, acting as a puppet in the hands of others, or he realizes himself as a hypocritical opportunist who is able to repeatedly change behavior and outwardly expressed beliefs in accordance with “where the wind blows from” , for the sake of "the mighty of this world." According to Western psychologists, many Soviet people are shaped in the direction of such heightened conformity.

The positive value of conformism lies in the fact that it acts as a mechanism for rallying human groups, human society and a mechanism for the transfer of social heritage, culture, traditions, social patterns of behavior, attitudes.

Nonconformism acts as a refutation by a person of the opinion of the majority, a protest against subordination, as a seeming independence of the individual from the opinion of the group, although in fact even here the point of view of the majority is the basis for human behavior. Conformism and non-conformism are related personality traits: positive or negative subordination to influences on the personality from the side of the group, but precisely subordination. Therefore, the behavior of a nonconformist is just as easy to control as that of a conformist.

The opposite of conformism and nonconformism is self-determination. This is a person's selective attitude to any influences of his own group, which are accepted or rejected depending on whether they correspond to the person's beliefs, the goals and objectives of the group's group activity, that is, the decision is made by the person independently with all personal responsibility for its consequences.

What determines the relationship between the individual and the community? On the one hand, the stability of existence in a group leads to unification, assimilation, similarity of the individuals included in it, i.e., the group has an inherent desire for homeostasis, for balancing its components. On the other hand, each member of the group can be considered as a source of transformation of the opinions of other members of the group, i.e., the minority can also influence the majority, since the individual not only adapts to the social environment, but vice versa: he adapts the environment to his views.

A common form of social influence is obedience, submission to authority, susceptibility to influence individuals with higher social status.

Not a single person is able to live in complete isolation, some form of interpersonal interaction will certainly be present. This need for close long-term interactions lives in each of us. It is explained by social and biological causes and is aimed at human survival.

Forms and types of interpersonal interaction

Psychology has long been interested in the issue of interpersonal interactions and considers them through the prism, since these phenomena complement each other, but these concepts should not be confused.

Communication will certainly happen as a means of communication (transfer of information) of two or more subjects, it can be personal or indirect (mail, Internet). But interaction does not always imply communication, which makes the latter a special case of various types of contacts. In social psychology, the term "interpersonal interaction" refers to the contact of two or more subjects, leading to a change in their behavior or mood. The three main tasks of such contact are: the formation of interpersonal relationships, interpersonal perception and understanding of a person, and the provision of psychological impact. To solve these problems, two main types of interactions are used: cooperation - progress towards the goal of one of the partners contributes or does not interfere with the success of others, and rivalry - achievement by one of the partners excludes or hinders the successful completion of the others.

There is also a division of interpersonal interactions by type:

Depending on the purpose - business, personal.
Depending on the modality - positive, negative, ambivalent.
Depending on the orientation - vertical, horizontal. An example of such relationships can be working contacts, in the case of communication with superiors or subordinates, the orientation will be vertical, while talking with colleagues - horizontal.

The complexity of the processes of interpersonal interaction gives rise to many classifications, some of which were given above, but the concept will not be fully disclosed without mentioning the forms of their manifestation, of which there are a great many. The main ones are: friendship, affection, love, care, pastime, play, social influence, competition, conflict and ritual interaction. The latter form is very common, differing in the special rules that govern relationships. It helps symbolically express the social status of a person in a group, this form was invented specifically so that everyone can satisfy their need for recognition. Everyone uses such rituals - when communicating with parents and children, subordinates and superiors, civil servants and sellers in the store. Each of the forms of interaction performs one of three functions - assistance in adapting to a new environment, cognitive or satisfaction of a person's need for contact with other people. This once again confirms the importance of the phenomenon, as well as its complexity.

Interaction are the actions of individuals directed towards each other. Communication as interaction can be considered from the standpoint of orientation to control and orientation to understanding.

Orientation to control involves the desire to control, manage the situation and the behavior of others, which are usually combined with the desire to dominate in interaction.

Comprehension orientation includes the desire to understand the situation and the behavior of others. It is associated with the desire to better interact and avoid conflicts, with ideas about the equality of partners in communication and the need to achieve mutual rather than one-sided satisfaction.

So, "controllers" and "understanders" adhere to completely different strategies in communication.

"Controller" strategy - the desire to force the partner to accept their plan of interaction, to impose their understanding of the situation, and quite often they really achieve control over the interaction.

Understanding strategy - partner adaptation. It is significant that different orientations are associated with different distribution of positions in communication. Thus, "controllers" always strive for unequal interactions with subordinate and dominant positions of "vertical interaction". Orientation to understanding is more associated with equal horizontal interactions.

When a person feels the threat of rejection, the following types of communication behavior may occur:

1) to curry favor so that the other person does not get angry;

2) to blame, so that the other person considers him strong;

4) move away enough to ignore the threat, act as if it does not exist.

Ingratiating peacemaker tries to please, never arguing about anything, agrees with any criticism addressed to him (and inside he feels like a nonentity, of no value - “I am nothing without you”, “I am helpless”).

