Who built the ISS. International space station

International space station

International Space Station, abbr. (eng. International Space Station, abbr. ISS) - manned, used as a multipurpose space research complex. The ISS is a joint international project involving 14 countries (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. Initially, the participants included Brazil and the United Kingdom.

The ISS is controlled by: the Russian segment - from the Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, the American segment - from the Lyndon Johnson Mission Control Center in Houston. The laboratory modules - the European Columbus and the Japanese Kibo - are controlled by the Command Centers of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japan Aerospace Research Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the Centers.

History of creation

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on the creation of an American space station. In 1988, the projected station was named "Freedom". At the time, it was a joint project between the United States, ESA, Canada and Japan. A large-sized controlled station was planned, the modules of which would be delivered one by one to the Space Shuttle orbit. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it became clear that the cost of developing the project was too high and only international cooperation would make it possible to create such a station. The USSR, which already had experience in creating and launching into orbit the Salyut orbital stations, as well as the Mir station, planned to create the Mir-2 station in the early 1990s, but due to economic difficulties the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States signed an agreement on cooperation in space exploration. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RSA) and NASA have developed a joint Mir-Shuttle program. This program included flights of American reusable Space Shuttle spacecraft to the Russian space station Mir, the inclusion of Russian cosmonauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Mir station.

During the implementation of the Mir-Shuttle program, the idea of combining national programs for the creation of orbital stations was born.

In March 1993, the general director of the RSA Yuri Koptev and the general designer of NPO Energia, Yuri Semyonov, proposed to the head of NASA Daniel Goldin to create the International Space Station.

In 1993, in the United States, many politicians were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, the US Congress discussed a proposal to abandon the creation of the International Space Station. This proposal was not accepted by a margin of only one vote: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for the construction of the station.

On September 2, 1993, US Vice President Albert Gore and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Federation Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project for a "truly international space station." From that moment on, the official name of the station became "International Space Station", although the unofficial one - the "Alpha" space station was also used in parallel.

ISS, July 1999. Above is the Unity module, below, with deployed solar panels - Zarya

On November 1, 1993, the RSA and NASA signed a "Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station."

On June 23, 1994, Yuri Koptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington the "Interim Agreement for Work Leading to a Russian Partnership in the Permanent Manned Civilian Space Station", under which Russia officially joined the ISS.

November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were signed with the companies participating in the project - Boeing and RSC Energia named after S. P. Koroleva.

March 1995 - at the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston, the preliminary design of the station was approved.

1996 - the station configuration was approved. It consists of two segments - Russian (a modernized version of Mir-2) and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, countries - members of the European Space Agency and Brazil).

November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS, the Zarya functional cargo block, which was launched by the Proton-K rocket (FGB).

December 7, 1998 - the shuttle Endeavor docked the American module "Unity" ("Unity", "Node-1") to the Zarya module.

On December 10, 1998, the hatch to the Unity module was opened and Kabana and Krikalev, as representatives of the USA and Russia, entered the station.

July 26, 2000 - a service module (SM) Zvezda was docked to the Zarya functional cargo block.

November 2, 2000 - Soyuz TM-31 manned transport vehicle (TPK) delivered the crew of the first expedition to the ISS.

ISS, July 2000. Docked modules from top to bottom: Unity, Zarya, Star and Progress ship

February 7, 2001 - during the STS-98 mission, the crew of the space shuttle Atlantis attached the American scientific module Destiny to the Unity module.

April 18, 2005 - NASA head Michael Griffin at the hearings of the Senate Commission on Space and Science announced the need to temporarily reduce scientific research on the American segment of the station. This was required to free up funds for the accelerated development and construction of a new manned spacecraft (CEV). The new manned spacecraft was necessary to ensure independent US access to the station, since after the Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, the US temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when shuttle flights resumed.

After the Columbia disaster, the number of ISS long-term crew members was reduced from three to two. This was due to the fact that the station was supplied with materials necessary for the life of the crew, carried out only by Russian cargo ships "Progress".

On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed with the successful launch of the shuttle Discovery. Until the end of the shuttle operation, it was planned to make 17 flights until 2010, during these flights the ISS was supplied with equipment and modules necessary both for completing the station and for modernizing part of the equipment, in particular, the Canadian manipulator.

The second flight of the shuttle after the disaster of "Columbia" (Shuttle "Discovery" STS-121) took place in July 2006. On this shuttle, the German cosmonaut Thomas Reiter arrived on the ISS and joined the crew of the long-term expedition ISS-13. Thus, after a three-year hiatus, three cosmonauts began to work on a long-term expedition to the ISS.

ISS, April 2002

Launched on September 9, 2006, the Atlantis shuttle delivered to the ISS two segments of the ISS truss structures, two solar panels, as well as radiators for the temperature control system of the American segment.

On October 23, 2007, the American module Harmony arrived aboard the Discovery shuttle. It was temporarily docked to the Unity module. After redocking on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was permanently connected to the Destiny module. Construction of the main US segment of the ISS has been completed.

ISS, August 2005

In 2008, the station was expanded by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus module, created by order of the European Space Agency, was docked, and on March 14 and June 4, two of the three main compartments of the Kibo laboratory module, developed by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, were docked - the pressurized section of the Experimental Cargo Bay (ELM PS) and sealed compartment (PM).

In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport vehicles began: the European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, payload - 7.7 tons, 1 flight per year) and the Japanese Agency for Aerospace Research "H-II Transport Vehicle "(The first launch took place on September 10, 2009, payload - 6 tons, 1 flight per year).

On May 29, 2009, the ISS-20 long-term crew of six began to work, delivered in two receptions: the first three people arrived on Soyuz TMA-14, then the Soyuz TMA-15 crew joined them. To a large extent, the increase in the crew was due to the fact that the possibilities of delivering cargo to the station increased.

ISS, September 2006

On November 12, 2009, a small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, which was named "Search" shortly before launch. This is the fourth module of the Russian segment of the station, developed on the basis of the Pirs docking station. The capabilities of the module make it possible to carry out some scientific experiments on it, as well as simultaneously serve as a berth for Russian ships.

On May 18, 2010, the Russian small research module Rassvet (MIM-1) was successfully docked to the ISS. The operation to dock Rassvet to the Russian functional cargo block Zarya was carried out by the manipulator of the American space shuttle Atlantis, and then by the manipulator of the ISS.

ISS, August 2007

In February 2010, the International Space Station's Multilateral Management Board confirmed that there are no known technical restrictions at this stage on the continued operation of the ISS beyond 2015, and the US Administration has envisaged continued use of the ISS until at least 2020. NASA and Roscosmos are considering extending this deadline to at least 2024, and possibly extending it until 2027. In May 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said: "Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station beyond 2020."

In 2011, flights of reusable spacecraft of the Space Shuttle type were completed.

ISS, June 2008

On May 22, 2012, a Falcon 9 launch vehicle with a private cargo spacecraft Dragon was launched from the Cape Canaveral cosmodrome. This is the first ever test flight to the International Space Station by a private spacecraft.

On May 25, 2012, the Dragon spacecraft became the first commercial vehicle to dock with the ISS.

On September 18, 2013, the private automatic cargo supply spacecraft Signus was docked for the first time with the ISS and was docked.

