After the death of Alexander in Babylon, his feeble-minded brother (the illegitimate son of Philip II) and the newborn son of Alexander himself, a baby declared by Alexander IV, were proclaimed kings of the entire empire. Since both kings were not capable of governing, the council of Macedonian military leaders elected an experienced associate of Philip II and Alexander, a representative of the old Macedonian nobility Perdiccas (323 BC), as regent-ruler under them. Other military leaders received control of various parts of Alexander's power, where they departed with their troops. In 321 BC. e. At a meeting in Triparadis (Syria), the diadochi concluded an agreement on the distribution of spheres of influence and satrapies. Egypt was assigned to Ptolemy Lagos, Macedonia and Greece became the sphere of interests of Antipater and his son Cassander, Antigonus One-Eyed was declared the strategist-autocrat of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia was transferred to Seleucus, Thrace, the Propontis region, part of Asia Minor became the zone of influence of Lysimachus. However, the idea of ​​Alexander's unified empire was still alive: the rulers of individual regions were considered as satraps of one state entity. The bearers and fighters for the idea of ​​a single empire and loyalty to the dynasty of Philip and Alexander were Antigonus One-Eyed and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes. They managed to subordinate to their influence a significant part of Alexander's power - all of Asia Minor, Syria, Babylonia, Media, Perede. The strengthening of the influence of Antigonus One-Eyed led to the fact that all the other diadochi, led by Ptolemy Lagus, formed a coalition against him. A temporary balance of power emerged, secured by a new treaty, which reaffirmed the rights of the diadochi to the possessions they had seized (311 BC). In the same year, with the consent of all the diadochi, the nominal kings of the state were killed: the feeble-minded Philip III Arrhidaeus and 12-year-old Alexander IV. Now each diadokh thought about consolidating power for himself and his descendants in one or another part of Alexander’s empire. The fierce struggle for the inheritance of Alexander the Great ended with the fact that in 306 BC. e. the largest diadochi (Antigonus One-Eyed, Demetrius Poliorcetes, Ptolemy Lagus, Lysimachus, Seleucus, Cassander) declared themselves kings, thereby openly expressing their desire to create their own states on the ruins of Alexander’s world empire. True, Antigonus One-Eye and Demetrius Poliorcetes tried for the last time to unite the disintegrating world state of Alexander, but this attempt ended in complete failure. In 301 BC. e. In the bloody Battle of Ipsus in central Asia Minor, a powerful coalition of the armies of Seleucus, Cassander, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, who supported them, won a complete victory over Antigonus One-Eye. Antigonus himself died in battle, and his son Demetrius was soon captured by Seleucus. The last outbreak of internecine struggle between the diadochi dates back to 281 BC. e. At the Battle of Kurupedion, the army of Seleucus defeated the troops of Lysimachus, and the latter's possessions were divided among other Hellenistic rulers.

Kingdom of the Seleucids. The largest of the Hellenistic states was the Seleucid kingdom, which at the time of its heyday covered most of the territories that had previously been part of the empire of Alexander the Great. It extended from the Aegean Sea in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east and included the southern part of Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Iran, the southern regions of Central Asia, and most of Afghanistan. The creator of this huge state was Seleucus, one of the bodyguards of Alexander the Great. According to the decision of the meeting of the Diadochi in Triparadis (321 BC), he received control of Babylonia. Over the course of several years, he managed to ingratiate himself with the upper strata of the population of the Babylonian cities. When Seleucus was expelled from his satrapy by Antigonus One-Eyed, he managed to recapture it with an insignificant detachment of warriors given to him by Ptolemy (600 or even 300 horsemen, according to sources). This turned out to be possible thanks to the support of the cities of Babylonia, which welcomed Seleucus as a liberator. Showing extraordinary diplomatic skill, Seleucus managed to avoid a collision with Chandragupta, the creator of the Mauryan state. Having ceded the eastern outskirts of the power of Alexander the Great, which did not belong to him, he received in return 500 war elephants, which sharply increased the combat effectiveness of his troops. Having strengthened power in the East, creating a strong army, seasoned in constant campaigns, Seleucus could now intervene in “big politics”. His army played a decisive role in the defeat of Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus (301 BC). As a result, Seleucus captured Northern Syria and gained access to the Mediterranean Sea. Seleucus's last great success was the defeat of the army of Lysimachus (281 BC) at the Battle of Kouropedion (Lydia). Having captured Asia Minor thanks to this victory, Seleucus decided that he would be able to accomplish what his rivals had unsuccessfully strived for for decades - to unite most of Alexander’s power under his rule. He moved the army to Macedonia. However, at the moment of greatest success, Seleucus was treacherously killed by Ptolemy Keraunus (one of the sons of Ptolemy I). Seleucus' son Antiochus I managed with great difficulty to cope with the crisis that broke out and gain a foothold on the throne. Antiochus abandoned hopes of expanding the state (through the conquest of Macedonia and Greece) and devoted all his efforts to its consolidation. Under Seleucus and Antiochus I (281-261 BC), the main directions of the policy of the Seleucid state were formed for many decades. The Seleucids were forced to pursue an active foreign policy in three regions: southern Syria, Asia Minor and the east. In southern Syria, the Seleucids waged an almost continuous struggle with the Ptolemies. Each state sought to bring under its control this important area, where many trade routes ended and where prosperous port cities were located. Here was the main theater of the so-called Syrian wars, that is, frequent military clashes between the Seleucids and Ptolemies. The old Greek cities of Asia Minor continued to play an important role, over which both the Ptolemies and the Seleucids also fought for power. In the north of this region, a number of independent states arose (Pergamum, Bithynia, Cappadocia, Pontus), relations with which the Seleucids always had very complex relations. The Galatians (Celts) were a particularly great threat to the Seleucids. Three warlike Celtic tribes that migrated from the Balkan Peninsula to Asia Minor and settled in the areas north of Phrygia (the independent region of Galatia arose here) constantly harassed the Seleucids. In the east, particularly in Central Asia, the complexity of the situation was determined, firstly, by the remoteness of this region, the difficulty of communications with it, and secondly, by the presence of a constant threat from nomads located along the borders of the Seleucid state. In the 3rd century. BC e. movements of nomadic tribes began, which increased tension on the borders. The internal political problems of the Seleucid state were no less complex. It covered a vast territory, a large number of societies differing in the level of socio-economic development and the nature of the political organization of societies, which made the task of maintaining unity in the state extremely difficult. Another important feature of this state formation was that it arose as a result of the conquest of the East by the Macedonians and Greeks. Therefore, the main function of the state was to ensure the exploitation of conquered peoples by the conquerors. Due to these circumstances, the structure of the Seleucid state was determined by the main social divide: the ruling class were mainly conquerors, the exploited masses were mainly the conquered population of the East.

The head of state was the king. His power was, in essence, absolute. He was the supreme head of the civil administration, the commander-in-chief of the army, the supreme judge and even the source of law. The power of the kings of the Seleucid dynasty had the following legal grounds: 1) the right of conquest (in antiquity it was considered the most important of the legal grounds); 2) inheritance of power from father to son. The Seleucid kings were deified. There are two forms of deification. The old Greek cities that became part of the state made “voluntary” decisions to recognize the king as a god in gratitude for various benefits. In the rest of the state, the royal cult was introduced through administrative measures. Since the time of Antiochus III, the king's wife was also deified. In the Seleucid state there was a fairly developed bureaucratic system, which, however, did not reach the same scale as in the Ptolemaic kingdom. The enormous size of the state did not allow for comprehensive administrative control. A number of local political entities (individual tribes, Greek city-states, temple communities, local dynasts) enjoyed a certain autonomy in internal affairs.

The highest dignitaries of the state were the “in charge of affairs,” the head of the royal office and the financial controller, responsible for collecting taxes, etc. The territory of the Seleucid kingdom was divided into satrapies. According to Appian, there were 72 of them. The size of the satrapies was much smaller than in the Achaemenid state and the power of Alexander. The satrapies, in turn, were divided into dioceses, and the latter into hyparchy. The satrap (since the administrative reform of Antiochus III - strategos) had both civil and military power. The financial department was independent, and its officials were not subordinate to the satrap. Due to the enormous size of the state, which hampered the efficiency of administration, special governorships were sometimes created, consisting of several satrapies. The governors enjoyed enormous power, sometimes they even had the rights of co-ruler and the title of king. For a long time there was an eastern governorship (the so-called “upper satrapies”), the center of which was the city of Selevkin on the Tigris. Sometimes all Seleucid possessions in Asia Minor were also united under the rule of one ruler. The center of Seleucid Asia Minor was the city of Sardis. The creation of large governorships also had some negative consequences. The governors, who possessed enormous power, sometimes showed distinct separatist tendencies.

To pursue an active foreign policy and ensure internal security, the Seleucid state naturally needed a powerful army. Its dimensions were very large. The basis of the army was made up of Macedonians and Greeks who lived on the territory of the state in military colonies (kathoikia) and city-states. Mercenaries, unlike Ptolemaic Egypt, played a minor role in the Seleucid army. As a rule, they were not included in the regular army; they were involved only occasionally. The fleet in the Seleucid state played a less significant role. Its main base was Seleucia in Pieria, which covered the capital of the state - Antioch on the Orontes - from the sea.