Prosecutor constantly looking for who is to blame in this or that case. He is a dictator, a master who endlessly reproaches: “If not for you, everything would be fine”, with all his appearance he shows “I am in charge here”, but deep inside he feels “I am lonely and unhappy”.

Calculating "computer» very reasonable, but expresses no feelings, he seems calm, cold, collected, lives under the slogan: “Say the right things, hide your feelings. Don't react to your surroundings."

detached person, whatever you do, whatever you say, is not related to what the interlocutor says or does. He moves away from unpleasant and difficult life situations, tries not to notice anything, not to hear, not to react, but inside he feels “No one cares about me, there is no place for me here”, loneliness and the complete meaninglessness of my existence.

Any of these models of communication, response contributes to the maintenance of low self-esteem, a sense of one's own insignificance. But there is also an effective way to respond. – "balanced, flexible»: this variant of communication is harmonious: the spoken words correspond to the facial expression, posture, intonation, honest and open expression of one's feelings and thoughts. Balanced communication is based on the authenticity of experienced and demonstrated feelings. For example, an accusing type of communication looks completely different, in which a person, feeling helpless, demonstrates anger or hides offense behind bravado.

There are other approaches to considering communication as interaction between people.

The unit of interaction is called a transaction. Eric Berne wrote: “People, being together in the same group, will inevitably talk to each other or show their awareness of the presence of each other. The person to whom the transactional stimulus is addressed will say or do something in response. We call this response a transactional response. A transaction is considered additional if the stimulus leads to the expected response.

Transactional analysis of communication (E. Bern) identifies three main psychological positions: Child, Parent, Adult, which can repeatedly replace one another during the day, or one of them turns out to be predominant in the behavior of a person. From the position of the Child, he looks at the other as if from the bottom up, readily obeys, experiencing the joy of being loved, but, at the same time, a feeling of insecurity, defenselessness. This position, being the main one in childhood, is often found in adults. So, sometimes a young woman in communication with her husband wants to feel like a mischievous girl again, protected from all sorts of adversities. The husband in such situations takes the position of the Parent, demonstrates confidence, patronage, but, at the same time, peremptory, commanding tone. Another time he himself, for example, communicating with his parents, gets into the place of the Child.

When communicating with colleagues, they usually strive to take the position of an Adult, which provides for a calm tone, restraint, solidity, responsibility for one's actions, and equality in communication.

From the position of the Parent, the roles of an old father, an older sister, an attentive spouse, a teacher, a doctor, a boss, a salesman who says “come in tomorrow” are “played”. From the position of the Child - a young specialist, a graduate student-applicant, an artist-favorite of the public. From the position of an Adult - a neighbor, a casual fellow traveler, a colleague who knows his own worth, etc.

The parent position is of two types:

"The Punishing Parent" : points, orders, criticizes, punishes for disobedience and mistakes.

· “Careful Parent”: advises in a mild form, protects, takes care of, helps, supports, sympathizes, regrets, cares, forgives mistakes and insults.

There are also options in the position "Child":

· "obedient";

· "rebellious" ("I don't want to! I won't! Leave me alone! What's it to you? I'll do it the way I want!").

The most successful and effective is the communication of two interlocutors from the position of Adults, two Children can understand each other.

A transaction is a unit of interaction between communication partners, accompanied by setting the positions of each. It can be depicted as an arrow going from the position chosen by one interlocutor to the intended position of another participant in the communication.

Communication between Parent and Adult is dynamic. Either the Adult with his calm, independent, responsible behavior will bring down the arrogance of the Parent, transferring him to an equal Adult position, or the Parent will be able to suppress the interlocutor and put him in the position of a submissive or rebellious Child.

Communication between the Adult and the Child is no less dynamic: either the Adult will be able to induce the Child to take the problem under discussion seriously and responsibly and take the position of the Adult, or the helplessness of the Child will provoke the transition of the interlocutor to the position of the guardian Parent.

Communication between the Parent and the Child is based on the principle of mutual complementation, therefore it is often implemented in communication, although it can be either calm (“obedient Child”) or conflict (“rebellious Child”).

There are disguised types of communication, where its external (social) level does not coincide with the true psychological one, masks it. For example, communication between a seller and a buyer may outwardly be of an equal nature between two Adults, but in fact the dialogue between the seller (“It’s a good thing, but expensive”) and the buyer (“That’s what I’ll take”) remains at the level of relations between the Parent (seller) and the Child (buyer). ).

It is possible to single out various forms of interpersonal interaction: affection, friendship, love, competition, care, pastime, operation, game, social influence, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc. They are characterized by specific positions.

One of the most common forms is ritual interaction, which is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the status of a person in a group and society. The ritual acts as a special form of interaction invented by people to satisfy the need for recognition. In this case, the Parent-Parent relationship dominates. Thanks to such interaction, the value of the group is revealed, people express what affects them most, constitutes their social value orientations.