ISS, March 2011

Planned events

The plans include a significant modernization of the Russian spacecraft Soyuz and Progress.

In 2017, it is planned to dock the Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) "Science" to the ISS. It will replace the Pirs module, which will be undocked and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will fully take over the Pier's functions.

"NEM-1" (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned in 2018;

"NEM-2" (scientific and energy module) - the second module.

UM (nodal module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned for 2017.

Station device

The station is based on a modular principle. The ISS is assembled by sequentially adding to the complex the next module or block, which is connected to the one already delivered to orbit.

For 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian - Zarya, Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk, Rassvet; American - Unity, Destiny, Quest, Tranquility, Domes, Leonardo, Harmony, European - Columbus and Japanese - Kibo.

"Zarya"- the Zarya functional cargo module, the first of the ISS modules delivered to orbit. Module weight - 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with jet engines to correct the station's orbit and large solar panels. The service life of the module is expected to be at least 15 years. The American financial contribution to the creation of Zarya is about $ 250 million, the Russian - over $ 150 million;
P.M. panel- an anti-meteorite panel or anti-micrometeor protection, which, at the insistence of the American side, is mounted on the Zvezda module;
"Star"- Service module "Zvezda", which houses flight control systems, life support systems, energy and information center, as well as cabins for cosmonauts. Module weight - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking stations. All its systems and units are Russian, with the exception of the onboard computer complex, created with the participation of European and American specialists;
MIME- small research modules, two Russian cargo modules "Poisk" and "Rassvet", designed to store equipment necessary for scientific experiments. "Search" is docked to the anti-aircraft docking port of the Zvezda module, and the "Rassvet" - to the nadir port of the Zarya module;
"The science"- Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides conditions for storing scientific equipment, conducting scientific experiments, and temporary accommodation for the crew. Also provides the functionality of a European manipulator;
ERA- European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be assigned to the Russian MLM scientific laboratory;
Hermoadapter- a sealed docking adapter designed to interconnect the ISS modules and to ensure docking of shuttles;
"Tranquility"- ISS module performing life support functions. Contains systems for water processing, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. Connected to the "Unity" module;
"Unity"- the first of the three ISS connecting modules, which acts as a docking station and an electricity switch for the Quest and Nod-3 modules, the Z1 farm and transport ships docking to it through the Hermoadapter-3;
"Pier"- port of berthing, intended for the docking of Russian Progress and Soyuz; installed on the Zvezda module;
VSP- external storage platforms: three external unpressurized platforms designed exclusively for storing goods and equipment;
Farms- an integrated truss structure, on the elements of which solar panels, radiator panels and remote manipulators are installed. Also designed for leaky storage of goods and various equipment;
"Canadarm2", or "Mobile Service System" - a Canadian remote manipulator system serving as the primary tool for unloading transport ships and moving external equipment;
"Dexter"- Canadian system of two remote manipulators, used to move equipment located outside the station;
"Quest"- a specialized airlock module designed for space walks of cosmonauts and astronauts with the possibility of preliminary desaturation (washing out nitrogen from human blood);
"Harmony"- a connecting module that acts as a docking station and an electrical switch for three scientific laboratories and transport ships docking to it through the Hermoadapter-2. Contains additional life support systems;
Columbus- European laboratory module, in which, in addition to scientific equipment, network switches (hubs) are installed, providing communication between the station's computer equipment. Docked to the "Harmony" module;
Destiny- American laboratory module docked with the Harmony module;
"Kibo"- Japanese laboratory module, consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in sealed and non-sealed conditions. In addition, thanks to its special design, it allows unplanned experiments. Docked to the "Harmony" module;

ISS observation dome.

"Dome"- transparent observation dome. Its seven windows (the largest is 80 cm in diameter) are used for experiments, space observation and, when docking spacecraft, as well as a control panel for the station's main remote manipulator. Resting place for crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the "Tranquility" nodal module;
TSP- four unpressurized platforms, fixed on trusses 3 and 4, designed to accommodate equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in a vacuum. They provide processing and transmission of experimental results via high-speed channels to the station.
Sealed multifunctional module- warehouse for storing cargo, docked to the nadir docking station of the Destiny module.

In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: Leonardo, Raphael and Donatello, which are periodically delivered into orbit to re-equip the ISS with the necessary scientific equipment and other cargo. Modules with a common name "Multipurpose supply module", were delivered in the cargo hold of the shuttles and docked with the Unity module. Since March 2011, the converted Leonardo module has been included in the station's modules called the Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM).

Power supply to the station

ISS in 2001. The solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules are visible, as well as the P6 truss structure with American solar panels.

The only source of electrical energy for the ISS is the light from which the station's solar panels convert into electricity.

The Russian segment of the ISS uses a constant voltage of 28 volts, similar to that used on the Space Shuttle and Soyuz spacecraft. Electricity is generated directly by the solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to the Russian segment through the ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian converter unit) and in the opposite direction through the RACU voltage converter ( Russian-to-American converter unit).

It was originally planned that the station would be powered by the Russian Science and Energy Platform (NEP) module. However, after the Columbia shuttle disaster, the station assembly program and the shuttle flight schedule were revised. Among other things, the delivery and installation of the NEP was also abandoned, so at the moment most of the electricity is produced by solar panels in the American sector.

In the American segment, solar panels are organized as follows: two flexible foldable solar panels form a so-called solar panel wing ( Solar Array Wing, SAW); in total, four pairs of such wings are placed on the station's truss structures. Each wing is 35 m long and 11.6 m wide, and its useful area is 298 m², while the total power generated by it can reach 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate a primary constant voltage of 115 to 173 volts, which is then, using DDCU units (eng. Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), is transformed into a secondary stabilized constant voltage of 124 Volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.

Solar battery on the ISS

The station makes one revolution around the Earth in 90 minutes and spends about half of this time in the shadow of the Earth, where solar panels do not work. Its power supply then comes from buffer nickel-hydrogen storage batteries, which are recharged when the ISS goes back into sunlight. The batteries have a lifespan of 6.5 years and are expected to be replaced several times over the lifetime of the station. The first battery replacement was carried out on the P6 segment during the spacewalk of the space shuttle Endeavor STS-127 in July 2009.

Under normal conditions, solar panels in the American sector track the Sun to maximize energy production. Solar panels are aimed at the Sun using Alpha and Beta actuators. The station has two Alpha drives, which rotate several sections with solar panels located on them around the longitudinal axis of truss structures: the first drive turns sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery has its own "Beta" drive, which rotates the wing about its longitudinal axis.

When the ISS is in the shadow of the Earth, the solar panels are switched to Night Glider mode ( English) ("Night gliding mode"), at the same time they turn their edge in the direction of travel in order to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere, which is present at the station's flight altitude.

Means of communication

Telemetry transmission and scientific data exchange between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communication. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations, they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multipurpose communication systems.

The Russian segment of the ISS maintains communication with the Earth directly using the Lira radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. Lira makes it possible to use the Luch satellite data relay system. This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but in the 1990s it fell into disrepair and is currently not used. In 2012, Luch-5A was launched to restore the system's performance. In May 2014, 3 Luch multifunctional space relay systems - Luch-5A, Luch-5B and Luch-5V - are operating in orbit. In 2014, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station.