Ptolemaic Egypt. One of the largest and typical Hellenistic states was Egypt, ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty, descendants of one of the closest military leaders of Alexander the Great, a representative of the noble Macedonian family Ptolemy Lagus (323-283 BC). In the 3rd century. BC e. it included Egypt proper in its traditional borders from the first cataract of the Nile to the Mediterranean Sea, adjacent Ethiopia to the south (ancient Nubia) and Cyrenaica (ancient Libya) to the west. In addition to these African territories, the Kingdom of Egypt included Sinai, Palestine, Phenicia, Southern Syria (usually called Kelesyria), i.e., a significant part of the Eastern Mediterranean. The coastal regions of the southern, southwestern and western parts of Asia Minor (Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia, Caria, Ionia), and the island of Cyprus belonged to the Ptolemaic kingdom. The Ptolemies exercised control over the unification of the Cycladic islands of the Aegean Sea (the so-called League of Islands), over the territories adjacent to the Hellespont, the coastal regions of Thrace and Troas, which allowed them to control the Black Sea straits and the most important sea route from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Egypt owned some of the fortresses it built in Crete, extra-Egyptian possessions. This duality of the territorial structure gave rise to deep dualism in both the socio-economic and administrative policies of the Ptolemaic state. The Ptolemies pursued one policy - in the Nile Valley. The capital of the Egyptian Empire in the Hellenistic era was the city of Alexandria, founded in 332 BC. e. Alexander, which became the largest in the Hellenistic world under the Ptolemies, survived antiquity and the Middle Ages and still retains its significance. The Ptolemaic state was the same complex, fragile conglomerate of countries, peoples and tribes as other Hellenistic states were. The core of the Egyptian state, its indigenous territory, was Egypt itself within its traditional borders. It was here that the luxurious capital, the residence of the king and the central state apparatus were located. The main military contingents, stocks of weapons, equipment, and state finances were concentrated here. In Egypt, as well as in many Hellenistic states, a form of monarchy was established that can be defined as a Hellenistic monarchy, combining both elements of eastern despotism and some institutions of the polis system and the Macedonian primitive monarchy. The Ptolemies preserved all the features of the ancient Egyptian state. Kings, as in Ancient Egypt during the time of the pharaohs, were deified and considered unlimited bearers of power and the source of law. The king was the supreme owner of all the land and the sole manager of all wealth. The Ptolemies not only preserved the traditional state apparatus, but also significantly expanded it. The king's inner circle consisted of his relatives and friends, who were divided into ranks and who in reality were not his relatives and friends, but court officials. From among them, the heads of the central departments in charge of managing the relevant industries and senior military commanders were appointed. The financial department, consisting of many officials of various profiles, headed by the supreme treasurer (dioiket), acquired particular importance. Almost all the top positions in the central government were filled by Greeks and Macedonians. A staff of regional officials was in charge of the life of the nomes into which Egypt was divided. The nome was headed by a strategist, who exercised military-political power, and a nomarch, who was in charge of civil affairs. An important place in the regional administration was occupied by the manager of the new finances - the economist - and the royal literate (scribe), who were the closest assistants to the strategist and nomarch. Nomes, in turn, were divided into tops (districts) and comas (villages) - lower administrative units. The leadership of the tops and committees was carried out by lower-ranking officials, who in their actions were guided by the instructions of higher authorities. In three cities of the Greek type - Alexandria, Naucratis and Ptolemais - there were some elected bodies of government, which was considered an important privilege in the despotic state of the Ptolemies. The administration of the extra-Egyptian territories was organized on a different basis; here the Ptolemies limited themselves to sending their commissioner, who controlled local government bodies.

The main opponents of the Ptolemies were primarily the Seleucids, who laid claim to Southern Syria and a number of territories in Asia Minor, and Macedonia, with which the Ptolemies conflicted over Balkan Greece and the straits. The struggle of the Ptolemies with the Seleucid power for Southern Syria and other regions was carried out with varying success throughout the 3rd century. BC e. and resulted in five Syrian wars. The Ptolemies achieved their greatest successes in the fight against the Seleucids during the Third Syrian War (245-243 BC). Egyptian troops led by Ptolemy III Euergetes overthrew the Seleucid army and occupied all of Phenicia and Syria, including the Seleucid capital Antioch on the Orontes. Ptolemy III advanced into Mesopotamia and captured its northern regions. However, Ptolemy III Euergetus (246-221 BC) failed to retain the captured possessions. Military operations successfully developed against one of the successful Seleucid rulers, the famous Antiochus III the Great, during the IV Syrian Doina (219-217 BC). In the fierce Battle of Raphia (217 BC) in Southern Palestine near Gaza, Egyptian forces managed to defeat the army of Antiochus III and defend their possessions in the region. However, the victory at Rafia was the last. Experiencing serious internal difficulties, Egypt is weakening and losing one position after another. Soon Antiochus III captured southern Syria and part of Phenicia. The Ptolemies lose a number of areas in Asia Minor and the straits, where they are pressed by Macedonia. A serious opponent of the Ptolemies were the Macedonian rulers, who claimed dominance in the straits and hegemony among the Greek city-states of Balkan Greece. The Ptolemies supported the resistance of the Greek city-states against Macedonian rule, which led to the unification of Macedonia and the Seleucids against Egypt. The long-term confrontation of the Ptolemies with the Seleucids and Macedonia led to the gradual depletion of the military-economic potential of Egypt. From the beginning of the 2nd century. BC e. Egypt begins to lose its overseas possessions one after another. The mighty Rome intervened in the complex struggle of the Hellenistic powers, which chose to conclude an agreement with Egypt and ensured its interests against the Seleucids and Macedonia. Relying on the support of Rome, Egypt was able to exist as an independent state longer than other Hellenistic states, in particular Macedonia, Pergamon, and the Seleucids. But in 30 BC. e. During the reign of Cleopatra VII (51-30 BC), Egypt was conquered by Roman troops and became part of the huge Roman state. The conquest of Egypt by Rome met the interests of the majority of the ruling class, which could no longer ensure the economic development of the country, resolve acute social contradictions, or maintain internal stability and order.

Pergamum. The original territory of Pergamum, located in the northwestern part of Asia Minor, was small. A small fortress, like Pergamum was in the 4th century. BC e., under new conditions it is quickly turning into the main center of the state. The population of the Pergamon kingdom successfully withstood the struggle both with the Celtic tribes - the Galatians - who invaded the territory of Asia Minor, and with the largest Hellenistic kingdom of the Seleucids. During the wars of the Diadochi, Pergamon, as a reliable point well fortified by nature itself, became the storage place for the treasury of Lysimachus. Under Phileteros's successor, Eumenes, when he won a decisive victory near Sardis over the army of Antiochus I in 263/82, Pergamon began to play a more significant role in international relations. The foreign policy of Pergamon at this time is characterized by a break with the Seleucids and an alliance with Egypt. Attalus I (241-197), to whom power over Pergamum passed after the death of Aemen, eliminated the threat from the Galatians. He refused to pay them tribute and defeated them in the battle at the source of Caique in 228, after which he accepted the royal title. Having intervened in the struggle in the Seleucid kingdom in the early 20s, Attalus achieved great success here too and at one time dominated most of Asia Minor, although this dominance turned out to be short-lived. By the end of the reign of Attalus I, a certain line of Pergamon’s foreign policy had emerged, which consisted of a consistent orientation towards Rome. Pergamum for the time being reaped the fruits of this policy in the form of large territorial acquisitions, trade advantages, etc., but at the same time it fell more and more under the influence of Rome. As in other Hellenistic states, in Pergamon land was the main wealth of the rulers and nobility themselves and at the same time served as a reliable means of providing for the army. In principle, all the land belonged to the king. Its processing was usually in the hands of peasants, the so-called royal people; the main part of the product of their labor was alienated in favor of the king, his entourage and soldiers. The use of slave labor was greatly developed in Pergamon in various areas of production, especially in the royal economy. Both agricultural products and handicrafts found wide market throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. The kings of Pergamum minted coins that were in circulation far beyond the borders of the kingdom. In addition to kings, some cities also minted coins in Pergamon. The main support of the Attalids was the army. It was very diverse in its composition: along with mercenaries from different parts of the Greek world, local residents - the Mysians, as well as citizens of Pergamon - were of great importance in the army. The warriors were provided with land plots. Some military colonists received uncultivated plots, similar to what happened later in Egypt. Military settlements - katekii - constituted an essential element in the structure of the Pergamon kingdom. If the Pergamon army was inferior in numbers to the troops of the Seleucids or Ptolemies, then in terms of technical equipment it almost surpassed them. The Attalids waged wars, making extensive use of the achievements of Hellenistic siege technology. Pergamum was a relatively small Hellenistic state, similar in many ways to other Hellenistic kingdoms. The kings were rulers with unlimited power over the local population and non-citizen Greeks. Already under the first rulers, the royal cult developed. In honor of the deified kings, altars were built, a staff of priests and priestesses was maintained, and magnificent processions, festivals and games were organized. The main role in the economic and political life of the state was played by the capital - the city of Pergamon. Pergamon had the usual Greek institutions: a popular assembly, a city council, elected officials, philae and demes. Citizens constituted only a minority of the population, the most financially secure. Actual power, control over the course of affairs, elections and finances, as well as legislative initiative were in the hands of five strategists appointed by the king. The capital of the kingdom was located a few kilometers from the sea. The city combined the typical features of a Greek polis and the magnificent splendor of the royal residence of the Eastern Hellenistic state. Numerous statues, paintings, and skillfully made mosaics served as decoration for palaces and temples. The works of fine art reflected the style and subjects inherent in the art of Hellenistic times, but with peculiar features characteristic of the Pergamon school. The Pergamon Library stored more than 200 thousand manuscripts and conducted scientific research.

The Hellenistic states are an important milestone, a special period in human history, which had a huge impact on the subsequent development of the socio-state and cultural-political world order.

What caused the emergence of these powers? How did the Hellenistic states arise? What are their distinctive features and features? This article will address these and many other issues.

We will also get acquainted with specific examples of Hellenistic states, learn their brief history and talk about the famous rulers of that time.

Background, or how it all began

The Hellenistic states replaced the Classical era of government, characterized by the ancient urban civil community.

During that historical period, human society was organized into so-called policies, often taking the form of city-states. Each fenced-off territory was considered a separate country, headed by an agricultural community.

Therefore, to put it briefly, the emergence of Hellenistic states was based on the basis of ancient policies. What else characterized these settlements?