The English scholar Victor Turner, considering rituals and ceremonies, understands them as prescribed formal behavior, as "a system of beliefs and actions performed by a special cult association." They are important for maintaining continuity between different generations in an organization, for preserving traditions and transferring accumulated experience through symbols.

Ritual interaction is both a kind of holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful tool that maintains stability, strength, continuity of social ties, a mechanism for uniting people, increasing their solidarity. Rituals, rituals, customs are able to be imprinted on the subconscious level, providing deep penetration of certain values into the group and individual consciousness, into the tribal and personal memory.

Mankind has developed many customs: religious rites, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular rites, holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous norms of behavior: receiving guests, greeting acquaintances, addressing strangers, etc.

A ritual is a rigidly fixed sequence of transactions, and they are made from the position of the Parent and addressed to the same, allowing people to feel recognized.

If a person's need for recognition is not realized, then aggressive behavior begins to develop. The ritual is just designed to remove this aggression, to satisfy the need to be recognized at least minimally.

With another type of interaction - operations - the transaction is carried out from the position of "Adult - Adult". We meet with him every day: at work, at school, when we cook food, repair an apartment, etc. Having successfully completed an operation, a person is established in his competence and receives confirmation from others.

Labor interaction, distribution and performance of professional, family functions, skillful and effective implementation of these duties - these are the operations that fill people's lives.

Competition is a form of social interaction when there is a clear goal to be achieved, and all the actions of different people are correlated with this goal in mind so that they do not conflict. At the same time, a person does not come into conflict with himself, adhering to the attitude of another team player, although he has an inherent desire to achieve better results than other team members. Since a person accepts the attitudes of other people and allows him to determine what he will do in accordance with some common goal, to the extent that he becomes an organic member of his group, society, accepting its morality and becoming its significant member.

In a number of cases, being with other people in the same room and performing seemingly joint activities, a person mentally stays in a completely different place, talks with imaginary interlocutors, dreams about his own. This specific interaction is called withdrawal. This is a common and natural form of interaction, but still more often resorted to by people who have problems with interpersonal needs. If a person does not have other forms of interaction other than care, then this is already a pathology - psychosis.

The next type of approved fixed interactions is a pastime that provides at least a minimum of pleasant sensations, signs of attention from partners.

Pastime is a fixed form of transactions designed to satisfy people's need for recognition.

If this form is realized from the positions of Parent-Parent, then most often it is expressed as follows: everything that deviates from the norm is discussed and condemned - (children, women, men, power, television, etc.). Or such is the discussion of the topics “Things” (comparison of cars, televisions, etc. in possession), “Who won yesterday” (football and other sports results), is a pastime for men; “Kitchen”, “Shop”, “Dress”, “Children”, “How much does it cost?”, “Do you know what it is ...” - topics for women. In the process of this, the partners and the prospects for developing relations with them are evaluated.

Sustainable interaction of people can be due to the appearance of mutual sympathy, attraction. Close relationships that provide support and companionship (i.e., we feel loved, approved, and encouraged by friends and loved ones) are associated with feelings of happiness. Studies have shown that such positive relationships improve health, reduce the likelihood of premature death. “Friendship is the strongest antidote for all misfortunes,” said Seneca.

Factors that contribute to the formation of attraction (attachment, sympathy):

The frequency of mutual social contacts, geographical proximity (most people begin to make friends and marry those who live in the neighborhood, study in the same class, work in the same company, i.e. with those who live, study, work nearby; people can partly meet, find similarities in each other, exchange signs of attention). Physical attractiveness (men tend to love women for their appearance, but women also like attractive men - they like beauty).

· The phenomenon of "equal" (people tend to choose their friends and, especially, to marry those who are equal in intellectual level and as attractive as they are). E Fromm wrote: “Love is often nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the parties to the transaction get the most out of what they can count on, taking into account their value in the personality market.” In couples where partners differed according to the degree of his attractiveness, the inferior usually has a compensatory quality. Men offer status on their part, trying to find attractiveness, and women do rather the opposite, so young beauties often marry older men who occupy a high position in society.

The more attractive a person is, the more likely it is to attribute positive qualities to him (this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness: what is beautiful is good). People unconsciously believe that other things being equal, the more beautiful are happier, sexier, more sociable, smarter and luckier, although they are not at all more honest or caring towards other people. People who are attractive have more prestigious jobs and earn more.

· The “contrast effect” negatively affects attraction: for example, men who have just looked at magazine beauties find ordinary women and wives less attractive; after watching pornographic films, sexual satisfaction with a partner decreases.

· “Enhancement effect”: when we find traits similar to ours in someone, this makes the person more attractive to us. The more two people love each other, the more physically attractive they find each other and the less attractive all other people of the opposite sex seem to them.

· The similarity of social origin, the similarity of interests, views is important for establishing relationships (“we love those who are like us and do the same as we do,” Aristotle pointed out).

· For their continuation, mutual complementation, competence in a field close to our interests is necessary.

We like those who like us.

If a person's self-esteem has been hurt in some previous situation, then they will like a new acquaintance who kindly pays attention to him (this helps to explain why sometimes people fall so passionately in love after they were previously rejected by another, thereby affecting them) pride).