Another Russian communication system, Voskhod-M, provides telephone communication between the Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk modules and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communication with ground control centers using external antennas module "Star".

In the American segment, two separate systems are used for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and K u-band (audio, video, data transmission), located on the Z1 truss. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to the US geostationary satellites TDRSS, which allows for almost continuous contact with the flight control center in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European Columbus module and the Japanese Kibo are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the American TDRSS data transmission system will eventually be supplemented by the European satellite system (EDRS) and a similar Japanese one. Communication between the modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.

During spacewalks, astronauts use a decimeter VHF transmitter. Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle satellites also use VHF radio communications during docking or undocking (however, shuttles also use S- and K u-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spaceships receive commands from the Mission Control Center or from the ISS crew members. Unmanned spacecraft are equipped with their own communication facilities. So, ATV ships use a specialized system during rendezvous and docking. Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE), the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is carried out via two completely independent S-band radio channels. The PCE begins to function starting at relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and turns off after the ATV docks to the ISS and switches to interaction via the MIL-STD-1553 onboard bus. To accurately determine the relative position of the ATV and ISS, a system of laser rangefinders installed on the ATV is used, making it possible to accurately dock with the station.

The station is equipped with approximately one hundred ThinkPad laptops from IBM and Lenovo, Models A31 and T61P, running Debian GNU / Linux. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, have been modified for use in the ISS, in particular, they have redesigned connectors, a cooling system, taken into account the 28 Volt voltage used at the station, and also fulfilled the safety requirements for working in zero gravity. Since January 2010, direct Internet access has been organized at the station for the American segment. The computers on board the ISS are connected via Wi-Fi to a wireless network and connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbps for uploads and 10 Mbps for downloading, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Bathroom for astronauts

The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women, looks exactly the same as on Earth, but has a number of design features. The toilet is equipped with leg braces and thigh holders, and powerful air pumps are built into it. The astronaut is fastened to the toilet seat with a special spring attachment, then turns on a powerful fan and opens the suction port, where the air flow carries all the waste.

On the ISS, air from toilets must be filtered before entering living quarters to remove bacteria and odors.

Greenhouse for astronauts

Fresh greens grown in microgravity are officially on the menu on the International Space Station for the first time. On August 10, 2015, astronauts will taste lettuce harvested from the orbiting Veggie plantation. Many media outlets reported that for the first time the cosmonauts tried their own grown food, but this experiment was carried out at the Mir station.

Scientific research

One of the main goals in the creation of the ISS was the possibility of conducting experiments at the station that require unique conditions for space flight: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation, not weakened by the earth's atmosphere. Major research areas include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science, and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology, and meteorology. Research is carried out with the help of scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories, part of the equipment for experiments requiring a vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its pressurized volume.

ISS scientific modules

At the moment (January 2012), the station includes three special scientific modules - the American laboratory Destiny, launched in February 2001, the European research module Columbus, delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese research module Kibo ". The European research module is equipped with 10 racks in which instruments for research in various fields of science are installed. Some of the racks are specialized and equipped for research in biology, biomedicine and fluid physics. The rest of the racks are universal, in which the equipment can change depending on the experiments being carried out.

The Japanese research module "Kibo" consists of several parts, which were sequentially delivered and assembled in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a sealed experimental transport compartment (eng. JEM Experiment Logistics Module - Pressurized Section ) was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of the shuttle "Endeavor" STS-123. The last part of the Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when the shuttle delivered a leaky experimental transport compartment to the ISS. Experiment Logistics Module, Unpressurized Section ).

Russia has two "Small Research Modules" (MIM) on the orbital station - "Poisk" and "Rassvet". It is also planned to deliver a multifunctional laboratory module "Science" (MLM) into orbit. Only the latter will have full scientific capabilities, the amount of scientific equipment located on two MIMs is minimal.

Collaborative experiments

The international nature of the ISS project encourages collaborative scientific experiments. Such cooperation is most widely developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Federal Space Agency of Russia. The Plasma Crystal experiment devoted to the physics of dusty plasma and conducted by the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, the Institute of High Temperatures and the Institute of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as a number of other scientific institutions in Russia and Germany, the biomedical experiment “ Matryoshka-R ", in which to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation, mannequins are used - equivalents of biological objects created at the Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Cologne Institute of Space Medicine.

The Russian side is also a contractor for contract experiments between ESA and the Japan Aerospace Research Agency. For example, Russian cosmonauts tested the ROKVISS robotic experimental system (eng. Robotic Components Verification on ISS- testing of robotic components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, located in Wesling, near Munich, Germany.

Russian studies

Comparison between burning a candle on Earth (left) and microgravity on the ISS (right)

In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations to conduct scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. For eleven main areas of research, 406 applications were received from eighty organizations. After evaluating the technical feasibility of these applications by RSC Energia specialists, in 1999 the Long-Term Program of Scientific and Applied Research and Experiments Planned on the Russian Segment of the ISS was adopted. The program was approved by the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu. S. Osipov and the General Director of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first studies on the Russian segment of the ISS were started by the first manned expedition in 2000. According to the initial design of the ISS, it was planned to launch two large Russian research modules (MR). The energy needed for scientific experiments was to be provided by the Energy Science Platform (NEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were canceled in favor of the construction of a single scientific module, which did not require large costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research carried out by Russia on the ISS is contractual or joint with foreign partners.

Currently, the ISS is carrying out various medical, biological and physical research.

Research in the American segment

Epstein-Barr virus, shown by fluorescent antibody staining technique

The United States is conducting an extensive research program on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of the research carried out during the flights of shuttles with Spacelab modules and in the joint program with Russia “Mir-Shuttle”. An example is the study of the pathogenicity of one of the causative agents of herpes, the Epstein-Barr virus. According to statistics, 90% of the US adult population is carriers of the latent form of this virus. In space flight, the immune system is weakened, the virus can become active and cause a member of the crew to become ill. Experiments to study the virus were launched during the flight of the STS-108 shuttle.

European studies

Solar observatory, installed on the module "Columbus"

The European scientific module Columbus provides 10 unified payload racks (ISPR), although some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of ESA, the following scientific equipment was installed in the racks: Biolab laboratory for conducting biological experiments, Fluid Science Laboratory for research in the field of fluid physics, installation for physiology experiments European Physiology Modules, as well as a universal rack European Drawer Rack containing equipment for conducting experiments on protein crystallization (PCDF).

During STS-122, external experimental installations for the Columbus module were also installed: a portable platform for technological experiments EuTEF and the solar observatory SOLAR. It is planned to add an external laboratory for testing general relativity and string theory Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.

Japanese studies

The research program carried out on the Kibo module includes the study of the processes of global warming on Earth, the ozone layer and surface desertification, and astronomical research in the X-ray range.

Experiments are planned to create large and identical protein crystals to help understand the mechanisms of disease and develop new therapies. In addition, the effect of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, as well as experiments in robotics, communications and energy will be carried out.

In April 2009, Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata on the ISS conducted a series of experiments that were selected from among those proposed by ordinary citizens. The astronaut attempted to "swim" in zero gravity using a variety of styles, including crawl and butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut to even budge. The astronaut noted at the same time that “even large sheets of paper will not be able to correct the situation if they are taken in hand and used as fins”. In addition, the astronaut wanted to juggle a soccer ball, but this attempt was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back overhead. After completing these difficult exercises in zero gravity, the Japanese astronaut tried to do push-ups from the floor and make rotations in place.

