Language as a changing phenomenon - historical changes in language. Changes in the language and the reasons for this process How and why the Russian language changed
Russians are descended from the Slavs who all once spoke the same language. Regarding one (by) the fact that this pr..Slavic language was
internally (not) homogeneous. With the resettlement of the Slavs on large territories ... itories, unity in general ... was completely destroyed. New conditions of communication gave birth to new words, pronunciation fell under the influence of (differently) linguistic neighbors, geographical disunity, for example, led the Slavic peoples along (not) the same paths. The ancient language existed only in the oral form (primitive) Slavs (did not) know writing..ost. Differences in grammar ..atike phonetics became such that the Slavs ceased to understand each other .. mother of each other pr .. the Slavic language died splitting .. falling into new languages.
With the adoption of Christianity in Eastern Europe, the task arose of uniting the Slavic languages in order to tell all the Slavs about Christ.
On May 24, 863, in the city of Pliska, the then capital of Bulgaria, the Thessalonica brothers Cyril and Methodius proclaimed ... the invention ... of the Slavic alphabet. Their idea was leading ... amazing work ... amazing and the results are beyond the wildest expectations. Having undergone a number of changes, the Cyrillic alphabet lives to this day among Bulgarians, Serbs and other peoples.
Children of the wise men, this bookish Old Slavonic language is one of the most beautiful languages. The first teachers of the Slavs diligently selected the “most beautiful words” from various Slavic peoples, as clear as possible to all Slavs. The language was ... adapted to abstract reasoning, expressive descriptions and narratives. The success of the Old Slavonic language is not so much in the revival of common features, but precisely in the "dispensation", because the Slavic languages in unwritten prehistory were without order of harmony of stability.
(According to V.G. Kostomarov)
GRAMMAR ASSIGNMENT
1. Formulate the main idea of the text.
2. Specify the number of micro topics in the text.
3. Determine the style of the text (prove your opinion).
4. Determine the type of text (prove your opinion).
5. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert, where necessary, the missing letters (in the sentences of the first paragraph).
6. Make a phonetic analysis of the word is.
7. Graphically explain the punctuation in the sentences of the first paragraph.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT.
OPTION.
We pr .. move them into the world in order to (would) comprehend beauty, approve to create it.
Beauty is the joy of our life. A man became a Man (by) the fact that he saw .. l the depth of the azure sky, the twinkling of stars, the pink spill of the evening .. transparent dawn .. the haze of the steppe expanses. over the horizon blue ... shadows in the snowdrifts of March snow a flock of cranes in the blue sky reflection of the sun in m .. riads of morning drops .. her rivers gray threads of rain on a cloudy day purple cloud on a rhubarb bush gentle st. Belek and the blue bell of a snowdrop - he saw ..l and, amazed, went along the earth creating a new beauty. Stop and you are in amazement .. in front of beauty - and nobility will bloom in your heart. The joy of life (by) the fact that he heard ..l ..sweat of leaves and the song of the kuz ..nechika murmur of springs ..his stream and overflows of silver bells of the lark in the hot summer sky, the rustling of snowflakes and the groan of a blizzard gentle square wave and solemn .. the silence of the night - hear .. l and hold your breath listening .. for hundreds and thousands of years of wonderful .. music of life. Feel free to listen to this music. Treasure the beauty, take it..gi.
VA. Sukhomlinsky
GRAMMAR ASSIGNMENT
1. Title the text.
2. Prove that this is a text.
3. What is the main idea of the text.
4. Determine the style of the text (prove your opinion).
5. Determine the type of text (prove your opinion).
6. Fill in the missing punctuation marks. Insert the missing letters where necessary.
7. Determine what artistic means are used in this text.
8. Determine the lexical meaning of the word nobility.
9. Make a phonetic analysis of the word heart.
10. Make a morphemic analysis of words: stop
astonished hold.
11. Parse the first sentence.
14. Vocabulary work. Insert the missing letters.
Ab..tour..ent, ab..n..ment, absolute, av..ngard, avt..r..tet, agr..gat, agr..nom, adv..kat, ak..demia , acc..mp..n..ment, accumulator, al..bastr, all..goriya, alf..vit, amb..l..thorium, ampl..there, amf..t..atr, analogy, anonymous, apl..d..smenty, ar..mat, atm..sfera, aud..tion, b..gazh, b..l..rina, b..nocle, b..g. .tyr, b..hiccup, b..cal, br..zent, but..rbrod, v..kansia, vak..um, v..ktsina, v..nt..lator, v..st ..bul, v..t..ran, v..n..gret, v..rtuoz, v..kzal.