Reward theory of attractiveness: according to it, we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate events that are beneficial to us.

· The principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: what you and your partner receive from your relationship should be proportional to what each of you invests in it.

If two or more people have a lot in common, a closeness factor is formed. With the strengthening of relationships, when people do something nice for each other, sympathy is formed. When they mutually discover dignity and recognize the right for themselves and others to be as they are, respect is formed.

Forms of interaction such as friendship and love satisfy people's need for acceptance. They look like a pastime, but in these cases the partner is fixed, and sympathy arises towards him. Friendship includes sympathy and respect, love differs from it in an enhanced sexual component, i.e. it equals: sexual attraction + sympathy + respect. In the case of falling in love, there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy.

These forms of interaction differ from all others in that they necessarily contain hidden transactions “Child - Child”, expressing mutual recognition and sympathy. People can discuss any problems they want, even at a completely adult and serious level, but in their every word and gesture will be read: "I like you." Some features are characteristic of all friendships and love attachments: mutual understanding, self-giving, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (discovery of innermost thoughts and experiences in front of another person). “What is a friend? This is a person with whom you dare to be yourself,” said F. Crane.

2.6. Social influence: suggestion, conformism, non-conformity

social impact- a form of interpersonal interaction, as a result of which a person's repeated response to a problem is closer to the answer of another person than to his own initial response. Thus, the behavior of one person becomes similar to the behavior of other people.

The mechanisms that implement social influence are: conformism, non-conformism and suggestion.

Suggestion (suggestibility)- involuntary compliance of a person with the opinion of other persons or groups, when he himself does not notice how his views, behavior have changed, this happens by itself.

conformism- conscious compliance of a person with the opinion of the majority of the group in order to avoid conflict with it. In adolescence, youthful age, conformity is the highest, then it decreases, after 25 years it remains for each person at a constant individual level, and in women, conformity is higher than in men. There are: a) internal personal conformity (assimilable conformal reaction) - the person's opinion really changes under the influence of the group, the person agrees; b) demonstrative agreement with the group for various reasons (most often to avoid conflicts).

Studies have shown that suggestibility and conformity are inherent in every person from childhood to the end of life, but the degree of their severity is influenced by age, gender, profession, group composition, etc. Under the influence of what factors does a person yield to a group?

1) First of all, the characteristics of the person himself influence: in adolescence, adolescence, conformity is the highest, then it decreases, after 25 years it remains at a stable level for everyone, and in women it is higher than in men, but by the way not always. If the problem under discussion belongs to the category of predominantly female activities, then women do not yield, and men become more conformal. The level of conformity also depends on the professional activity of a person. So, it is high among musicians from the orchestra (70%), and among the military it is higher than among engineers.

Influenced by the characteristics of the problem itself , stimulus material: the more complex, ambivalent it is, the more conformity is manifested. Categorical, qualitative incentives (rather than quantitative characteristics of incentives) increase the ability to resist group pressure.

Influence the scale of the group . At first, it was assumed that its increase leads to an increase in conformity, but it turned out that the dependence is not straightforward, but exponential: when another person joins the majority, the "naive" subject's conformity increases, but to a lesser extent than when previous person. Conformity increases with the increase in the group only up to a certain limit (3 - 5 - 7 people), after which it does not grow, and even then only in the case when all members of the group are perceived by the person as independent of each other, i.e. it is affected by the number perceived independent sources of information. The degree of agreement of the majority also influences. Thus, when the unity of group opinion is destroyed, a person more boldly resists its pressure.

The relationship between the person and the group is influenced (for example, when people worked for a joint remuneration and it was necessary to make a common decision, conformity increased). The higher the degree of commitment of a person to a group, the more often conformity is manifested. But there is an exception to this rule: the question is, does the person seek acceptance from the group? If he wants this, then he more often concedes to the group, and vice versa: if he does not value it, then he more boldly resists pressure. Individuals with a higher status in the group (leaders) are able to resist its opinion quite strongly, because leadership is associated with some deviations from group patterns. Individuals with an average status are most susceptible to their pressure; persons from polar categories are more able to resist group pressure.

What is the reason for conformity? From the point of view of the informational approach (Leon Festinger), a modern person cannot verify all the information that comes to him, and therefore relies on the opinions of other people when it is shared by many. A person succumbs to group pressure because he wants to have a more accurate image of reality (the majority cannot be wrong). From the point of view of the “normative influence” hypothesis, he does this because he wants to have some of the benefits of membership in the group, avoid conflicts and sanctions for deviating from the accepted norm, and support his further interaction with the group.

Excessive conformism is a psychologically detrimental phenomenon. Then a person, like a "weather vane", follows the group opinion, not having his own views, acting as a puppet in the hands of others, or realizes himself as a hypocritical opportunist, able to repeatedly change behavior and outwardly expressed beliefs in accordance with "where the wind blows, for the sake of "the mighty of this world." According to Western psychologists, many Soviet people are shaped in the direction of such heightened conformity.