Security questions

Space debris

A hole in the radiator panel of the shuttle Endeavor STS-118, formed as a result of a collision with space debris

Since the ISS is moving in a relatively low orbit, there is a certain probability of collision of the station or astronauts going into outer space, with the so-called space debris. This can include both large objects like rocket stages or out-of-order satellites, and small ones like slag from solid-propellant rocket engines, coolants from reactor plants of US-A satellites, and other substances and objects. In addition, natural objects such as micrometeorites pose an additional threat. Considering cosmic speeds in orbit, even small objects can cause serious damage to the station, and in the event of a possible hit in the cosmonaut's spacesuit, micrometeorites can pierce the skin and cause depressurization.

To avoid such collisions, remote monitoring of the movement of space debris is carried out from the Earth. If such a threat appears at a certain distance from the ISS, the station crew receives a corresponding warning. The astronauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre), which is a group of propulsion systems from the Russian segment of the station. Engaged engines are able to launch the station into a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In case of late detection of danger, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on board the Soyuz spacecraft. Partial evacuation took place on the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011, and March 24, 2012.

Radiation

In the absence of the massive atmospheric layer that surrounds people on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are exposed to more intense radiation from constant streams of cosmic rays. On a day, crew members receive a dose of radiation in the amount of about 1 millisievert, which is approximately equivalent to a person's exposure on Earth for a year. This leads to an increased risk of malignant tumors in astronauts, as well as a weakening of the immune system. The weak immunity of astronauts can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases among the crew members, especially in the confined space of the station. Despite the attempts made to improve the radiation protection mechanisms, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much in comparison with the indicators of previous studies, carried out, for example, at the Mir station.

Station body surface

During the inspection of the outer skin of the ISS, on the scrapings from the surface of the hull and windows, traces of the vital activity of marine plankton were found. It was also confirmed the need to clean the outer surface of the station due to pollution from the operation of spacecraft engines.

Legal side

Legal levels

The legal framework governing the legal aspects of the space station is diverse and consists of four levels:

The first the level that establishes the rights and obligations of the parties is the "Intergovernmental Agreement on the Space Station" (eng. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - IGA ), signed on January 29, 1998 by fifteen governments of the countries participating in the project - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven member states of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article 1 of this document reflects the main principles of the project:
This agreement is a long-term international structure based on sincere partnership for the comprehensive design, construction, development and long-term use of an inhabited civil space station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.... When writing this agreement, it was based on the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, ratified by 98 countries, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law.
The first level of partnership is the basis second level called "Memoranda of Understanding" (eng. Memoranda of Understanding - MOU s ). These memoranda represent agreements between NASA and four national space agencies: FKA, ESA, KKA and JAXA. Memoranda are used to describe in more detail the roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is the appointed manager of the ISS, there are no separate agreements directly between these organizations, only with NASA.
TO the third This level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the parties - for example, a 2005 commercial agreement between NASA and Roskosmos, which included one guaranteed place for an American astronaut in the crews of Soyuz spacecraft and part of the usable volume for American cargo on unmanned aerial vehicles. " Progress ”.
Fourth the legal level complements the second ("Memorandums") and enforces certain provisions from it. An example of this is the ISS Code of Conduct, which was developed pursuant to paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - legal aspects of ensuring subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.

Ownership structure

The ownership structure of the project does not provide for a clearly established percentage for its members on the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article 5 (IGA), each partner only has jurisdiction over the plant component that is registered for it, and violations of the law by personnel, inside or outside the plant, are subject to proceedings under the laws of the country of which they are nationals.

The interior of the Zarya module

ISS resource agreements are more complex. Russian modules "Zvezda", "Pirs", "Poisk" and "Rassvet" are manufactured and belong to Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned Nauka module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The Zarya module was built and delivered to orbit by the Russian side, but this was done with US funds, so today NASA is officially the owner of this module. For the use of Russian modules and other components of the station, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the aforementioned third and fourth legal levels).

The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, trusses, solar panels and two robotic arms), as agreed by the parties, are used as follows (in% of the total time of use):

Columbus - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
Kibo - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
Destiny - 100% for NASA

In addition to this:

NASA can use 100% of the truss area;
By agreement with NASA, the CSA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
Crew working time, solar power, use of ancillary services (loading / unloading, communication services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.

Legal curiosities

Before the flight of the first space tourist, there was no regulatory framework governing private flights into space. But after Dennis Tito's flight, the countries participating in the project developed "Principles" that defined such a concept as "Space Tourist" and all the necessary questions for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such a flight is possible only if there are specific medical indicators, psychological fitness, language training, and a monetary contribution.

The participants in the first space wedding in 2003 found themselves in the same situation, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.

In 2000, the Republican majority in the US Congress adopted a legislative act on the nonproliferation of missile and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not purchase equipment and ships from Russia necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the disaster of "Columbia", when the fate of the project depended on the Russian "Unions" and "Progress", on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to pass amendments to this bill, removing all restrictions on "any protocols, agreements, memorandums of understanding or contracts." , before January 1, 2012.

Costs

The costs of building and operating the ISS turned out to be much higher than it was originally planned. In 2005, ESA estimates that from the start of work on the ISS project from the late 1980s to its then expected completion in 2010, about 100 billion euros (157 billion dollars or 65.3 billion pounds sterling) would have been spent \. However, to date, the end of operation of the station is planned no earlier than 2024, due to the request of the United States, which is unable to undock its segment and continue to fly, the total costs of all countries are estimated at a larger amount.

It is very difficult to make an accurate estimate of the cost of the ISS. For example, it is not clear how Russia's contribution should be calculated, since Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar rates than other partners.

NASA

Evaluating the project as a whole, most of all NASA's expenses are the complex of flight support measures and the costs of managing the ISS. In other words, ongoing operating costs account for a much larger portion of the money spent than the costs of building modules and other station devices, training crews, and delivery ships.

NASA's expenditures on the ISS, excluding Shuttle costs, from 1994 to 2005 were $ 25.6 billion. 2005 and 2006 accounted for approximately $ 1.8 billion. It is projected that annual expenses will increase and by 2010 will amount to $ 2.3 billion. Then, until the completion of the project in 2016, no increase is planned, only inflationary adjustments.

Distribution of budgetary funds

An itemized list of NASA costs can be estimated, for example, according to a document published by the space agency, which shows how the $ 1.8 billion spent by NASA on the ISS in 2005 was distributed:

Research and development of new equipment- $ 70 million. This amount was, in particular, spent on the development of navigation systems, on information support, on technologies to reduce environmental pollution.
Flight support- $ 800 million. This amount included: per ship, $ 125 million for software, spacewalks, supply and maintenance of shuttles; an additional $ 150 million was spent on the flights themselves, on-board electronic equipment and on systems for interaction between the crew and the ship; the remaining $ 250 million went to general management of the ISS.
Ship launches and expeditions- $ 125 million for pre-launch operations at the cosmodrome; $ 25 million for medical care; $ 300 million spent on expedition management;
Flight program- 350 million dollars were spent on the development of the flight program, on the maintenance of ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
Cargo and crews- $ 140 million was spent on the purchase of consumables, as well as the ability to deliver cargo and crews on Russian Progress and Soyuz.