First of all, each civil community consisted of an urban center and an adjacent agricultural area. Community members had the same political and ownership rights.

There was also a separate part of the population in the policy that did not have civil rights. These were slaves, metics, freedmen and others.

Each city had its own power, currency, religious and secular organization. The political system of such policies was varied: from a monarchical political regime to a democratic or capitalist one.

What was the new national system marked by? What changed with the emergence of the Hellenistic states? This will be discussed briefly below.

A new round in public relations

First of all, city-states were replaced by entire empires or powers, which included not just one city, but several large towns and cities surrounded by rural settlements, extensive pastures and spacious forests.

Who was able to carry out such a nationwide coup that affected all spheres of human society? This man was none other than Alexander the Great. Thanks to the conquests of this strong and powerful ruler, the Hellenistic states arose. This will be discussed briefly below.

However, first, let's find out what is remarkable about the Hellenistic era and what role it played in the general political world history.

The essence of Hellenism

In short, the Hellenistic states were a consequence of the spread of Greek culture, actively introduced by Alexander the Great. This gave rise to new political and social ties, trade and market relations, as well as the popularization of the Greek language and culture.

Egypt lasted the longest. which at that time was headed by the powerful Queen Cleopatra, resisted Roman rule for a long time.

The prudent Egyptian ruler was the mistress of influential emperors located territorially in the enemy camp. They were both Caesar and Mark Antony.

And yet Cleopatra was forced to recognize Roman rule. In the thirtieth year of our era, she committed suicide, after which powerful Egypt came under the control of the Roman Empire and was lost among its many provinces.

This was the end of the entire Hellenistic era, which was reflected in several large Greek states of the time. Since then, the dominant place on the world stage has gone to Rome, which became the center of the cultural, political and economic life of society at that time.

After Alexander's death, a struggle began for his legacy between the generals and the king's relatives. The collapse of the state was inevitable. The conquered lands were too large. Alexander did not even restore the order of government that existed under the Persians.

The states created by Alexander’s generals were not strong either. However, some of them lasted quite a long time. They are called Hellenistic kingdoms. The Greeks and Macedonians, as well as numerous local peoples, lived in these kingdoms. In 15 Hellenistic states a very interesting culture arose, combining Greek and Oriental features.

Egypt was one of the first isolated possessions of Alexander the Great. His satrap from 323 BC. became the Macedonian commander Ptolemy Lag. In 305 BC. he proclaimed himself king. All subsequent Egyptian bets also bore the name Ptolemy. Ptolemy I also captured Palestine and part of Syria, his son Ptolemy II continued his conquests and annexed vast territories in Asia Minor. Ptolemy I expanded and decorated the city of Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great, which became the capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom. The highest government positions were occupied by Greeks, but Egyptians were also recruited.

The largest Hellenistic kingdom was founded by the commander of Alexander the Great, Seleucus. Seleucid State included Iran. Mesopotamia. Syria, part of Asia Minor and India. True, Indian possessions were quickly lost. The Selenknlov kingdom was very warlike.

Ancient Rome

Royal Rome. Legends connect the founding of Rome with fugitives from the Path taken by the Achaean Greeks. The noble Trojan Aeneas wandered for a long time after the fall of the city, then landed at the mouth of the Tiber and became the king of the Latins - a people in which the Trojans and local residents united. Aeneas' descendant Romulus founded it in 754 - 753. BC. the city of Rome and became its first king. Under him, the population of Rome consisted of his companions - young men. By cunning they kidnapped the girls of the Sabine tribe. The kidnapped women reconciled their fathers and husbands. The Romans and Sabines united into a single community.

After Romulus, six more kings ruled Rome. The Sabine Numa Pompilius reigned for 43 years and became famous for his love of peace. But his successors Tull Gostilni and Ankh Marcius launched an attack on neighboring lands. The next king, Tarquin the Ancient, was an Etruscan. Under him, Rome grew significantly.

To make important decisions, the kings convened a national assembly. It elected a king, adopted a law granting him empire (power), and approved the decisions of the people's assembly. senate(council of elders). Descendants of the first members of the Roman community

were called patricians(from Lat. patсr - “father”). This was the Roman aristocracy. Plebeians settled in Rome later than the patricians and initially were not part of the community, did not participate in the national assembly and did not have the right to land. The sixth Etruscan king of Rome, Servius Tullius, included the plebeians in the Roman community. They had to serve in the army. But they never learned the right to participate in the national assembly and other habits. The seventh king, Tarquinius, famous for his cruelty, was overthrown in 510 BC.

TOPIC 14 . HELLENISTIC STATES

AT THE END IV–I BB. BC.

SAMPLE PLAN

1. Collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great. The folding of the Hellenistic system

states

2. Kingdom of the Seleucids.

3. Ptolemaic Egypt.

4. States of Balkan Greece.

5. Development of Greek city-states in the III–I centuries. BC e. The policy of kings in relation to poleis.

SOURCES

Appian. Mithridatic Wars. Syrian affairs / Transl. edited by , // Appian. Roman wars. St. Petersburg, 1994.

Livy, Titus. History of Rome from the founding of the city / Trans. under general editorship . T. I–III. M., 1989–1993.

Polybius. General history / Transl. . T. I–III. St. Petersburg, 1994–1995.

Justin. Epitome from the work of Pompey Trogus " HistoriaePhilippicae» / Per. , ed. -Passek. Comments, . St. Petersburg, 2005.

Ancient production method in sources / Ed. and others. L., 1933.

Reader on the history of the ancient world / Ed. . T. II. M., 1951.

MAIN LITERATURE

History of Ancient Greece / Ed. . M., 1986. Ch. 22–26.

History of the Ancient World / Ed. , . T. II. M., 1989. pp. 303–352.

ADDITIONAL LITERATURE

Bengtson G. Rulers of the Hellenistic era / Trans. with him. M., 1982.

Bickerman E. Seleucid State / Transl. from French M., 1985.

L. History of the Kingdom of Bithynia. St. Petersburg, 2005.

G. History of Hellenism / Trans. from French ed. T. II–III. St. Petersburg, 1997.

WITH. The story of King Pyrrhus of Epirus. St. Petersburg, 2009.

YU. Kingdom of Pergamon. Problems of political history and government. St. Petersburg, 2010.

Kravchuk A. Decline of the Ptolemies / Trans. from Polish M., 1973.

A. Greek polis in the Hellenistic East. M., 1979.

Leveque P. Hellenistic world / Transl. from French M., 1989.

B. Hellenism and its historical role. M.; L., 1950.

YU. Pontic kingdom. State of Greeks and barbarians in the Black Sea region. M., 1996.

Sizov S. K. Achaean League. History of the ancient Greek federal state (281–221 BC). M., 1989.

TO. Federal state of Hellenistic Greece: Aetolian Union. Tutorial. Nizhny Novgorod, 1990.

Tarn B. Hellenistic civilization / Trans. from English M.; L., 1949.

Habicht H. Athens. History of the city in the Hellenistic era / Trans. with him. M., 1999.

WITH. Collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great. Kazan, 1984.

The era from Alexander the Great to the conquest of the states that arose on the ruins of his empire by Rome (Greece and Macedonia - in 146 BC, the Kingdom of Pergamon - in 129 BC, Syria - in 64 BC. e., Egypt - in 30 BC) is called Hellenistic. In science since the first half of the 19th century. Discussions continue to this day regarding the definition of the essence of this era. Many scientists abroad and in Russia understand it as a process of complex interaction of civilizations, which ultimately led to the formation of a new civilization, which not only combined the features of the ancient Greek and Eastern worlds, but also gave rise to many new features in the social structure, in economic life, in the state system and culture. When starting to study the history of Hellenism, one should understand in the most general terms those concepts that were proposed by scientists who defined the essence of Hellenism.

The Hellenistic era presents considerable difficulty for study: the political events of this time are difficult and confusing, and in the Hellenistic states a complex socio-economic system and a unique state structure take shape. Considering the process of formation of the system of Hellenistic states, one should pay attention to the main trends in the struggle of the successors of Alexander the Great - the desire to preserve the unity of the empire and the opposite desire of many commanders to divide the empire among themselves. As a result of the wars of the Diadochi, Alexander's successors, the empire was divided into a number of new states, which are commonly called Hellenistic. The founders of the new dynasties were Alexander’s generals, who fought among themselves for more than forty years.

In the Hellenistic states, a unique economic model was formed, which included the public sector and a significant part of the country's land fund, as well as the private-community sector. In the public sector, management was carried out by royal officials. Documents from Hellenistic Egypt eloquently testify to its features. The private-community sector received especially significant development in the policies and eastern cities. It was represented by free traders, artisans, and wealthy landowners. The social system of the Hellenistic world is characterized by the spread of slavery in its developed ancient form, as well as the formation of a system of exploitation of the local, especially rural, population. In terms of their state system, all Hellenistic states were monarchies. A special place in these states belonged to city policies, temple communities, and individual tribes. Polis - both old and founded by Hellenistic dynasties - had broad rights of self-government, but were, as a rule, dependent on the central government.

The development of Balkan Greece during the Hellenistic era has its own characteristics. In Greece, federal-type states began to play a greater political role - the Achaean and Aetolian unions. Sparta was in a state of crisis, which kings Agis and Cleomenes tried to overcome with the help of reforms and restore their former military power. The history of the Hellenistic world ended with its subjugation to Rome, which, using the internal crisis that began in the Hellenistic kingdoms and their constant wars among themselves, one by one conquered it and included it in its own state.

Collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great.

The formation of the system of Hellenistic states

Antigonus' Manifesto for Peace 311 BC. e.

Inscription from Skepsis 311 BC e., contains the text of a letter from Antigonus, in which he sets out the basic principles of his policy towards the Greeks. The letter mentions the struggle and negotiations that the diadochi conducted among themselves, the agreements that they concluded.