Nonconformism- a person's refutation of the opinion of the majority, the protest of submission, the apparent independence of the individual from the opinion of the group, although in fact here the point of view of the majority is the basis for human behavior. Therefore, the behavior of a nonconformist is just as easy to control as the behavior of a conformist.

The opposite of conformism and nonconformism is self-determination - a person's selective attitude towards the influences of his own group, which are accepted or rejected depending on whether they correspond to the person's beliefs.

According to psychological characteristics, there are:

1) membership groups;

2) reference groups(reference), the norms and rules of which serve as a model for the individual. Reference groups may be real or imagined, positive or negative, may or may not coincide with membership, but they are a source of positive and negative patterns, as well as norms, rules that a person seeks to join.

What determines the relationship between the individual and the community? On the one hand, the stability of existence in the group leads to kunification, assimilation, similarity of individuals included there, i.e., the group has an inherent desire for homeostasis, for balancing its components. On the other hand, each member of the group can be considered as a source of transformation of the opinions of other members of the group, i.e., the minority can also influence the majority, since not only the individual adapts to the social environment, but vice versa: he adapts the environment to his views.

Under what conditions can minorities transform the position of the majority? By themselves, they are different:

· minority, whose position does not differ essentially from the majority, but is only more radical;

The position of the minority is opposed to the position of the majority.

For a minority to convert the opinion of the majority , it is necessary, firstly, that the minority be accepted in the group, enter into its composition, and not be rejected, expelled. Secondly, to be able to express one's position quite openly. In this case, the following dynamics of intra-group influences occurs: at first, the majority gets the feeling that “they” (the minority) are “abnormal”, and then doubts arise that are addressed to the problem itself, the stimulus itself. Then doubt arises: “Maybe there are reasons, external objective reasons that make “them” say “not that”?

This is how the stage of doubts in one's own position arises, i.e., the revision of one's abilities to adequately determine the correct answer. It is this social and cognitive conflict that gives rise to a revision of the opinion of the majority in the case when there is no real life confirmation of the correctness of its positions. If additional information is received about the partial incorrectness of the position of the majority, the process of reconsidering opinions, their preponderance to the side of the minority, is faster. At the same time, it is not even necessary that the correctness of the position of the second one be confirmed by weighty real arguments. If the "minority" receives official power or the opportunity to widely propagate their opinions, the process of transformation, change, revision of the position of the majority occurs more intensively. If the minority is expelled from the group or deprived of the opportunity to express their point of view, the group opinion of the majority remains dominant for a long time.

A common form of social influence is obedience, submission to authority , exposure of a person to the influence of a person with a higher social status. If we exclude the risk factor of getting into trouble, social punishment when disobeying a person with a higher status (in this case, for the purpose of self-defense, a person seeks to minimize trouble and punishment for himself by choosing a subordination strategy), then we should ask ourselves: what other factors can strengthen this tendency to obey ?

In the experiments of the American psychologist Stanley Milgram, the subjects in the role of "teachers" punished the "students" - victims with current, and 66% of the subjects continued to take part in the experiment even with severe pain, fainting of the "victim". Why didn't they give up the experiment?

During interactions, a person experiences two types of states:

autonomous state of the individual, a sense of personal responsibility for everything that happens around;

a person presents himself as occupying a certain step in the hierarchical ladder, included in the hierarchical system, and therefore believes that the individual who is at a higher level of this hierarchy is responsible for his behavior - this is the phenomenon of diffusion of responsibility, or attribution of responsibility , attributing it to another person, and not to oneself.

So in this experiment, many subjects perceived the experimenter as a person who has a higher status, and, therefore, it is this person who is responsible for everything that happens. Such an internal position leads to uncritical, unconditional submission to the authority of persons occupying a higher social position, even if their instructions contradict the requirements of the law, morality, and even the very views and attitudes of a particular person.

AGGLUTINATION (from Latin agglutinare - stick) - bonding of bacteria, erythrocytes as a result of the interaction of antibodies with antigens

Acceptance and non-acceptance forms of monetary settlements. Tax status of legal entities

Among the various forms of interpersonal interaction, one can distinguish such as attachment, friendship, love, competition, care, pastime, operation, game, social influence, submission, conflict, ritual interaction, etc.

* One of the most common forms is ritual interaction, which is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the status of a person in a group and society. The ritual acts as a special form of interaction invented by people to satisfy the need for recognition. The ritual reveals the values of the group: people express through ritual what touches them most; what constitutes their social value orientations.

Throughout its history, mankind has developed a huge variety of rituals: religious rites, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular rites, including holidays and funerals. Numerous norms of behavior also belong to rituals: receiving guests, greeting acquaintances, addressing strangers, etc.

* Operation - a type of interaction in which communication is carried out from the position of "Adult - Adult". We encounter operations every day: at work, at school, in almost any kind of creative activity. Having successfully completed the operation, a person confirms his competence and receives confirmation from others. Labor interaction, distribution and performance of professional, family functions, skillful and efficient implementation of these duties - these are the operations that fill people's lives.