Cost of Shuttles as part of ISS costs

Of the ten scheduled flights remaining until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope

As mentioned above, NASA does not include the cost of the Shuttle program in the main cost of the station, since it positions it as a separate project, independent of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 of the 31 shuttle flights were not connected to the ISS, and of the eleven planned flights remaining until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

The approximate costs of the Shuttle program for the delivery of cargo and crews of astronauts to the ISS were:

Excluding the first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, the cost was $ 24 billion. Of these, 20% ($ 5 billion) did not belong to the ISS. Total - $ 19 billion.
From 1996 to 2006, it was planned to spend 20.5 billion dollars on flights under the Shuttle program. If we subtract the flight to the Hubble from this amount, we end up with the same $ 19 billion.

That is, the total costs of NASA flights to the ISS for the entire period will amount to approximately $ 38 billion.

Total

Taking into account NASA's plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, as a first approximation, you can get an average annual consumption of $ 2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will amount to $ 27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 ($ 25.6 billion) and adding these figures, we get the final official result - $ 53 billion.

It should also be noted that this figure does not include the significant cost of designing the Freedom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participation in a joint program with Russia to use the Mir station in the 1990s. The developments of these two projects were used many times during the construction of the ISS. Taking into account this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the Shuttles, we can talk about more than a twofold increase in the amount of expenses, compared to the official one - more than $ 100 billion for the United States alone.

ESA

ESA has calculated that its contribution over the 15 years of the project's existence will amount to 9 billion euros. Costs for the Columbus module exceed € 1.4 billion (approximately $ 2.1 billion), including costs for ground control and monitoring systems. The total cost of developing the ATV is approximately 1.35 billion euros, with each launch of the Ariane 5 costing approximately 150 million euros.

JAXA

The development of the Japanese Experimental Module, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (approximately $ 2.8 billion).

In 2005, JAXA allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The Japanese experimental module has an annual operating cost of $ 350-400 million. In addition, JAXA has pledged to develop and launch the H-II transport ship, with a total development cost of $ 1 billion. JAXA's expenses for 24 years of participation in the ISS program will exceed $ 10 billion.

Roscosmos

A significant portion of the Russian Space Agency's budget is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen flights of the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft have been made, which since 2003 have become the main means of delivering cargo and crews. However, the question of how much Russia is spending on the station (in US dollars) is not an easy one. The currently existing 2 modules in orbit are derivatives of the Mir program, and therefore the costs for their development are much lower than for other modules, but in this case, by analogy with the American programs, one should also take into account the costs of developing the corresponding modules of the station " Peace". In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately assess the actual costs of Roscosmos.

A rough idea of the expenses of the Russian space agency on the ISS can be obtained based on its total budget, which for 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, for 2006 - 31.806, for 2007 - 32.985 and for 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the plant consumes less than one and a half billion US dollars per year.

CSA

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is a permanent partner of NASA, therefore Canada has been involved in the ISS project from the very beginning. Canada's contribution to the ISS is a mobile maintenance system consisting of three parts: a mobile cart that can move along the station truss, a Canadarm2 robot arm that is mounted on a mobile cart, and a dedicated Dextre arm. ). CSA has invested an estimated $ 1.4 billion in the station over the past 20 years.

Criticism

In the entire history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps, the most criticized space project. Criticism can be considered constructive or short-sighted, you can agree with it or challenge it, but one thing remains unchanged: the station exists, by its existence it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and multiplies the experience of mankind in space flights, spending enormous financial resources on this.

Criticism in the USA

The criticism of the American side is mainly directed at the cost of the project, which already exceeds $ 100 billion. This money, according to critics, could be more usefully spent on automatic (unmanned) flights to explore near space or on science projects on Earth. In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space travel say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted and that there are billions of dollars in material returns from manned space and space exploration. Jerome Schnee (eng. Jerome schnee) estimated the indirect economic component from additional revenues associated with space exploration as many times higher than the initial public investment.

However, a statement from the Federation of American Scientists argues that NASA's profit margins on spin-offs are actually very low, with the exception of aeronautical developments that improve aircraft sales.

Critics also say that NASA often counts third-party development as its achievements, ideas and developments of which may have been used by NASA, but had other prerequisites independent of astronautics. Unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites are really useful and profitable, according to critics. NASA has extensively reported additional income from the construction of the ISS and from the work performed on it, while the official list of NASA expenses is much shorter and more secret.

Criticism of scientific aspects

According to Professor Robert Park (eng. Robert park), most of the planned research studies are not of high priority. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in the space laboratory is to conduct it in microgravity, which can be done much cheaper in artificial zero gravity (in a special plane that flies along a parabolic trajectory). reduced gravity aircraft).

The plans for the construction of the ISS included two high-tech components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and a centrifuge module (eng. Centrifuge Accommodations Module) ... The first has been operating at the station since May 2011. The creation of the second was abandoned in 2005 as a result of the correction of plans to complete the construction of the station. The highly specialized experiments carried out on the ISS are limited by the lack of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were carried out on the influence of space flight factors on the human body, affecting such aspects as kidney stones, circadian rhythm (cyclicality of biological processes in the human body), the effect of cosmic radiation on the human nervous system. Critics argue that this research has little practical value, since the realities of today's near-space exploration are unmanned robotic ships.

Criticism of technical aspects

American journalist Jeff Faust (eng. Jeff Foust) argued that too many expensive and dangerous spacewalks are required to maintain the ISS. Pacific Astronomical Society (eng. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific) at the beginning of the design, the ISS drew attention to the too high inclination of the station's orbit. If for the Russian side this makes launches cheaper, for the American side it is unprofitable. The concession that NASA made for the Russian Federation due to the geographic location of Baikonur may ultimately increase the total cost of building the ISS.

In general, the debate in American society boils down to a discussion of the expediency of the ISS, in the aspect of astronautics in a broader sense. Some advocates argue that, in addition to its scientific value, it is an important example of international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS could potentially, with the proper efforts and improvements, make flights to and from more economical. One way or another, the main essence of the statements of responses to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS, rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight capabilities.

Criticism in Russia

In Russia, criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FCA) to defend Russian interests in comparison with the American side, which always closely monitors compliance with its national priorities.

For example, journalists ask questions about why Russia does not have its own space station project, and why money is being spent on a project owned by the United States, while these funds could be spent on entirely Russian development. According to the head of RSC Energia, Vitaly Lopota, the reason for this is contractual obligations and lack of funding.

At one time, the Mir station became a source of experience for the United States in construction and research on the ISS, and after the Columbia accident, the Russian side, acting in accordance with a partnership agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and astronauts to the station, practically single-handedly saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to criticism of the FCA about the underestimation of the role of Russia in the project. For example, cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia's scientific and technical contribution to the project is underestimated, and that a partnership agreement with NASA does not meet the national interests financially. However, it should be taken into account that at the beginning of the construction of the ISS, the Russian segment of the station was paid for by the United States, providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only by the end of construction.