June 6, the birthday of the great poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, is celebrated as the Day of the Russian Language. This entire year is passing under the sign of the 100th anniversary of the Russian Revolution, which radically changed the lives of millions of our compatriots. Along with life, Russian speech also changed. "VM" decided to trace what the revolutionary upheavals of 1917 brought to the Russian language. Historical events and phenomena of social life have a significant impact on the development of the language. What happened to Russian speech at the beginning of the 20th century, Lidia Malygina, Associate Professor of the Department of Stylistics of the Russian Language, Faculty of Journalism, Lomonosov Moscow State University (pictured) told in an interview with VM.
The 20th century in the history of Russia is the century of wars and revolutions. What was the vocabulary of the epoch of shocks? How did society react to changes in language?
At this time, global migrations of the population took place, a new statehood arose, a spelling reform was carried out, steps were taken towards universal literacy. The lexical composition of the language has changed. Remember how, after 1905, the words "comrade", "suicide bomber", "caravan" appeared. Even before the First World War, the word "pilot" began to be used instead of the foreign word aviator; instead of cinema they began to speak of cinema. Drape, refugee, play box, fraternization, bagman, compromiser, dodge and others ... Many new words appeared precisely because of the war of 1914, the events of 1917 and the civil war.
What are the characteristic language signs of that time?
Abbreviations and abbreviations. The older generation remembers well: acting (interim), deputy, special (compare: military specialist), commander-in-chief (supreme commander), commander, zemgor (union of zemstvos and cities), RSFSR, NEP, GPU, people's commissar, people's commissariat, Comintern, gubchek , tax in kind, housecombed, Donbass. There were even parodies: "zamkompomorde" - deputy commissar for maritime affairs. The writer, linguist Lev Vasilyevich Uspensky, for example, worked as a divisional draftsman.
But there are no such abbreviations in modern Russian.
Yes, they did not take root due to the barrier that inevitably arises before words that violate the harmony and euphony of Russian speech. In the story “The Cohabitant”, the writer Alexei Nikolayevich Tolstoy ridicules the revolutionary borrowing of the “mandate” (document), shows associations with the then known “shameful” word.
What other thoughtless and short-lived innovations were there in October 1917?
The love of abbreviations was ridiculed by Vladimir Mayakovsky in the poem “The Sitting Ones”. Remember? "Did Comrade Ivan Vanych come?" - "At the meeting of A-be-ve-ge-de-e-jeze-com." Unfortunately, even today long and complex names of state institutions are the scourge of Russian cities. The office has become so firmly established in our daily life that journalists and Internet users have compiled a list of the most ridiculous, funny and unpronounceable abbreviations - the names of government agencies. For example, TsMAMLS - Central Moscow archive-museum of personal collections; or VSEGEI - All-Russian Research Geological Institute. What is left for its employees to do? Only pronounce VSEGEI.
Another abbreviation - VNIOPTUSH - All-Russian Research Institute for the Organization of Production, Labor and Management in Agriculture. Employees introduce themselves on the phone: “I am the deputy chief accountant from VNIOPTUSH.” Abbreviation GUZMOMOTSPBSPIDIZ - State Health Institution of the Moscow Region Moscow Regional Center for the Prevention and Control of AIDS and Infectious Diseases. A serious institution, but simply the language does not turn to call it that.
It sounds absurd, but have you met before the euphonious abbreviations of serious state institutions?
Certainly. Remember the poem by Zinaida Gippius "Now"? There we find the following lines: “Vikzhel already dismantled the paths with his black hands.” Vikzhel. What an eloquent word. But this is just the All-Russian Executive Committee of Railway Workers.
And what names were given to children!
Indeed, after the October Revolution in Soviet Russia, it was fashionable for children to give the most unimaginable names. In the dictionary of Russian personal names of Nikandr Petrovsky, you can find the following popular names of that era: Dazdraperma (from the slogan "Long live the First of May"), Revdit - ("Child of the Revolution"), Pofistal - ("The winner of fascism Joseph Stalin") and even Perkosrak ( "The First Space Rocket"). But there were among the strange revolutionary names and those who then took root. They were then called babies for a long time. For example, Vladlen (abbreviated as Vladimir Lenin) or Ninel (this is the same Lenin, only in reverse), Kim (Communist Youth International).
Yes, yes, we remember: Vilena (also from Vladimir Ilyich Lenin), Kasema (an abbreviation for “Communist Youth Union”), the names Revolution, Barricade ...