* Competition is a form of social interaction when there is a clearly defined goal that must be achieved, and all the actions of different people are correlated with each other, taking into account this goal. At the same time, a person has an inherent desire to achieve better results than other team members.

* In some cases, a person, being with other people in the same room and performing seemingly joint activities, mentally stays in a completely different place, talks with imaginary interlocutors, dreams about his own. This specific interaction is called withdrawal.

* Pastime - the next type of approved fixed interactions, providing at least a minimum of pleasant sensations, signs of attention, "strokes" between interacting people. Pastime - fixed form transactions(interaction units) designed to satisfy people's need for recognition. The most common pastime topic is "Things" (comparison of cars, televisions, etc. in possession). Men's pastime is more often on the topic "Who won yesterday" (football and other sports results). Predominantly female themes - "Kitchen", "Shop", "Dress", "Children", "How much does it cost?" and so on.

* Friendship and love as forms of interaction satisfy people's need for acceptance. Friendship includes a factor of sympathy and respect. Love differs from friendship in an enhanced sexual component, i.e. love = sexual attraction + liking + respect. In the case of falling in love, there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy.

These forms of interaction differ from all others in that they necessarily contain hidden transactions of the "Child-Child" type, expressing mutual recognition and sympathy. Some features are characteristic of all friendships and love attachments: mutual understanding, self-giving, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (discovery of innermost thoughts and experiences in front of another person).

* Game, manipulation - another type of interaction between people. Games are a stereotyped series of interactions leading to a predictable, predetermined outcome. This is a series of manipulations that are designed to change the behavior of another person in the direction necessary for the initiator of the interaction, without taking into account the desires of the second participant in the transaction. Each game begins with a "bait" that the active participant, the initiator, offers to the passive participant, taking into account the peculiarities of his character, his "weakness". This is followed by a series of double transactions, which invariably lead to a pre-planned result. In order to get out of the game and not become a victim of other people's manipulations, it is important to turn double transactions into open, direct ones, since the game is possible only if there is a hidden subtext in words, transactions.

The concept of a team.

The highest form of an organized group is a collective, but not every externally and internally organized group becomes a collective. A group organized only by internal goals that do not go beyond its scope refers to corporations that are hostile to each other (gangs of thieves, religious communities, groups of businessmen).

A team (from lat. collectivus - collective) is a group, a set of people working in one organization, at one enterprise, united by joint activities within an organization.

The group can act as a managing, controlled or self-governing structure with varying degrees of cohesion of its members - from an unorganized crowd to a single team. To be considered a collective, a group must satisfy several criteria, the main of which can be considered the presence of a common goal for all its members. The latter can be formed as a result of the mutual influence of their individual goals or be set from the outside in accordance with the mission of the organization, but it will always be joint, the same for everyone, and not just the same, similar.

Another sign of the collective is the psychological recognition by the members of the group of each other and identification with it, which is based on common interests, ideals, principles, similarity or mutual complementarity of characters, temperaments, etc., although these points should not be overestimated.

Such psychological recognition makes possible the constant practical interaction of people, as a result of which the potential of the team turns out to be significantly greater than the sum of the potentials of each of its members.

Firstly, interaction makes it possible to overcome the limitations of the physical and intellectual abilities of each individual.

Secondly, on its basis, it is possible to perform a much larger amount of ordinary work due to the division and specialization of labor and the emergence, against the will of the participants, of the spirit of competition, which mobilizes hidden reserves and significantly increases the intensity of activity.

Thirdly, conditions are created for the successful solution of problems where, for one reason or another, it is impossible to distribute responsibilities between individual members of the group.

The fourth sign of the team can be considered the presence of a certain culture, expressed in common values, symbols, norms and rules of behavior in the team, entry or exit from it, requirements for the physical and moral appearance of its members. Each team has a tendency to idealize the past, present its history in the most favorable light, and maintain traditions. This forms a complex of ideas about one's own superiority even in some narrow area, gives it additional strength, stability, cohesion, and prevents disorganization.

The team plays a huge role in the life of every person, which is difficult to overestimate. First of all, it satisfies the natural need of people for communication and business interaction, for belonging to a group of their own kind; in the collective, a person, in necessary cases, acquires support and protection; in his team, he first of all finds recognition of success and achievements. At the same time, along with the desire to be in a team, people want to be different from others, to remain as they are individuals worthy of respect.

By influencing the behavior of people, the team largely contributes to its change. Here a person has the opportunity to take a fresh look at himself from the outside, evaluate himself and his role in society. The team changes a person, as he has to learn to live and work surrounded by other people, to adapt his desires, aspirations, interests to them. The team to a large extent stimulates the creative activity of most people, awakens in them the desire for improvement, for superiority in the competition.

Method of sociometry.