Speaking about the scientific and technical component, journalists note the small number of new scientific experiments carried out at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot manufacture and supply the necessary equipment to the station due to lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopota, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS will increase to 6 people. In addition, questions are raised about security measures in force majeure situations associated with a possible loss of control of the plant. Thus, according to cosmonaut Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes uncontrollable, it will not be possible to flood it like the Mir station.

International cooperation, which is one of the main arguments in favor of the station, is also controversial, according to critics. As you know, under the terms of an international agreement, countries are not obliged to share their scientific developments at the station. In 2006-2007, there were no new large initiatives or major projects in the space sphere between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that a country investing 75% of its funds in its project is unlikely to want to have a full partner, which is also its main competitor in the struggle for a leading position in outer space.

It is also criticized that significant funds were spent on manned programs, and a number of satellite development programs have failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev said in an interview with Izvestia that, to please the ISS, space science remained on Earth again.

In 2014-2015, experts from the Russian space industry formed the opinion that the practical benefits of orbital stations have already been exhausted - over the past decades, all practically important research and discoveries have been made:

The era of orbital stations that began in 1971 will be a thing of the past. Experts see no practical feasibility either in maintaining the ISS after 2020, or in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: “The scientific and practical output from the Russian segment of the ISS is significantly lower than from the Salyut-7 and Mir orbital complexes. Scientific organizations are not interested in repeating what has already been done.

Expert Magazine 2015

Delivery ships

Crews of manned expeditions on the ISS are delivered to the station on the Soyuz TPK according to a "short" six-hour scheme. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day basis. Until July 2011, cargo delivery, installation of station elements, rotation of crews, in addition to TPK Soyuz, were carried out within the framework of the Space Shuttle program, until the program was completed.

Table of flights of all manned and transport spacecraft to the ISS:

Ship	A type	Agency / country	The first flight	Last flight	Total flights

The modular International Space Station is Earth's largest artificial satellite, the size of a football field. The total sealed volume of the station is equal to the volume of the Boeing-747, and its weight is 419,725 kilograms. The ISS is a joint international project involving 14 countries: Russia, Japan, Canada, Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland, Sweden and, of course, the United States.

Ever wanted to visit the International Space Station? Now there is such an opportunity! You don't need to fly anywhere. A stunning video takes you through the ISS in a fully immersive orbital post experience. A fisheye lens with sharp focus and extreme depth of field provides a fully immersive visual experience. During the 18-minute guided tour, your point of view will move smoothly. You will see our amazing planet 400 kilometers under the ISS Kupol seven-window module and explore the habitable units and modules from the perspective of an astronaut from the inside.

International space station
Manned Orbital Multipurpose Space Research Complex

The International Space Station (ISS), created for scientific research in space. Construction began in 1998 and is carried out with the cooperation of the aerospace agencies of Russia, the United States, Japan, Canada, Brazil and the European Union, and is scheduled to be completed by 2013. When completed, the plant will weigh approximately 400 tons. The ISS revolves around the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions per day. The station will roughly operate in orbit until 2016-2020.

History of creation
Ten years after the first space flight made by Yuri Gagarin, in April 1971, the world's first space orbital station Salyut-1 was launched into orbit. Long-term habitable stations (DOS) were necessary for scientific research, including the long-term effects of weightlessness on the human body. Their creation was a necessary stage in the preparation of future human flights to other planets. The Salyut program had a dual purpose: the Salyut-2, Salyut-3, and Salyut-5 space stations were intended for military needs - reconnaissance and correcting the actions of ground forces. During the implementation of the Salyut program from 1971 to 1986, the main architectural elements of space stations were tested, which were subsequently used in the project of a new long-term orbital station, which was developed by NPO Energia (since 1994 by RSC Energia) and the Salyut design bureau - the leading enterprises of the Soviet space industry. Mir, which was launched in February 1986, became a new DOS in Earth orbit. It was the first space station with a modular architecture: its sections (modules) were delivered into orbit by spacecraft separately and already in orbit were assembled into a single whole. It was planned that the assembly of the largest space station in history would be completed in 1990, and after five years in orbit it would be replaced by another DOS - Mir-2. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union led to a reduction in funding for the space program, so Russia alone could not only build a new orbital station, but also keep the Mir station operational. Then the Americans had practically no experience in creating DOS. In 1973-1974, the American station Skylab operated in orbit, the DOS Freedom project faced sharp criticism from the American Congress. In 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin signed an agreement on space cooperation "World - Shuttle". The Americans agreed to finance the construction of the last two modules of the Mir station: Spectrum and Priroda. In addition, the United States from 1994 to 1998 made 11 flights to Mir. The agreement also provided for the creation of a joint project - the International Space Station (ISS), and it was originally supposed to call it "Alpha" (American version) or "Atlant" (Russian version). In addition to the Federal Space Agency of Russia (Roscosmos) and the US National Aerospace Agency (NASA), the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA, which includes 17 participating countries), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) took part in the project. as well as the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB). India and China expressed their interest in participating in the ISS project. In Washington on January 28, 1998, a final agreement was signed to begin construction of the ISS. The first module of the ISS was the Zarya basic functional cargo segment, which was launched into orbit with a delay of four months in November 1998. It was rumored that due to the underfunding of the ISS program and the failure to build the basic segments, they wanted to exclude Russia from the program. In December 1998, the first American Unity I module was docked to Zarya. Concerns about the future of the station caused the decision to extend the operation of the Mir station until 2002, made by the government of Yevgeny Primakov amid deteriorating relations with the United States due to the war in Yugoslavia and operations of the United Kingdom and the United States in Iraq. However, the last cosmonauts left Mir in June 2000, and on March 23, 2001, the station was flooded in the Pacific Ocean, having worked 5 times longer than the originally planned period. The Russian Zvezda module, the third in a row, was docked to the ISS only in 2000, and in November 2000, the first crew of three arrived at the station: American Captain William Shepherd and two Russians: Sergei Krikalev and Yuri Gidzenko ...

General characteristics of the station
The weight of the ISS after the completion of its construction, according to plans, will be more than 400 tons. The station is roughly the size of a football field. In the starry sky, it can be observed with the naked eye - sometimes the station is the brightest celestial body after the Sun and the Moon. The ISS revolves around the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions a day around it. Scientific experiments are carried out on board the station in the following areas:
Research of new medical methods of therapy and diagnostics and means of life support in zero gravity conditions
Research in the field of biology, the functioning of living organisms in outer space under the influence of solar radiation
Experiments on the study of the earth's atmosphere, cosmic rays, cosmic dust and dark matter
Study of the properties of matter, including superconductivity.
Station design and its modules
Like Mir, the ISS has a modular structure: its different segments were created by the efforts of the countries participating in the project and have their own specific function: research, residential, or are used as storage facilities. Some of the modules, for example the American modules of the Unity series, are jumpers or serve for docking with transport ships. When completed, the ISS will consist of 14 main modules with a total volume of 1000 cubic meters; a crew of 6 or 7 people will be permanently aboard the station.

Zarya module
The first module of the station, weighing 19.323 tons, was launched into orbit by the Proton-K launch vehicle on November 20, 1998. This module was used at an early stage of the construction of the station as a source of electricity, also to control orientation in space and maintain temperature conditions. Subsequently, these functions were transferred to other modules, and Zarya began to be used as a warehouse. The creation of this module was repeatedly postponed due to a lack of funds from the Russian side and, ultimately, was built with US funds at the Khrunichev State Research and Development Center and belongs to NASA.