We cared about the freedom of the Hellenes, for the sake of which we made considerable concessions and also distributed money, and on this occasion we sent Aeschylus with Demarchus. Before agreement was reached on this point, we took part in a meeting on the Hellespont, and if someone had not interfered, everything would have been completed then. Now, when Cassander and Ptolemy began to talk about peace and Prepelai and Aristodemus came to us on this occasion, although we saw that some of Cassander’s demands were too burdensome, since it was a question of an agreement regarding the Greeks, we found it necessary not to attention to this in order to settle the main thing as quickly as possible. After all, we considered it most important to arrange everything for the Hellenes as we wanted, and if all this was delayed, sometimes a lot of unexpected things happen when it drags on, and we wanted everything concerning the Hellenes to be settled during our lifetime; We therefore believed that we should not risk the structure of the business as a whole because of trifles. And how much effort we have put into this matter will be clear, I think, to you and everyone else from the very content of the agreement. When we had already completed an agreement with Cassander and Lysimachus, for which they sent the authorized Prepelai, Ptolemy sent envoys to us, asking us to make peace with him and to include him in the same agreement. We saw that we had to sacrifice a lot of our ambition, for the sake of which we endured a lot of worries and spent a lot of money; besides, we had already reached an agreement with Cassandra and Lysimachus, and further negotiations were already easier. But realizing that if we establish an agreement with him (i.e. with Ptolemy), then Polyperchon will most likely be finished, since no one will remain in alliance with him, and also taking into account my relationship with him, at the same time seeing that You and other allies are suffering from military actions and expenses, we considered it right to give in and conclude a peace treaty with him as well. We sent Aristodemus, Aeschylus and Hegesius to conclude the treaty; they returned having received guarantees, and an embassy headed by Aristobulus arrived from Ptolemy to receive from us. So, know that an agreement has been reached and there is peace. We have written down in the agreement that all Hellenes will take an oath that they will mutually protect each other's freedom and autonomy, assuming that while we are alive, we will, insofar as it depends on human calculations, observe this, and for the future, if all Hellenes and those in power will pledge themselves by oath, the freedom of the Hellenes will remain more durable.

Assignment of royal titles by the diadochi.

The final collapse of Alexander's power

Justin "The Story of Philip"

(XV, 1, 1–6; 2, 3–6; 10–14)

Mark Junian Justin composed inII–III centuries n. e. epitome (abbreviated summary) of the work of a historian of the era of Emperor Augustus (I century BC e. –I century n. e.) Pompey Trogus “The History of Philippi.” Justin, maintaining the composition of the work and the sequence of presentation, chose only the information that seemed important to him. In a number of cases, he made distortions and mistakes in his story. Despite this, the work he compiled is an important source on the history of Hellenism.

(1, 1) After Perdiccas and his brother, Eumenes and Polyperchon, as well as other leaders of the opposing party, were killed, it seemed that the struggle between the successors of Alexander the Great was over. However, unexpectedly, discord arose between the winners themselves. (2) For when Ptolemy, Cassander and Lysimachus began to demand that the money from the captured booty, as well as the provinces, be distributed [among the victors], Antigonus refused to share with the allies the benefits received from the war, all the dangers of which he alone had taken upon himself. . (3) To make it seem as if he was starting a just war against his [former] allies, Antigonus spreads the rumor everywhere that he wants to avenge the death of Olympias, killed by Cassander, and to free his king’s son, Alexander, and his mother from Amphipolitan captivity. (4) When Ptolemy and Cassander learned of this, they, having concluded an alliance with Lysimachus and Seleucus, began to zealously prepare for war on land and sea. (5) with most of Africa, Cyprus and Phenicia. Cassander had Macedonia and Greece under his control. (6) Antigonus captured Asia and part of the East. In the very first military battle at Gaza, Antigonus' son Demetrius is defeated by Ptolemy...

(2, 3) ... Cassander, so that he would not be elevated to the royal throne of Macedonia out of respect for the name of the father of Alexander’s son Hercules, who was already more than fourteen years old, gives the order to secretly kill him along with his mother Barsina, and cover their bodies with earth to commit the funeral rites did not raise suspicions that they were killed. (4) And as if the crimes already committed were not enough for him - first in relation to the king himself, soon then against his mother Olympias and his son Hercules - (5) he also insidiously kills his second son with his mother Roxana, as if he had not could achieve the Macedonian royal throne, to which he passionately strove, otherwise than by crimes. (6) Meanwhile, Ptolemy entered into a naval battle with Demetrius for the second time and, having lost the fleet and conceded victory to the enemy, fled to Egypt. Triumphant over this victory, Antigonus ordered that the people henceforth call him and his son Demetrius kings. (11) Also, Ptolemy, so that he could enjoy no less authority among his own, his army proclaims king. (12) Having heard about this, Cassander and Lysimachus also appropriated the royal title to themselves. (13) They refrained from appropriating to themselves the outward signs of this dignity while the sons of their king might still be alive. (14) So great was their respect for the memory of Alexander that, although they possessed royal power, out of a sense of justice they dispensed with the royal title as long as Alexander had a legitimate heir.

Translation, .

Seleucid Kingdom

History of the Seleucid KingdomIII–Icenturies BC e.

Appian "Syrian affairs"

(55, 57, 65–70)

Appian- Greek historianI– IIcenturies n. e. Based on the works of a number of Greek and Roman authors, he compiled an extensive work on the history of the Roman state. Appian's work is a valuable source on the history of Hellenism.

(He (Seleucus) fought many wars both against the Macedonians and against the barbarians; of these, the two largest he fought were against the Macedonians: one, later, with Lysimachus, king of Thrace, the other, earlier, at Ipsus in Phrygia with Antigonus, who himself commanded and personally fought, although he was over 80 years old. When Antigonus fell in this battle, those kings who, together with Seleucus, destroyed Antigonus, divided his land among themselves. And then Seleucus received power under his lot. Syria, adjacent to the Euphrates and as far as the sea, and inland Phrygia, constantly setting traps for neighboring peoples, able to force them into submission and persuade them with convincing speeches, he seized power over Mesopotamia, Armenia and Cappadocia, called Seleucida, over Persia, Parthia and Bactria, over the Arabs and tapirs, over Sogdiana, Arachosia and Hyrcania and over all other neighboring tribes up to the Indus River, which were conquered by force of arms by Alexander, so that the borders of his kingdom in Asia reached the greatest extent since Alexander; after all, from Phrygia right up to the Indus River, everything was under the rule of Seleucus. In addition, having crossed the Indus River, he fought with the king of the Indians living along the banks of this river, Androcott, until he concluded friendship and a marriage alliance with him. And he committed some of these acts before the death of Antigonus, the other after his death. (Across the entire space of his huge kingdom, he built many cities: for example, in honor of his father, he built 16 Antioch, five Laodiceas - in honor of his mother, nine - bearing his own name, four - in honor of his wives: three Apamea and one Stratonicea Of these, the most famous even now are Seleucia: one by the sea, the other on the Tigris River, Laodicea in Phenicia, Antioch under Mount Lebanon and Apamea in Syria, he gave names to other cities either after the names of the cities of Hellas and Macedonia, or according to what. -either by their deeds, or in honor of King Alexander. Therefore, in Syria and the barbarians beyond Syria inside the mainland there are many names of Hellenic and Macedonian cities...

(65) When Seleucus died, his successors - and the power over Syria passed from father to son - were the following: the first was the above-mentioned Antiochus, in love with his stepmother; he received the nickname Soter (savior) because he drove out the Galatians who invaded Asia from Europe; followed by the second - Antiochus, born from this marriage, to whom the inhabitants of Miletus first gave the name Theos (god) because he destroyed the tyrant Timarchus. But this “god” was killed by his wife with poison. He had wives Laodice and Berenice... daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Laodice killed him, followed by Berenice and her little child. As an avenger for this, Ptolemy, son of Philadelphus, killed Laodice, invaded Syria and reached Babylon. And the Parthians then began to fall away, since the royal house of Seleucus was in such disorder.

(66) After Theos, the king of Syria was Seleucus, the son of “god” and Laodice, whose nickname was Kallinikos. Seleucus was followed one after another by his two sons, according to their seniority - Seleucus and Antiochus. Seleucus was sick, weak and unable to keep his army in obedience. His associates plotted against him and poisoned him; He reigned for only two years. His brother is that Antiochus who received the name of the Great... He reigned for 37 years. I have already spoken about his two sons who reigned after him, Seleucus and Antiochus. Seleucus reigned for 12 years inactively and weakly due to misfortune with his father. Antiochus reigned for less than 12 years; During this time, he captured Artaxius, king of Armenia, and went to war against the sixth Ptolemy, who, as an orphan, was under guardianship with his brother. While he was camped near Alexandria, the Roman ambassador Popilius came to him with a written order that read: “Antiochus must not fight the Ptolemies.” When he read the order and said that he would think, Popilius drew a circle around him with his staff and said: “Think here.” Amazed by this, the king withdrew from the camp. He plundered the sanctuary of Aphrodite at Elimnae and died of exhaustion, leaving behind a 9-year-old son, Antiochus Eupator...