The words "Spanish flu" (flu), "cultivator", "sypnyak" appear after 1919; general use includes direct borrowing: corruption, contact, questionnaire; semantically rethought borrowings are beginning to be actively used: isolate, base, dominate, show off, dances.
1921 is the beginning of the NEP. How is the jargon of the city bottom changing?
The words “stash” (hidden capital), “blab” (play the fool during interrogation), “taunt” (incite, provoke a conversation), “replace” (expose, catch on something) and others for the first time enter colloquial speech.
Why are these words preserved in modern language?
Even the Soviet Russian linguist Vladimir Viktorovich Kolesov drew attention to the fact that "each of these words is used today in a broader sense than the one in which it came from jargon." It was the expansion of meaning that allowed the word to survive in common parlance.
Were borrowings used in those years?
Yes, not always understandable, but such attractive foreign words are beginning to be actively used in speech. In the minds of the speakers, they were associated with the "winds of change". At the same time, a survey of Red Army soldiers in 1925 showed that they did not know the meaning of the words: blockade, landing, veteran; they were almost unfamiliar with the words: demobilization, moral, reward, many even poorly deciphered the abbreviation USSR. It is curious that at the same time the words were well recognizable: resolution, cooperative, deserter, strike, spy; the words were clear to everyone without exception: army, tribune, program, political instructor, loan, prison, requisition.
In the post-revolutionary era of the 1920s, was there a desire to oppose the class language of the “proletarian” language to the “intellectual-bourgeois”, “monarchist”?
Yes. Pay attention to active renaming. Philologists will say: “The linguistic problem of nomination (that is, naming) acquires special ideological significance at this time. Professor L. I. Skvortsov drew attention to this. The party and government oligarchy sought to influence the public consciousness precisely through the vocabulary of the language. Why was the renaming necessary? Firstly, in this way the connection with the pre-revolutionary past was interrupted. It was an attempt to destroy continuity in many areas of life. Secondly, in this way everything that could remind of tsarist Russia, for example, about its symbolism, was consigned to oblivion. Thirdly, the impression was created of a complete renewal of all aspects of society. Fourthly, the change of names had to demonstrate significant changes in the object of the nomination itself (that is, naming). Conclusion: with the change of names, the illusion of a constant qualitative change in society itself arose.
And what new words and expressions appear and are fixed in the language in accordance with the Party's attitude?
Stakhanovite, brigade of communist labor, shock worker, leader, collective farmer. Administrative-territorial units are renamed: not a province, county, volost, but a republic, region, district. The names of state institutions are changing: instead of the council of ministers, ministries, departments, collegiums, the council of people's commissars, the economic council, people's commissariats, district councils, village councils, and executive committees appear. Military ranks also change. Until the 1940s, they exist in a renamed form. Not a soldier, officer, major, colonel, general, but a Red Army soldier or Red Guard, commander, platoon commander, commander, regiment commander, commander, army commander. Instead of a policeman (sergeant, policeman, police officer) - a policeman, district police officer, detective.
It seems that everyone decided to rename ...
Even the names of the animals have changed. For example, collective farm bulls were called Bourgeois or Fists. Kolkhozes and state farms had bright ideologized names: "Dawn of Communism", "The Path to Communism", "Dawn", "Bolshevik". Linguists, in particular M.V. Gorbanevsky, drew attention to the fact that in the first post-revolutionary years, the renaming was carried out according to the principle of contrast: Dvoryanskaya Street - Derevenskaya Poor Street, Meshchanskaya - Grazhdanskaya Street, Ruzheinaya - Peace Street, Bishops - Leo Tolstoy Street, French embankment - Kutuzov embankment. This, apparently, made it possible to separate from everything odious.
Did the adjective “red” play an important role in the renaming process?
Yes, after the October Revolution this word acquired a “revolutionary meaning” – “new, revolutionary, socialist”. The former, “old-mode” meaning of this adjective is “beautiful, picturesque” and “located on the sunny side”: Krasnoye Selo, Krasny Stan, Krasnaya Gorka, Krasny Rog. These are familiar names, after the revolution new, “revolutionary” names of factories, settlements, collective farms and other objects were added to them: Red October, Krasnodar, Red Niva, Red Way, Red Textile Worker, Red Builder, Red Profintern, Red Peatland and others.
The name of Red Square - the main square of the country - successfully fit into the "new era"!
It also acquired a new ideological meaning. By the way, later Bulat Okudzhava in his poems supplemented this meaning with a negative connotation:
And you, the beautiful generalissimo,
Are you still lying on the square on Red?