Module "Star"
The Zvezda module is the main living module of the station; it contains life support and control systems for the station. Russian transport ships Soyuz and Progress dock to it. The module was launched into orbit with a two-year delay by the Proton-K launch vehicle on July 12, 2000 and docked on July 26 with Zorya and the previously launched American docking module Unity-1. The module was partially built back in the 1980s for the Mir-2 station; its construction was completed with Russian funds. Since the "Zvezda" was created in a single copy and was the key for the further operation of the station, in case of a failure during its launch, the Americans built a less capacious backup module.

Module "Pier"
The docking module weighing 3,480 tons was manufactured by RSC Energia and was launched into orbit in September 2001. It was built with Russian funds and serves for the docking of the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, as well as for spacewalk.

Search module
The docking module "Search - Small Research Module-2" (MIM-2) is practically identical to the "Pirs". It was launched into orbit in November 2009.

Dawn module
Rassvet Small Research Module-1 (MIM-1), used for biotechnological and materials science experiments, as well as for docking, was delivered to the ISS by a shuttle mission in 2010.

Remaining modules
Russia plans to add another module to the ISS - the Multifunctional Laboratory Module (MLM), which is being created by the Khrunichev State Research and Production Center and after launching in 2013 should become the station's largest laboratory module weighing more than 20 tons. It is planned that it will include an 11-meter manipulator that will be able to move astronauts and astronauts in space, as well as various equipment. The ISS already has laboratory modules from the USA (Destiny), ESA (Columbus) and Japan (Kibo). They and the main nodal segments Harmony, Quest and Unnity were launched into orbit by shuttles.

Expeditions
In the first 10 years of operation, the ISS was visited by more than 200 people from 28 expeditions, which is a record for space stations (only 104 people visited Mir. The ISS became the first example of commercialization of space flights. Roscosmos, together with Space Adventures company, sent space tourists into orbit for the first time The first was American entrepreneur Dennis Tito, who spent $ 20 million on board the station for 7 days and 22 hours in April-May 2001. Since then, the ISS has been visited by Mark Shuttleworth, an entrepreneur and founder of the Ubuntu Foundation. ), American scientist and businessman Gregory Olsen, Iranian-American Anousheh Ansari, former head of the Microsoft software development group Charles Simonyi and computer game developer, founder of the role-playing games (RPG) genre Richard Garriott, son of American astronaut Owen Garriott. Moreover, within the framework of the contract for the purchase of Russian weapons by Malaysia, Roscosmos in 2007 organized the flight to the ISS of the first Malaysian cosmonaut, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor. The episode with the wedding in space received a wide resonance in society. On August 10, 2003, Russian cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko and Russian-American Yekaterina Dmitrieva got married remotely: Malenchenko was on board the ISS, and Dmitrieva was on Earth in Houston. This event received a sharply negative assessment from the commander of the Russian Air Force Vladimir Mikhailov and Rosaviakosmos. There were rumors that Rosaviakosmos and NASA were going to ban such events in the future.

Incidents
The most serious incident was the crash of the landing of the shuttle Columbia (Columbia, Columbia) on February 1, 2003. Although Columbia did not dock with the ISS, conducting an independent exploration mission, this disaster resulted in shuttle flights being terminated and resumed only in July 2005. This delayed the completion of the station's construction and made the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft the only means of delivering cosmonauts and cargo to the station. Other most serious incidents include smoke pollution in the Russian segment of the station in 2006, computer failures in Russian and American segments in 2001 and twice in 2007. In the fall of 2007, the crew of the station was busy fixing a break in the solar battery that happened during its installation. In 2008, a bathroom in the Zvezda module broke down twice, which required the crew to build a temporary waste collection system using removable containers. A critical situation did not arise due to the presence of a backup bathroom on the Japanese module "Kibo" docked in the same year.

Ownership and funding
By agreement, each project participant owns its segments on the ISS. Russia owns the Zvezda and Pirs modules, Japan - the Kibo module, ESA - the Columbus module. The solar panels, which, after completion of the station's construction, will generate 110 kilowatts per hour, and the rest of the modules belong to NASA. Initially, the cost of the station was estimated at 35 billion dollars, in 1997 the estimated cost of the station was already 50 billion, and in 1998 - 90 billion dollars. In 2008, ESA estimated its total value at € 100 billion.

Criticism
Despite the fact that the ISS has become a new milestone in the development of international cooperation in space, its project has been repeatedly criticized by experts. Due to funding problems and the Columbia disaster, the most important experiments, such as the launch of the Japanese-American artificial gravity module, were canceled. The practical significance of the experiments carried out on the ISS did not justify the costs of creating and maintaining the operation of the station. Michael Griffin, who was appointed head of NASA in 2005, although he called the ISS "the greatest engineering miracle", said that because of the station, financial support for space exploration programs by robotic vehicles and manned flights to the Moon and Mars is diminishing. The researchers noted that the project of the station, which provided for a strongly inclined orbit, significantly reduced the cost of flights to the ISS by Soyuz, but made shuttle launches more expensive.

The future of the station
The completion of the ISS construction took place in 2011-2012. Thanks to the new equipment delivered to the ISS by the Endeavor shuttle expedition in November 2008, the station's crew will be increased in 2009 from 3 to 6 people. It was originally planned that the ISS station should work in orbit until 2010, in 2008 another date was called - 2016 or 2020. According to experts, the ISS, unlike the Mir station, will not be drowned in the ocean; it is supposed to use it as a base for assembling interplanetary spacecraft. Despite the fact that NASA spoke in favor of reducing funding for the station, the head of the agency, Griffin, promised to fulfill all US obligations to complete the construction of the station. One of the main problems is the further operation of the shuttles. The last shuttle expedition is scheduled to fly in 2010, while the first flight of US Orion spacecraft to replace the shuttles was slated for 2014. Thus, from 2010 to 2014, the cosmonauts and cargo were to be delivered to the ISS by Russian rockets. However, after the war in South Ossetia, many experts, including Griffin, stated that the cooling of relations between Russia and the United States could lead to the fact that Roskosmos would stop cooperating with NASA and the Americans would be deprived of the opportunity to send their expeditions to the station. In 2008, ESA broke the Russian and US monopoly on cargo delivery to the ISS by successfully docking an Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) cargo ship to the station. Since September 2009, the Japanese laboratory Kibo has been supplied with the H-II Transfer Vehicle, an unmanned automatic spacecraft. It was planned that RSC Energia would develop a new spacecraft for the flight to the ISS - Clipper. However, the lack of funding led to the fact that the Federal Space Agency of Russia canceled the competition for the creation of such a ship, so the project was frozen. In February 2010, it became known that US President Barack Obama had ordered the closure of the lunar Constellation program. According to the American president, the implementation of the program was far behind in terms of time, and it itself did not contain any fundamental novelty. Instead, Obama decided to invest additional funds in the development of space projects of private companies and until they can send ships to the ISS, the delivery of astronauts to the station was to be carried out by Russian forces.
In July 2011, the Atlantis shuttle made its last flight, after which Russia remained the only country that has the ability to send people to the ISS. In addition, the United States temporarily lost the ability to supply the station with cargo and was forced to rely on Russian, European and Japanese colleagues. However, NASA considered options for concluding contracts with private companies, providing for the creation of ships that could deliver cargo to the station, and then astronauts. The first such experience was the Dragon ship, developed by the private company SpaceX. Its first experimental docking with the ISS was repeatedly postponed for technical reasons, but was crowned with success in May 2012.