(67) There was earlier talk about his successor, Demetrius, how he was a hostage in Rome and, having escaped from his hostage, became king. He received from the Syrians the name Soter (Savior) second after the son of Seleucus Nicator. A certain Alexander rebelled against him, falsely claiming that he was from the family of Seleucus. Ptolemy, the king of Egypt, supported him because of his hatred of Demetrius. Demetrius was deprived of the throne because of Ptolemy and died; but Alexander was driven out by Demetrius, the son of this Demetrius Soter, and because he defeated a man who unlawfully claimed his family, he was called Nicator (the Conqueror) by the Syrians; and he was the second after Seleucus to receive this name. Following the example of Seleucus, he went to war against the Parthians, but was captured, lived at the court of King Phraates, and the king gave him his sister Rodoguna in marriage.

and the debts to the royal treasury, which lay on the Egyptians and on the population of other parts of his kingdom and which were very large, he forgave;

as for those in prison and those people against whom trials had long since been initiated, he freed them from all charges;

and since he ordered, in addition, that the income of the temples and the donations that are brought to them every year in the form of food and money, as well as the gifts due to the gods from the vineyards, gardens and other lands that belonged to the gods in the reign of his father, remained on the same basis;

... then he ordered that no more collections be made for the fleet, and he reduced the amount of linen fabrics donated by the temples to the royal treasury by two-thirds...

at the same time, he gave justice to everyone, like the twice great Hermes: he ordered that native warriors and other persons returning to their homeland, who were hostile (towards the authorities) during the period of unrest, should remain in possession of their property upon their return...

and having come to Lycopolis, located in the nome of Busiris, which was captured and fortified in order to withstand the siege, and a large quantity of weapons and other equipment was delivered there, since in this city the wicked people, filled with a rebellious spirit, had gathered, who had caused much harm to the temples and the population of Egypt , the king surrounded this city, erecting amazing embankments and walls around it and digging ditches; and due to the fact that the rise of the Nile in the eighth year was very high and, as usual, the river threatened to flood the valley, the king held back the waters by closing the mouths of the canals in many places, spending a considerable amount of money on this; Having deployed horsemen and foot soldiers to guard them, he in a short time took the city by force and defeated all the wicked people in it [who rose up against the god-king]... as for the leaders of those who rebelled under his father, who ravaged the country and committed injustice against the temples, he , coming to Memphis and avenging his father and his crown, punished them as they deserved when the time came for performing the ceremonies accompanying the assumption of the crown ...

and since he made many gifts to Apis and Mnevis and other sacred animals of Egypt, much more than previous kings, taking care of everything that concerned these animals; he gave generously and... and since he kept the privileges of the temples and Egypt unchanged and intact in accordance with the laws and decorated Apiion with magnificent buildings... for this the gods granted him health, victory, strength and all other benefits, as well as the lasting possession of the crown to him and his descendants forever and ever - in good time!

[As a result of all this] the priests of all the temples of the country decreed:

To increase as much as possible the honors currently given to the ever-living king Ptolemy, the beloved Ptah, the god Epiphanes Eucharist, and likewise the honors given by his parents to the gods Philopators, and the ancestors of the god Euergetes, and the gods Adelphi, and the gods Soter.

Place in the most prominent place in each temple an image in honor of the ever-living king Ptolemy, the god Epiphanes Eucharist, which will bear the name of Ptolemy, the protector of Egypt, and which should take the place of the most important god in the temple, holding in his hands the weapon of victory according to the customs accepted in Egypt .

The priests must perform religious service three times a day in front of these images and dress them in sacred clothes and perform all other ceremonies that are due in this country in solemn honoring of all other gods ... (The following are other honors that the college of priests decided to pay to the king .)

Revolt of Dionysus Petosarapis (165–164 BC e.)

Diodorus "Historical Library"

One of Ptolemy's friends, Dionysius, called Petosarapis, sought to seize state power and therefore exposed the kingdom to great dangers. Being the strongest at court and surpassing all Egyptians in military prowess, he treated both kings with contempt due to their young age and inexperience. Pretending that the elder was encouraging him to kill his relatives, he spread rumors among the people that the elder, Ptolemy, was plotting against his younger brother... Dionysius, having failed in his evil plans, disappeared and at first, by sending out messages, instilled hopes among the soldiers inclined to accept participation in the apostasy, and then, retiring to Eleusis, he began to cordially welcome those intending to carry out a coup, and when the rebel soldiers gathered up to four thousand... The king opposed him and won; having exterminated some and pursued others, he forced Dionysius to swim naked across the river and run away to the Egyptians with the intention of raising the people to revolt. Being enterprising and having gained great approval from the Egyptians, he soon recruited many who wanted to act together with him.

Wanted notice for a fugitive slave

Papyrus 156 BC e.

On the 16th of the month Epiphus, a slave of Aristogenes, son of Chrysippus, ambassador from Alaband, located in Alexandria, escaped, named Hermon, aka Nile, a Syrian from Bambika, about 18 years old, of average height, beardless, with strong calves, with a dimple on the chin, with with a mole to the left of the nose and a scar upward from the left corner of the mouth, branded on the left wrist with two barbaric letters, ran away with coins of minted gold worth three minas, 10 pearls, with an iron ring (on the neck), on which (depicted) a flask (for oils) and combs, and on the body there is a mantle and an apron. Whoever returns it will receive 2 copper talents, whoever shows that it is in the temple will receive 1 talent, whoever shows that it is in the possession of a person who is solvent and accessible to the court will receive 3 talents. Give instructions to Strato's officials. Bion, a slave of Callicrates, one of the archpriests at court, ran away with him, short, broad-shouldered, with strong calves, light eyes. He ran away with a cape, a slave's cloak, a woman's bottle worth 6 talents, and five thousand copper drachmas. Whoever returns it will receive the same amount as promised for the above. Give instructions about this slave to Straton's officials.

Ancient production method in the sources. No. 72.

“Decrees of Humanity” by King Ptolemy VII and Queens Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III

(Rar. Tebt., No. 5)

The Decrees of Philanthropy were issued in 118 BC. e. PtolemyVIIEverget and his two co-rulers in connection with the uprisings of the local population, the devastation that reigned in the country and the rampant abuse of power by officials. The Tsar, without pacifying the country by force, tried to normalize the situation with concessions.

(St. 1) [King] Ptolemy and Queen Cleopatra, sister, [and Queen] Cleopatra, wife, proclaim an amnesty to all their [subjects] for errors, crimes, [as well as for] accusations, sentences and lawsuits of all kinds up to the ninth date of Farmuti fifty-second year, excluding persons guilty of premeditated murder or sacrilege.

And they decreed that people who went into anachoresis because they were guilty of theft or committed other crimes should return to their homes and resume their previous occupations, and ... their remaining property should not be sold.

And [they exempt] all [subjects] from [paying] arrears until the same time in relation to both grain rent and [cash] payments, excluding payments from hereditary tenants who have given surety.

Likewise, [they exempt] debtors from paying arrears in relation to... the tax of two artabs, and the tax for the maintenance of the police, and the tax replacing personal participation in construction work, and... up to the fifty-second [year]... of that very time.

[In the same way, they exempt] from punishment persons who gave incorrect information regarding the apomoira of vineyards [and gardens] and from others...

They also release the strategists from debts... for the position transferred to them... and everything else associated with the position... until the same time...

(St. 2) ... And they decreed, further, that all holders of plots of land are clerics - and all holders of temple or other ceded land, both those who seized plots on the royal land, and all others who have more land than they are entitled by right, should, having renounced the surplus, and declared themselves, and paid the annual rent, be exempted from the payments which they are required to make until the fifty-first year, and the legal possession of their lands must be guaranteed to them...

(St. 3) Further, they decreed that the temple land and other sacred [revenues] that belong to the temples should remain with them and that the temples should receive apomoira, which they usually received from private plots, gardens and other lands...

[No one] dares to take away by force anything that was dedicated to the gods, nor to put violent pressure on those who are at the head of the administration of sacred revenues, no matter whether they come from villages, or from the earth, or from other sacred income; and the tax on business communities, or the royal crown tax, or the land tax - artabieya - on grain should not be levied on what is dedicated to the gods; and the [administration] of the temple lands should not be interfered with under any pretext, but they should be left... under the management of the priests...

(Column 4) (New privileges are established for churches).

Then they decreed that no one, under any pretext, could be [pulled out] or forcibly removed from places serving as refuge...

Likewise, let the grain rent from farmers remain the same...

(Stlb. No one should in any way collect anything from farmers, and from royal artisans, and from persons contributing to the king’s income, and from beekeepers, and from others in favor of the strategists or chiefs of phylakites, or archiphylakites, or economists, or their subordinates or other officials.

Neither strategists, nor persons holding official positions, nor their subordinates, nor any other person should fraudulently take away royal land from farmers, nor cultivate it arbitrarily.

(Col. 7) ... And they decided that the strategists and other officials did not have the right to involve any of the inhabitants of the country in work for their own needs, or to use the livestock of these inhabitants for their own private interests ...

Reader on the history of ancient Greece / Ed. . M., 1964.

Letter from the epistrategist of Thebaid Plato to the inhabitants of Patiris. Papyrus 88 BC e.

(U. Wilcken. Chrestomathie. T.I. No. 12)

Greetings to the priests in Patiris and other residents. Brother Philexenus, in a letter delivered to me, writes about the arrival of the greatest god, the savior of the king, in Memphis, and Hierak takes up the task of pacifying Thebaid with a countless army. We considered it necessary to inform you about this so that, knowing this, you remain cheerful.

States of Balkan Greece

Reforms of Agis and Cleomenes in Sparta

Plutarch “Comparative Lives” (biography of Agis)

(5) The decline in morals began among the Lacedaemonians approximately from the time when, having crushed the hegemony of the Athenians, they filled their city with gold and silver... Those who were stronger began to acquire property, pushing away the legitimate heirs without any mercy. Soon all the wealth accumulated in the hands of a minority, and poverty took possession of the state, bringing with it contempt for goodness and cowardice, and at the same time envy and hatred of the wealthy. There were no more than 700 Spartiates left, of which perhaps a hundred owned land and allotments. All other citizens constituted a poor and despicable crowd, whose lot was miserable vegetation. They fought with external enemies sluggishly and reluctantly, but they were constantly waiting for an opportunity to rebel and carry out a coup.

(6) As a result of this, Agis considered it a wonderful thing (and in fact it was so) to establish equality and increase the number of citizens. To this end, he tried to win the people over to his side...