To study the informal structure of a small group, the sociometry method proposed by D. Moreno is most often used. The main characteristics of the informal structure of a small group, identified using sociometry, are:

sociometric status of group members, i.e. the position they occupy in the system of interpersonal preferences and deviations;

characteristics of mutual preferences and deviations;

the presence of microgroups, whose members are connected by relations of mutual preferences, and the nature of the relationship between them;

the relative number of mutual preferences (the so-called sociometric group cohesion).

Sociometry is a theory of measuring interpersonal relationships, authored by the American psychiatrist and social psychologist J. Moreno. Less commonly, sociometry is a technique for studying intra-group relationships and hierarchy in small groups.

An example of a simple differentiated sociogram

One of Moreno's innovations is the so-called sociogram. This is a diagram that consists of several concentric circles. Each of the circles corresponds to the number of preferences in this group (the closer to the center, the more preferences). Preferences are identified through surveys or other research. The most popular member of the group (or several members) is placed in the center, then the less popular ones, in descending order, up to the outcasts (the outermost circle). Lines with arrows are drawn between individuals, indicating mutual or one-sided sympathy or antipathy. Repeated measurements carried out in the same group, allow you to explore the dynamics of relationships.

A modified version of sociometry can also be applied to the study of larger groups, such as organizations or population groups.

The problem of interaction is the subject of study of such sciences as sociology, psychology and social psychology.

The famous American sociologist N. Smelser very briefly defined social interaction How process, in which people act and react to the actions of others x.

Simple and understandable at the level of everyday consciousness, social interaction loses its simplicity at the level of theoretical understanding of its essence, which is reflected in various concepts of social interaction.

For the practice of business communication, transactional analysis is of considerable interest, which was originally developed by the American psychologist E. Burn for psychotherapeutic purposes, but then found wider application.

One of the possible ways of understanding communication, which makes it possible to see the meaning and content of words, one's own actions and the actions of a partner, is the perception of the position of partners, as well as their positions relative to each other. In any conversation, conversation, public communication, the relative status of the partners is of great importance: who is the leader in this situation and who is the follower.

The approach to analyzing the situation of communication from the positions taken by partners is developing in line with transactional analysis, the main provisions of which are as follows:

1. The interaction of people depends on the psychological positions they take in the process of communication.
2. A person in a given situation of interaction can take the position of an Adult, Parent or Child.
3. Various forms of human interaction are characterized by specific positions of the participants.

In E. Bern's concept of interaction, the main concepts are states I And transactions, i.e. units of communication.

Psychologists' observation of people's activities showed that sets of behavioral characteristics (postures, voice intonations, speech themes, gestures, facial expressions, colloquial vocabulary, etc.) change in different situations. For example, the characteristics of a person's behavior in situations of interaction with colleagues, a manager, a spouse, a child, etc. will be different. A change in behavior is accompanied by a change in emotional state. There is a direct connection between the scheme of human behavior and the state of his psyche, which allowed E. Berne to single out typical states of consciousness.

State I determined by him like a sense system, expressed in a pattern of behavior consistent with it. E. Bury divided the repertoire of these states into the following categories

1) states of the Self, similar to the images of parents or to the images of people significant for a person who replaced their parents. A person keeps in his mind a set of perceived by him states of the I of his parents, activated in some circumstances. On the basis of identification, a person first adopts from parents or other significant people value system, consisting of ethical categories, which become the basis of conscience. In addition to the ethical system of values in the state of the parental self (also formed thanks to the school, means of mass

owl information) other values are preserved: ideological, political. In addition, they also take over prejudice. In the parent I are laid and social norms, which indicate how to and how not to behave;

2) states of the I, aimed at an objective assessment of reality. All normal people are capable of objective processing of information when the corresponding states of their I are activated;
3) states of the ego, still active from the moment of their fixation in early childhood. Each person carries within himself the impressions of his childhood, activated under certain conditions.

In the terminology of transactional analysis, these states of the Self are referred to as the state I am a parent (Parent), state I-Adult (Adult) and state I am baby or Child.

The state of the Parent Self can manifest itself in two ways: as critical and as nursing-caring. The state of the I-child also manifests itself in various forms - as free, adaptive and rebellious behavior. The state of I-Parent, Adult and Child are normal psychological phenomena. Each type of state is important for a person in its own way. A child is a source of joy, intuition, creativity, spontaneous impulses. Thanks to the Parent, many of our reactions have long become automatic, which helps save a lot of time and energy. An adult processes information and takes into account the possibilities of effective interaction with the outside world. The Adult also controls the actions of the Parent and the Child and mediates between them.