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on the creation of an American space station.

In 1988, the projected station was named "Freedom". At the time, it was a joint project between the USA, ESA, Canada and Japan. A large-sized controlled station was planned, the modules of which would be delivered one by one into orbit by the Shuttle spacecraft. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it became clear that the cost of developing the project was too high and only international cooperation would make it possible to create such a station. The USSR, which already had experience in creating and launching into orbit the Salyut orbital stations, as well as the Mir station, planned to create the Mir-2 station in the early 1990s, but due to economic difficulties the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States signed an agreement on cooperation in space exploration. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency and NASA have developed a joint Mir-Shuttle program. This program included flights of American reusable Space Shuttle spacecraft to the Russian space station Mir, the inclusion of Russian cosmonauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Mir station.

During the implementation of the Mir-Shuttle program, the idea of combining national programs for the creation of orbital stations was born.

In 1993, many politicians in the United States were against the construction of a space station. In June 1993, the US Congress discussed a proposal to abandon the creation of the International Space Station. This proposal was not accepted by a margin of only one vote: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for the construction of the station.

Stages of ISS creation:

> 10 facts you didn't know about the ISS

The most interesting facts about the ISS(International Space Station) with a photo: the life of astronauts, you can see the ISS from Earth, crew members, gravity, batteries.

The International Space Station (ISS) is one of the greatest technological achievements of all mankind in history. In the name of science and education, the space agencies of the United States, Europe, Russia, Canada and Japan have united. It is a symbol of technological excellence and shows how much we can achieve when we work together. Listed below are 10 facts you may have never heard of the ISS.

1. The ISS celebrated its 10th anniversary of continuous human functioning on November 2, 2010. Starting from the first expedition (October 31, 2000) and docking (November 2), 196 people from eight countries visited the station.

2. The ISS can be seen from Earth without the use of technology, and it is the largest artificial satellite ever orbiting our planet.

3. Since the first Zarya module launched at 1:40 am ET on November 20, 1998, the ISS has completed 68,519 orbits around the Earth. Her odometer reads 1.7 billion miles (2.7 billion km).

4. As of November 2, 103 launches were made to the cosmodrome: 67 Russian vehicles, 34 shuttles, one European and one Japanese ship. There were 150 space walks to assemble the station and keep it running, which took over 944 hours.

5. The ISS is operated by a crew of 6 astronauts and cosmonauts. At the same time, the station's program ensures the continuous presence of man in space since the launch of the first expedition on October 31, 2000, which is approximately 10 years and 105 days. Thus, the program maintained the current record, breaking the previous mark of 3664 days set on board Mir.

6. The ISS serves as a research laboratory equipped with microgravity conditions, in which the crew conducts experiments in the fields of biology, medicine, physics, chemistry and physiology, as well as astronomical and meteorological observations.

7. The station is powered by huge solar panels, the size of which covers the territory of the US football field, including the end zones, and weighs 827794 pounds (275481 kg). The complex has a livable room (like a five bedroom house) equipped with two bathrooms and a gym.

8. 3 million lines of software code on Earth supports 1.8 million lines of flight software code.

9.The 55-foot robotic arm is capable of lifting 220,000 feet of weight. For comparison, this is the weight of an orbiting shuttle.

10. Power of 75-90 kilowatts for the ISS is provided by acres of solar panels.

International Space Station. It is a 400-ton structure, consisting of several dozen modules with an internal volume of over 900 cubic meters, and is home to six space explorers. The ISS is not only the largest structure ever created by man in space, but also a true symbol of international cooperation. But this colossus did not appear from scratch - to create it, it took over 30 launches.

It all started with the Zarya module, delivered into orbit by the Proton launch vehicle in November 1998.

Two weeks later, the Unity module went into space aboard the space shuttle Endeavor.

The Endeavor crew docked two modules, which became the main ones for the future ISS.

The third element of the station is the Zvezda residential module, launched in the summer of 2000. Interestingly, Zvezda was originally designed as a replacement for the base module of the Mir orbital station (AKA Mir 2). But the reality that followed after the collapse of the USSR made its own adjustments, and this module became the heart of the ISS, which, in general, is also not bad, because only after its installation it became possible to send long-term expeditions to the station.

The first crew went to the ISS in October 2000. Since then, the station has been continuously inhabited for over 13 years.

In the same fall of 2000, the ISS was visited by several shuttles, which mounted a power module with the first set of solar panels.

In winter 2001, the ISS was replenished with the Destiny laboratory module, delivered into orbit by the Atlantis shuttle. Destiny was docked to the Unity module.

The main assembly of the station was carried out by shuttles. In 2001-2002, they delivered external storage platforms to the ISS.

Arm-manipulator "Kanadarm2".

Airlocks "Quest" and "Pier".

And most importantly, the elements of the truss structures, which were used for storing cargo outside the station, installing radiators, new solar panels and other equipment. The total length of the farms to date reaches 109 meters.

2003 year. Due to the disaster of the space shuttle Columbia, work on the assembly of the ISS has been suspended for almost three to three years.

2005 year. Finally, the shuttles return to space and station construction resumes.

The shuttles are delivering new truss elements into orbit.

With their help, new sets of solar batteries are being installed on the ISS, which makes it possible to increase its power supply.

In autumn 2007, the ISS is replenished with the Harmony module (it docks with the Destiny module), which in the future will become a connecting node for two research laboratories: the European Columbus and the Japanese Kibo.

In 2008, Columbus is delivered into orbit by a shuttle and docked with Harmony (the lower left module at the bottom of the station).

March 2009. Shuttle Discovery delivers the final fourth set of solar arrays into orbit. Now the station is operating at full capacity and can accommodate a permanent crew of 6 people.

In 2009, the station is being replenished with the Russian Poisk module.

In addition, the assembly of the Japanese "Kibo" begins (the module consists of three components).

February 2010. The "Tranquility" module is added to the "Unity" module.

The famous "Dome", in turn, joins the "Tranquility".

It is so good to make observations from it.

Summer 2011 - shuttles retire.

But before that, they tried to deliver as much equipment and equipment to the ISS as possible, including robots specially trained to kill all humans.

Fortunately, by the time the shuttles retire, the assembly of the ISS is almost complete.

But still not completely. It is planned that in 2015 the Russian laboratory module "Science" will be launched, which will replace the "Pirs".

In addition, it is possible that the experimental inflatable module Bigelow, which is now being created by Bigelow Aerospace, will be docked to the ISS. If successful, it will become the first space station module built by a private company.

However, there is nothing surprising in this - the private Dragon truck already flew to the ISS in 2012, and why not private modules appear? Although, of course, it is obvious that it will be a long time before private companies can create structures similar to the ISS.

Until this happens, it is planned that the ISS will operate in orbit until at least 2024 - although I personally hope that in reality this period will be much longer. Yet, too much human effort has been put into this project to be shut down due to immediate economy rather than scientific considerations. And even more so, I sincerely hope that no political squabbles will affect the fate of this unique building.