(8) ... Agis ensured that Lysander became ephor, and through him immediately introduced a bill into the gerousia, the essence of which was as follows. It was proposed to free the debtors from debts, divide the land and allocate 4,500 plots in the territory from the gorge near Pellena to Taygetos, Malea and Sellasia, and 15,000 in the rest of the territory. It was proposed to transfer the territory outside the specified limits to the perieks capable of carrying weapons, and the land within these limits - to the Spartiates themselves. It was also proposed to replenish the number of citizens at the expense of periek and foreigners who had received the upbringing of free people, were in good health, well built and were in a flourishing age. All these people were supposed to form 15 fiditias, each of which would include from 200 to 400 people. Their way of life should be the same as it was among their ancestors.

(9) ... King Agis ... in a short speech declared that he was bringing a great gift to the state structure that he was establishing; he transfers for general use his enormous fortune, consisting of arable land, pastures and, in addition, 600 talents of money. His mother and grandmother, as well as his friends and relatives, the richest people among the Spartiates, are ready to do the same.

(10) The people were delighted with the generosity of the young man and were deeply pleased that finally, after almost 300 years, they had a king worthy of Sparta...

(11) From that time on, the people followed Agis...

(12) The new ephors brought charges against Lysander and Mandrocleidas that they had illegally proposed the elimination of debts and the division of lands. The accused, who were in danger, convinced the kings, who were like-minded, not to pay attention to the decision of the ephors... The ephors (they said) should rule as mediators in quarrels, but not interfere in matters if the opinions of the kings are the same. They managed to convince the kings. They came to the square with their friends, drove the ephors from their seats and chose new ones in their place, including Agesilaus. They then armed a mass of young people, freed those in prison and frightened their opponents, who expected them to kill many. The kings, however, did not execute anyone...

(After some time, opponents of the reforms became more active: King Agis was captured and brought before the court of the ephors, who condemned him to execution.)

Plutarch "Comparative Lives" (biography of Cleomenes)

When, after the death of Leonidas, Cleomenes assumed royal power, he saw that the citizens were completely dissolved, rich people, indulging in pleasures and greed, completely forgot about public interests; the majority of citizens, due to poor living conditions, did not show any zeal for either military pursuits or the Spartan way of life. And he himself only had the royal title, but all power was in the hands of the ephors. Cleomenes immediately planned to change all this and increase activity in the state...

(7) (After the victory over the Achaeans) Cleomenes began to develop plans for his stepfather Megiston: he needed to free himself from the ephors, divide property among all citizens and, having established equality in Sparta, awaken it and lead it to hegemony over Hellas. Megiston agreed with him and won over two or three friends to his side...

(Cleomenes destroys the ephorate.)

(11) After this, Cleomenes first of all gave his property for common use; this was also done by Megiston, his stepfather, all his friends, and then all the other citizens. The whole land was divided. The king assigned an allotment of land and promised to each of those whom he sent into exile to return them all, as soon as calm reigned. He replenished the number of citizens with the best of the Perieki and formed a detachment of 4,000 hoplites from them... He also paid attention to the education and lifestyle of the youth... Soon the gymnasiums and sissitia received the structure appropriate to them and returned to their former simple Spartan life.

Reader on the history of the ancient world. T. II. M., 1951. No. 000.

Tyranny of Nabis in Sparta

Polybius "General History"

(XIII, 6, 1–7)

Polybius (c. 200–120 BC BC), son of Likorta, from Megalopolis - one of the greatest historians of antiquity. His father was a strategist of the Achaean League, and Polybius himself took an active part in the political life of Greece. After the Roman victory in the Third Macedonian War, Polybius in 166 BC. e. was sent as a hostage to Rome, where he spent approx. 16 years. He lived in the house of Aemilius Paulus and was the mentor and friend of Scipio the Younger. Polybius was a participant and witness to many of the events he described.II century BC e. In his General History, he tried to comprehend and explain the reasons for Rome's successes and trace the process of its transformation into the largest power in the Mediterranean. The historian idealized Rome and the Achaean League, but had a negative attitude towards Macedonia and the Aetolian League. Polybius's work is in the nature of world history: it describes the events of the political life of all countries and peoples of the Mediterranean in their close connection for more than a century- from the beginning of the First Punic War (264 BC) to the destruction of Corinth (146 BC).

(6,The tyrant of the Lacedaemonians, Nabis, had held power in his hands for the third year... (2) he was concerned only with the foundation and consolidation of cruel tyranny for a long time. (3) For this, Nabis completely exterminated the surviving opponents of his power in Sparta, expelled citizens who stood out more by wealth than by glorious origin, and distributed the property of their wives to the most influential people from among their enemies and to their mercenaries (4) These were: murderers, robbers, thieves, and deceivers. In general, Nabis tried to gather around him people for whom their homeland was closed. were vile and criminal acts. he was not content with expelling citizens: for the exiles there was no safe and reliable refuge anywhere; (7) he sent assassins in pursuit of some, who killed the exiles on the roads, others were returned from their place of exile and put to death.

Titus Livius (59 BC) – 17 AD BC) - a native of Patavia (Northern Italy), author of the Roman history “From the Foundation of the City” in 142 books, of which only 35 have reached us. Titus Livia sets out the history of Rome from the mythical arrival of Aeneas in Italy to 9 AD. e. The author's goal is to glorify the Roman people. Narrating the foreign policy of Rome, Titus Livius provides valuable information about events in countries in contact with Rome. For the history of the Hellenistic kingdoms and Greece, the main source of Titus Livy was Polybius's General History.

Having convened a meeting (in Argos), Nabis announced two proposals: one about new debt books, the other about dividing the fields without exception. In the hands of people seeking a coup, these were two means of inciting the mob against the nobility.

Formation of the Achaean League

Polybius "General History"

(II, 41; 43, 1–5)

(41, 1) It was the one hundred and twenty-fourth Olympiad, when the inhabitants of Patras and Dima began to unite after the death of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, Lysimachus, as well as Seleucus and Ptolemy Keraunus: (2) all of them died in the above-mentioned Olympiad. (3) In more ancient times the position of the Achaean people was as follows: (4) beginning with Tisamenes, son of Orestes, who was expelled from Sparta at the time of the return of the Heraclides and occupied the region of Achaea, (5) the Achaeans were continuously ruled by kings in order of succession until Ogiga. After this, dissatisfied with the sons of Ogyges because they ruled them autocratically, and not according to the laws, the Achaeans changed their state structure into a government of the people. (6) In subsequent times, until the reign of Alexander, son of Philip, their position changed according to circumstances; but, as we said above, they tried to constantly keep power in the hands of the people. (7) Their state consisted of twelve cities, which are still in it now, with the exception of Olen and Gelika; this last city was swallowed up by the sea before the Battle of Leuctra. (8) These cities are: Patras, Dima, Farae, Trithea, Leontius, Aegius, Aegira, Pellena, Bura, Carinia. (9) In the time following Alexander, but preceding the above-mentioned Olympiad, these cities, mainly through the fault of the kings of Macedonia, were at enmity with each other and fell to such a degree that all communication between them was broken, and each city pursued its own benefits to the detriment of others . (10) As a result, some of them were occupied by the garrisons of Demetrius and Cassander, and subsequently Antigonus Gonatas, others fell under the rule of tyrants; as it seems, most of the rulers were planted in the Hellenes by Antigonus. (11) However, around the one hundred and twenty-fourth Olympiad, as I said above, the Achaeans, realizing their previous mistakes, again began to unite with each other. This was around the time of Pyrrhus's campaign in Italy. (12) The union was started by the inhabitants of Dima, Patras, Tritea and Phar, which is why there is no pillar in memory of the formation of the union of these cities. (13) In the fifth year after this, the Aegeans expelled their garrison and joined the alliance, after which the Burians killed their tyrant. (14) At the same time the Carinians returned to their former structure. The then tyrant of Carinia, Iseus, saw the garrison expelled from Aegium, and the tyrant was killed in Bura by the Achaeans and Martus; From minute to minute he himself was threatened with assassination attempts from everywhere, and therefore Iseya resigned from power and, having demanded personal immunity from the Achaeans, annexed the city to the Achaean union.

(43, 1) During the first twenty-five years, the above cities elected in turn a general secretary and two strategists to manage the affairs of the union. (2) They subsequently decided to appoint one person invested with the supreme governmental power; March of Carinia was the first to hold this position. (3) In the fourth year after his strategy, the Sicyonian Aratus, twenty years old, freed his native city from tyranny with his own valor and courage, annexing it to the Achaean league, the tasks of which he admired from the very beginning. (4) In the eighth year, being chosen for the second time as a strategist, he attacked Acrocorinth, occupied by Antigone, and took possession of it, thereby freeing the inhabitants of the Peloponnese from the fear that oppressed them, and, having freed the Corinthians, annexed them to the state of the Achaeans. 5 During the same strategy, he achieved that the city of the Megarians also joined the Achaeans.

Results of the Second Macedonian War

Polybius "General History"

(XVIII, 44, 1–4, 6–7; 45, 1, 3, 6)

(44, At this time, those ten elected representatives who were to arrange the affairs of Hellas arrived from Rome and who brought with them the decision of the Senate regarding peace with Philip. (2) The most important articles of this decision were the following: in general, to all Hellenes, both Asian and European , to be free and enjoy their own laws; (3) the same Hellenes who were hitherto subject to Philip, as well as the cities occupied by his garrisons, Philip must transfer to the Romans before the Isthmian festival; freedom, as well as Abydos, Thasos, Myrina, Perinthos, and withdraw their garrisons from them... (6) At the same time, Philip undertook to return to the Romans all prisoners of war and defectors, and also to give them all decked ships, with the exception of five ships and one sixteen-decker (7) He was finally obliged to pay a thousand talents, of which five hundred immediately, and the other five hundred in installments over ten years.

(45:1) When the news of this determination spread among the Hellenes, they all perked up and were filled with joy; Only the Aetolians were annoyed, since they did not receive what they were counting on, and loudly condemned the definition of the Senate, saying that it was nothing more than empty words... (3) So, they assured that... (6) “the bonds of the Hellenes” from Philip the Romans They take it into their own hands and it is not the liberation of the Hellenes that takes place, but only a change of masters.