Internal mental processes that characterize the current state of a person's I are expressed in external behavior, by which one can determine the state of his consciousness. The table below highlights the behavioral characteristics of Parent, Adult, and Child (Table 2).

table 2

The main characteristics of the positions of the Parent, Adult, Child

Parent		Recognition of the states of I-Parent
Parent		critical	Nursing-caring
	General behavior	Evaluative, ironic, censuring, showing, authoritarian, forbidding, commanding	kind, encouraging, concerned, sympathetic, protective, advising, helping
	wording	“You must, you must not”, “This should be done, this should not be done”, “How can you!”, “I will not allow you to treat me like that!” and etc.	“Calm down”, “I can understand you”, “Better not to do this”, “Be careful”, “Don’t rack your brains”, etc.
	speak	Firmly, arrogantly, sarcastically, sharply, mockingly, ironically, cynically	Warm, soothing, sympathetic

Adult		Recognition of states of the Self-Adult
	General behavior	Business-like, objectively, without emotions, independently, thinking, collecting and processing information
	Speech formulations	“Possibly”, “Probably”, “In my opinion”, “I think”, “I suppose”, etc. Questions begin with the words: “how”, “why”, “who”, “what”, “when”
	manner of speaking	Confident (without arrogance), clear and precise, calm, without passions and emotions, neutral
	Facial expression	Frequent change of facial expression in accordance with the situation, the face is turned to the partner, attentive, relaxed
	Gestures and body position	Gestures reinforce what is being said, upper torso slightly leaning forward (expression of interest)

	Recognition of the states of the I-Child
	free	Adaptable	rebellious
behavior	Spontaneous, playful, cunning, malevolent, liberated, lethargic, open, natural	Cautious, timid, helpless, submissive, insecure, reserved, resentful	Capricious, wayward, obstinate, rude, aggressive, hostile
wording	"I want", "Great!", “So you need it!”, “Wonderful!”, “I would really like to”	"I just wanted to...", "Why is it always me?", "I'll try", "Did I do the right thing?", "I can't do it"	“I don’t want this”, “Leave me alone!”, “Damn!”
speak	Mostly loud, fast and hot, choking, sad	Quiet, hesitant, whiny, depressed, obsequious, tedious, fastidious	Angry, loud, stubborn, sullen
Facial expression	Encouraged, Excited, Dazed, Cunning, Sly, Curious, Sad, Excited	Nervous, lost, tactful, agreeing	Rigid, stubborn, absent

The graphical state I is depicted as follows (Fig. 7):

Rice. 7

E. Berne's model of three states of I manifests itself in three versions: for each person, one of the states of I is the most significant and dominates over the other two states.

The positions of partners in communication are determined by their states of self that interact at a given moment of communication. This scheme has found application in the development of recommendations on the psychology and technique of business communication. It is used by W. Siegert and L. Lang in their work “Lead without Conflicts”, as well as in the book “The Art of Communication” by R. Schmidt, in which business communication is considered from the standpoint of transactional analysis.

Transaction, by the definition of E. Bern, is a unit of communication, consisting of a stimulus (C) and a response (R) between two states of consciousness. Verbal communication in a transaction is accompanied by non-verbal communication, expressed in a look, intonation, handshake, etc.

E. Bern distinguishes three forms of transactions - additional, intersecting and hidden. Each of these forms has its own rules of communication.

1. Additional transactions also called parallel, are carried out between any two states of the I of the interlocutors, and the reaction of a person is directly related to the state that was affected by the communication partner (Fig. 8).

Communication rule: additional transactions may take a long time. Long-term communication is not in all cases effective.

2. Feature overlapping transactions is that the reaction of the interlocutor does not come from that state of the I, on which the impact was directed. Crossed transactions impede the flow of the conversation.

Rice. 8

Partners in crossed transactions say past each other (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9

Communication rule: after an intersecting transaction, the communication is temporarily destroyed.

3. The most difficult are hidden transactions, since in them interaction is carried out at once at two levels - social and psychological. At the social level, one thing is pronounced, and at the psychological level, another is meant, and the partners understand this very well and react not to the social, but to the psychological level (Fig. 10).

Rice. 10

Everyone is familiar with the situation when someone is late, and the person waiting for him asks: “Do you know what time it is already?” In most cases, the answer is an apology. It is clear that an automatic response to the psychological stimulus follows: "Explain to me why you are late?" One can imagine how surprised the questioner would be if he heard in response: “It is now 10 hours and 44 minutes.”

Communication rule: with hidden transactions, communication occurs at a hidden psychological level.

R. Schmidt's work "The Art of Communication" provides practical advice on mastering the art of transactional analysis.

There are no good or bad forms of transactions. Each of them has its positive and negative aspects.

The form of the transaction must be chosen in relation to the situation, in different situations it is necessary to respond flexibly.

In order to change your communication partner, you need to change your behavior. In response, the reaction of the partner will change, although it is possible that not on the first try.

One should try to avoid hidden transactions that are accompanied by criticism or dissatisfaction. Criticisms should be expressed directly, but in any case in a polite manner, which will allow an open relationship to be established.

It is desirable to use hidden transactions, in which there are relations “I like you”, “I like talking or working with you”, etc. at a hidden level.

In many cases, parallel transactions make sense.

Cross-transactions are useful if they are used consciously and according to the circumstances.

Using the basics of transactional analysis significantly improves the practice of business communication, as it helps to consciously control one's mental states, as well as to understand the states of a communication partner and find ways to optimize interaction with him.

See: Smelser II. Sociology. M.: Phoenix, 1998.
Bern E. Games that people play: Per. from English. L.: Lenizdat, 1992.