Subjugation of Macedonia to the Romans

Titus Livy "History of Rome from the Founding of the City"

(ХLV, 29, 1–5; 9–11; 14; 34, 1–2; 4–6)

(29, 1) On the day appointed by Aemilius Paulus, ten of the noblest citizens from each community appeared in Amphipolis, and the money of the Macedonian king and the royal letters kept everywhere were also delivered. The Roman commander himself, with ten legates, opened the tribunal meeting. Many Macedonians crowded around. (2) To them, accustomed to royal power, the spectacle of the Roman tribunal seemed extraordinary and terrible. Everything was unusual for their eyes and ears: the entrance to the tribunal, access to which was closed, the appearance of the herald and the minister. This solemn atmosphere could frighten even allies, not just enemies. 3 Having established silence with the help of a herald, Aemilius Paulus told the assembly in Latin what the senate and himself, based on the opinion of the council, had decided to bring to the attention of the Macedonians. The praetor Gnaeus Octavius, who was present at the tribunal, immediately repeated the commander’s speech in Greek. 4 First of all, it was decided to leave the Macedonians free. They were allowed to own the same cities and lands, use their own laws, elect officials annually, and pay the Roman people half the amount of taxes they paid to their kings. (5) Then Macedonia was divided into four regions... (9) Aemilius Paul appointed the main cities where popular assemblies were to meet: for the first region - Amphipolis, for the second - Thessalonica, for the third - Pella, for the fourth - Pelagonia. The Roman commander-in-chief ordered each region to create its own popular assemblies in these cities, elect magistrates there and pay taxes. (10) He then announced that residents were prohibited from marrying, selling or buying fields and houses outside their area. (11) Mining of gold and silver is also prohibited. The Macedonians are only allowed to mine iron and copper. Those involved in the extraction of these metals are subject to a tax of half that which they paid to the king. The Roman commander also forbade the Macedonians to use imported salt... (14) In addition, Aemilius Paulus forbade the harvesting of ship timber on the territory of Macedonia not only to local residents, but even to foreigners. The Roman commander allowed the regions that bordered the possessions of the barbarians (and these were all the regions except the third) to maintain armed garrisons on the borders.

(33) (Emilius Paulus went with his army to Epirus.)

(34, 1) ... since the Senate gave the army as booty the cities of Epirus, which had gone over to the side of Perseus during the war. 2 After this, Aemilius Paulus sent out centurions to individual cities in Epirus. They were instructed to announce that they had arrived to withdraw garrisons from the cities so that the Epirotes would become as free as the Macedonians. Then ten noble citizens were summoned from each city. Having announced to them that all gold and silver should be collected into the public treasury, Aemilius Paulus sent cohorts to all cities... (4) Early in the morning, all the gold and silver were taken into the public treasury. At four o'clock the signal was given to the soldiers to plunder the cities. (5) The spoils turned out to be so great that during the division, each infantryman received 200 denarii, and the horseman 400 denarii. 150,000 people were enslaved. (6) The walls of the sacked cities were demolished. In total, there were about 70 such cities. All the booty was sold, and the money received was distributed to the soldiers.

Development of Greek city-states in the 3rd–1st centuries. BC e.

Trial of the tyrant of Eres Agonippus

(D. Dareste, B. Naussoullier, Th. Reinack. Recueil. No. 27)

End inscriptionIVV. BC e.from Lesbos, testifying to the internal political struggle in the polis and the desire to restore city self-government after liberation from Persian rule.

Considering that Agonippus surrounded the citizens locked in the Acropolis with siege works, that he forcibly collected 20,000 staters from the citizens, that he plundered the Hellenes and destroyed the altars of Zeus, that, having started a war against Alexander and the Hellenes, he disarmed the citizens and expelled them en masse city, and captured the wives and daughters and locked them on the Acropolis and exacted 3,200 staters, that, having robbed the city and temples together with the robbers, he set them on fire, and many citizens died in the fire, that, having finally appeared to Alexander, he lied and slandered the citizens , (the people decided) to judge Agonippus by secret vote, after taking the oath, whether he was subject to death. If sentenced to death, there must be a second vote on the method of execution, with Agonippus first making his proposal. If anyone, after the condemnation of Agonippus, brings any of his children or takes the floor, or makes a proposal for their return or for the return of property to them, let him and his family be cursed and, in addition, let a law be attached to him against that whoever destroys the inscription is against the tyrant and his descendants. In addition, a spell must be pronounced immediately in the people's assembly: good is to those who judge honestly and help the homeland and the laws, woe to those who vote not according to the truth.

Ancient production method in the sources. No. 000.

Law against tyranny passed at Ilion in 270 BC. e.

Whoever kills a tyrant or the leader of an oligarchy or one who overthrows democracy will receive, if he is a citizen, from the city a talent of silver on the same day or the next, and the people must erect a bronze statue of him; he also receives lifelong allowance in the prytane and the right to take a place in the front row at competitions, and his name is proclaimed by a herald; Moreover, he should be given two drachmas daily for life. If the killer turns out to be a foreigner, give him the same reward and, in addition, the rights of citizenship, and he can enroll in any phylum he wishes. If the murderer is a slave, he will receive, as a sign of the honor given to him, the rights of citizenship according to the law and 30 minutes from the city on the same day or the next and a drachma per day for life... (The property of the tyrant must be confiscated, and part of it goes to the benefit of the murderer ), and the rest belongs to the city. If anyone suffers any damage from a tyrant, this damage is compensated from the property of the tyrant. If someone with his accomplices, having killed a tyrant or the leader of an oligarchy or overthrown democracy, restores democracy in the city, he and his accomplices will not be punished for their act and will receive a talent of silver from the people. If anyone has held, under a tyranny or oligarchy, the position of general or any other position in which it is necessary to give an account of the (public) money entrusted to him, or if someone has imposed on any of the Ilionian citizens or metics direct tax, none of such persons can either buy or take as collateral land, a house, livestock, slaves, etc., or receive a dowry from him (when concluding a marriage contract) ... If someone sent the position of strategist or other position of a monetary nature twice, all his property is confiscated... If someone, being an official under tyranny or oligarchy, killed someone, all (the judges) who cast their vote (for committing this murder) are considered murderers, and they can be persecuted all the time until the process is over, when there is democracy in Ilion. And if anyone who votes for murder is acquitted, he is subject to disenfranchisement and exile, he and his descendants, present and future. Murder is not redeemed either by marriage or by money. If a tyrant or a leader of an oligarchy, or one of the Ilians who held office with them, or anyone else previously bought land, or a house, or livestock, or whatever it was, the purchase is considered invalid, and what was bought is returned to those who sold . If anyone in an oligarchy, plotting against the laws, elects a council or other officials, intending to carry out affairs insidiously, as if there were a democracy, all orders (of such authorities) are declared invalid, and the one who did all this is responsible as the leader of the oligarchy. .

Ancient production method in the sources. No. 000.

Decree on the isopolyty of Pergamon and Temno

(OGIS, No. 000)

End documentIV – startedIIIV. BC e. Evidence of the preservation of the institution of polis citizenship in the cities of Asia Minor in Hellenistic times and the development of close inter-policy relations. Isopolitia- decision of civil communities to exchange civil rights.

The council and the people decided. Proposal of strategists. Since the people of the Temnites turn out to be friendly towards the people of Pergamum, in good time, decree to the council and the people (of Pergamum). Send two ambassadors; let them, having appeared, express the favor that the people of Pergamum constantly preserves towards him (the people of the Temnites), and discuss in order to decree isopolite to both policies. If this (proposal) seems beneficial to the Temnites, let those in authority meet regarding this.

Apollonides, son of Apelles, was elected (as ambassadors)<…>, son of Hermippus.

Good afternoon. The citizens of Pergamon also decreed temnites under Prytanus after Heraclides, son of Ditus, in the month of Herea, in Pergamum under Prytanus Aristocrates, son<…>, in the month of Gerea. To have citizenship in Temnites in Pergamon, and for citizens of Pergamum in Temne and participate in what other citizens participate in. To have the right to own land and house for a Temnite in Pergamon and a citizen of Pergamum in Temne. The dark in Pergamon votes in the same way as the citizen of Pergamum votes, and the citizen of Pergamum in the Dark votes in the same way as the dark...

Agreement between Gortyn and Caudas. 3rd century inscription BC e.

(Rivista di fililogia e di estruzione classica, Nuova seria.

VIII. 1930. P. 472)

Good afternoon. Under the Aetoleans, Cosmas in Gortyn, presided over by Erteus, son of Amnatus, on the fourth day of the month of Veikhania in Kaudas, with those who were with Ophelandrius, son of Porton. The Gortyns allowed the following to those living in Kavda. To be free and autonomous and to use their own court, to remain in the same place of residence; in the resolutions adopted by the Gortyns, follow the Gortyns both in war and in peace; use your own laws. Those living in Kavda must bring tithes from everything available in the land, just like the Gortyns, except for income from harbors, animals and gardens. Let them have it themselves. The salts should yield 5 thousand medimns annually, let the preigist and the mountains collect 5 thousand medimns of salt, and let those living in Kavda take out what they collected on mules; if they don’t take it out, the Gortyns themselves will equip it. The berries should also yield 200 medimns if there is a harvest, but if not - 60 medimns. Regarding the collection - as it is written about salt. Everything that comes across on land or in the sea, let it be a tenth of Apollo Pythian...

An inscription about borrowing money to build a wall. Found in Oropa

(last third of the 3rd century BC)

(Ditt. Syll.3, No. 000)

Lysander made a proposal. In order to obtain funds for the construction of the wall... the people's assembly passed the following resolution: the caretakers of the city walls and the polemarchs must borrow money from wherever they can and, if possible, at lower interest rates. Those who lent money must be repaid, along with any interest due, in the year following the priesthood of Oropodorus. Those who lent money to the city for the construction of the wall in the amount of up to a talent and more from 10% receive the privilege of being proxens and benefactors of Oropa, they themselves and their offspring (receive) the right to acquire real estate in Oropa, bear the same duties as citizens, enjoy personal and property security in times of war and peace on land and sea and in everything else should be equalized with citizens... And for those who lend less talent, the people's assembly will think about how to honor each of them in a worthy manner on behalf of the city...

Ancient production method in the sources. No. 000.

Inscription honoring Agathocles

for delivery of bread at a cheap price. Found in Ephesus (c. 300 BC)

(Ditt. Syll.3, No. 000)

At the proposal made by Dion, the son of Diopithus, the council and the people's assembly (in Ephesus) decided: since Agathocles, the son of Agemon, having brought wheat to the city in the amount of 14,000 hectae... and having learned that bread was sold in the market for more than 6 drachmas, he heeded persuasion of the agoranom and, wanting to please the people, sold all the grain cheaper than its market price, let the council and the people's assembly decide to give Agathocles, a Rhodian, and his descendants the rights of citizenship...

Ancient production method in the sources. No. 000.

The policy of kings regarding poleis

"Royal Law" II century. BC e. about the maintenance of the city of Pergamum

The document shows the methods of regulation by the royal authorities of the life of the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon. The city of Pergamum retained its polis structure, including the civil community and self-government bodies, but their work was carried out under the control of royal officials. The text is reproduced with abbreviations.

Of the roads located in the territory (of Pergamum), the major roads must be at least 20 cubits in width, the rest - at least 8 cubits, except in cases where, due to proximity, paths are used to communicate with each other. The roads must be kept clean and convenient for travel by those who own property in and around their houses for 10 stages, contributing money for this purpose to repair the roads. If they do not do this, the astinomes must describe their property... The watchers of the streets must force the persons who have thrown away the earth to clean up the dug-up place, according to the prescription of the law; otherwise... the astinoms, together with the street warden, will hand over the contract (the work of cleaning the streets) and will immediately exact from those who do not obey the order the costs of one and a half times the amount and fine them 10 drachmas. If any of the wardens of the streets does not carry out any order, the astinomes must fine him for each violation in the amount of 20 drachmas... If the latter do not do anything prescribed to them, they must be fined for each violation by the strategoi and the mayor of 50 drachm...

About garbage . Caretakers should not allow digging on the roads, turning up stones, producing sewage, pulling out bricks, or making deep ditches. In case of disobedience, the road wardens must report this to the astinomes, and they will fine the disobedient person for each violation of 5 drachmas and force him to restore everything to its previous state and build underground canals. If after this the residents do not listen, then the road supervisors must hand over the work from the contract within 10 days and recover the costs incurred from the disobedient ones at one and a half times the amount...

About the sources . Astynomes must take care of the springs located in the city and on the outskirts, so that they are kept clean and that the underground channels entering and discharging water from them are wide enough... No one is allowed to water livestock or wash clothes in public springs , wash dishes, etc. The person guilty of this, if he is freeborn, will have his livestock, linen, and dishes confiscated and a fine of 50 drachmas will be imposed on him. If it is a slave and does something like this with the knowledge of his master, the items are also subject to confiscation, and the slave is scourged in the block and receives 50 blows; if a slave does anything like this without the knowledge of the master, the items are confiscated, and the slave, after being scourged in the stock and receiving 100 blows, must wear shackles on his feet for 10 days; and when they are removed, he is again scourged and receives no less than 50 blows. Anyone who wishes is allowed to seize the spoiler of the springs and take him to the astynom; he receives half of the fine money, the other half must go towards repairing the sanctuary of the Nymphs...

Ancient production method in sources, No. 000.

Letter from Prince Attalus, brother of the Pergamon king Eumenes II,

residents of the city of Amlady

The city of Amlada was located in the region of Pisidia (Asia Minor), which became part of the Attalid kingdom of Pergamum under the terms of the Treaty of Apamea (188 BC). Apparently, for participation in the anti-Pergamum demonstration, possibly in 168– 167 BC e. King EumenesIIimposed an indemnity on the inhabitants of the city and kept hostages. Despite these special circumstances, the king retained the bodies of city government, including such a traditional institution as the council of elders.

Attalus greets the city and the elders of Amlada. Your ambassadors Oprasat, son<...>, Nalanloy, the son of Killarius, and Menneus, who came to us and discussed what you had entrusted to them, asked to release your hostages, and from those nine thousand drachmas for restoration that you owed in the Galatian war, and from the two talents that you contribute annually, to free you, since you, who were oppressed in many ways, are now impoverished. Seeing that you repent of the violations committed earlier, and that you readily carry out our instructions, I took care of you and, expressing my affection for Oprasat and the city, I ordered that three thousand drachmas be deducted from the foros and payment and that you be released from the other nine thousand drachmas that you owe us. I also freed your hostages...

This refers to the peace treaty concluded between the Diadochi in 311 BC. e.

We're talking about Ptolemy.

Perdiccas was killed in 321 BC. e. during the campaign in Egypt against Ptolemy, his brother Alcetas - in 319 BC. e., Eumenes - in 316 BC. e. Polyperchon had not yet been killed at this time and took part in the further struggle.

This refers to the supporters of Perdiccas, who were at enmity with Antigonus and his allies.

Olympias was killed by Cassander in the spring of 316 BC. e. Roxana, the wife of Alexander the Great, and his son Alexander were kept in custody in Amphipolis.

Hercules, the son of Alexander by Barsina, was kept in custody in Pergamon.

In 281 BC. e.

In 301 BC. e.

Seleucus waged war with Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty in India, between 307 and 301. BC e.

Seleucus was killed by Ptolemy Keraunus in 281 BC. e.

In 278/7 BC. e.

Third Syrian War in 246 BC. e.

Antiochus III reigned from 223 to 187 BC. e.

Ptolemy VI (180–145 BC).

Antiochus VII Sidetes (139/8–129 BC).

Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, held power over Syria from 83–69. BC e.

Antiochus XIII (64–63 BC).

Meleager - governor of the Hellespont satrapy.

Aristodikid of Assia, that is, from the city of Ase on the coast of Asia Minor.

Plefr is a measure of area of ​​0.087 hectares.

That is, with the lands belonging to the cities of Gergifa and Skepsis in Asia Minor.

Apparently, we are talking about some other Meleager.

Metropol is the administrative center of the region.

Ptah, or Ptah, is the god of the Memphis nome, the creator god, the creator of the world.

Epiphanes Eucharist is the cult name of the king, meaning “manifested, pleasant, beneficent.”

Ptolemy IV Philopator (“The Loverful”) (221–203 BC).

The reference is to the famous Egyptian myth of the death and resurrection of Osiris.

Lycopolis in Busirite nome is a city in the Nile Delta.

Apis is a divine bull of black color, with a specially shaped white spot on its forehead and some other features. Mnevis is the sacred bull in the temple at Heliopolis.

Apeiion is the seat of Apis.

Ptolemy VI Philometor (181–145 BC).

Flight of the dependent population of Egypt.

Mandrocleides, son of Ecphanes, is one of the few rich Spartiates who supported Agis.

Cleomenes, the son of King Leonidas, who dealt with Agis, reigned from 236 to 222 BC. e.

Nabis seized power in 206 BC. e.

In 284 BC. e.

Before 255 BC e.

In 251 BC. e.

In 243 BC. e.

In 196 BC. e.

Evrom, Pedasy, Bargilii, Ias - cities of Caria, a region in the southwestern part of Asia Minor.

Consul 168 BC e., who defeated the king of Macedonia Perseus (179–168 BC) at the Battle of Pydna.

This refers to Alexander the Great.

The text is given with abbreviations.

Kavd - small island near Crete.

Preigist and mountains - officials in charge of collections.

Local council.

The money “for restoration” may have been intended for the restoration of some structures in the city that were destroyed during the protest against the Attalid rule. Perhaps this is a citadel occupied by the royal garrison.

Macedonian period[ | ]

The Aetolians, who sided with the Romans, were very dissatisfied with the terms of the peace; the other Greeks soon became convinced that they had only changed one master for another; it came to a new war between the Aetolians and the Romans (-188 BC), and the king of Syria, Antiochus III, was in alliance with the Aetolians. In 191, at Thermopylae, Antiochus was defeated by the Romans, and two years later the Aetolians were forced to submit to Rome. The Aetolian League ceased to exist (189).

Just as before the Aetolians were annoyed with the Romans and incited the Greeks to war with them, so now both Philip and the Achaeans, who sided with the Romans in their war with Antiochus and the Aetolians, were dissatisfied with Rome. Around this time, the expansion of the Achaean League, led by Philopoemen, to the entire Peloponnese dates back to this time. Sparta, Hellas, Messenia were annexed to the union (191-190). But both in Sparta and Messenia there were strong parties that stood for separating these areas from the union. The dissatisfied complained to Rome, which did not refuse the role of mediator, judge and organizer of the Peloponnese; with his assistance, Messenia broke away from the Achaeans (183). The return of Messenia to the union cost the life of Philopoemen, and with his death internal unrest intensified, and the reasons for Roman intervention in the affairs of the union multiplied. The political struggle was complicated by the socio-economic one. Two parties fought in the alliance: one, without declaring open war on Rome, tried to preserve for the alliance a possible measure of independence in action; the other insisted on recognizing the primacy of Rome over the union. The most prominent representatives of both parties were Aristhenes and Callicrates, respectively.

End of Greek independence[ | ]

In 171 BC. The Third Macedonian War began, which passed from Philip to his son Perseus. In 168, the war ended with the extermination of the Macedonian army at Pydna. Macedonia was declared free and divided into 4 republics dependent on Rome. In their hearts sympathizing with Perseus and wishing him victory over a more dangerous enemy, the Greeks, and in particular