Isn't she red from blood?
Changes in language seemed dangerous to contemporaries. In general, the Russian language suffered seriously during the revolution. Much was subjected to "merciless mutilation", "merciless distortion". Already in 1925, in a discussion on the culture of speech, respected Russian philologists Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba and Lev Petrovich Yakubinsky sounded the alarm, saying that the Russian language was going through a “rather troubled time”: “The language has become extremely careless, sloppy and began to dazzle with foreign words and turnovers more than it was before.
Millions of intellectuals, together with their families, were forced to say goodbye to their homeland. Why was the speech of emigrants so pretentious? For example: “How did you rest, madam?”, “Would you like to eat with us, young lady?”
It was a great and tragic "Russian exodus". Modern speakers of the Russian literary language know both the book and colloquial norms, that is, both varieties of the Russian literary language. Russian emigrants of the first wave, who left Russia after October 1917 and during the Civil War, could not boast of this. They did not aspire to become "real French" or "real Germans" because they considered being in a foreign country a temporary test. Russian emigration of the first wave formed the thesis: emigration does not live in their homeland, but they live in their native language.
Emigrants, among whom were I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, I. Severyanin, F. Chaliapin, S. Rachmaninov - "the color of the nation", - saw their mission in preserving the values and traditions of Russian culture, preserving the great Russian language inherited from the 19th century. The problem was that representatives of the nobility (philosophers, writers, poets, musicians, artists, engineers, architects, doctors, lawyers, officers) and their descendants practically did not know colloquial Russian. They even spoke the bookish language in everyday life, which was common in aristocratic circles in the pre-revolutionary years. For a long time, a pilot was called an aviator, a salary was called a salary, and so on.
Were the emigrants horrified by the “spoilage” of the Russian language in Soviet Russia?
Lidia Evgenievna Malygina - Candidate of Philology, Scientific Supervisor of the Distance Learning System WWW.LIKBEZ.ORG, Associate Professor of the Department of Russian Language Stylistics at the Faculty of Journalism of Lomonosov Moscow State University.
A DICTIONARY WILL SAVE ONLY WHAT YOU REALLY NEED
Questions about borrowed words regularly come to our portal. They are mostly about spelling. "Blogger" - with one "r" or two? "Flashmob" and "hashtag" - together or through a hyphen, through "e" or through "e"? They often ask about accents. And most often, by the way, questions concern the word "marketing". One student wrote that his teacher promised to lower grades for those who say “marketing” because in English this word is stressed on the first syllable. We answered that some borrowed words retain their stress, while others change. There are many such examples: for example, in the words “laptop” and “hockey” in English, the stress also falls on the first syllable. I remember an interesting question about the word "katoy" - this is how men who have changed sex are called in Thailand. How to incline him - masculine or feminine? The external form is similar to the masculine - like a "hero". And the meaning is more related to the woman.
And the most common questions concern whether we need borrowed words at all. For example, why do we need “muffin”, if there is a beautiful Russian word “cake”. There are two misconceptions here. Firstly, "muffin" is not just a cupcake, but a special kind of it. Borrowings do not impoverish the language, but, on the contrary, enrich it, help to more accurately describe reality. And secondly, the word "cupcake" is borrowed from the same English language as "muffin". Many of the words familiar to us have a foreign origin: “bread” is most likely from the Germanic languages, “horse” and “dog” are from Turkic, “letter” is not alien to me - from Greek.
It is impossible to say exactly how many native Russian words are in the Russian language. After all, only the root of a word can be foreign. "Computer" came to us from English, but "computer" and "computer" are already formed in Russian with the help of Russian suffixes.
In our history there have been “splashes” of borrowings. The adoption of Orthodoxy and the spread of writing, when many words were borrowed from the Old Slavonic language - the language of liturgical books ("sacred", "hope", "enemy"). “The Great Road from the Varangians to the Greeks”, along which Scandinavian, Greek, Turkic words also traveled. The era of Peter I - the expansion of German and Dutch vocabulary. The beginning of the XIX century - the influx of French words. The last peak of borrowings, this time English, was passed at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. Right now, it seems to me, there is a period of calm. Language starts inventory. And if a foreign word remains in the language, it means that it is really needed.
Youth slang
Easy - something light and simple, even too much. From English easy (easy).
Hype - fashionable, in the subject. Hype is what is fashionable now.
Hard - "screw", hard drive, hard drive (from the English hard disc drive); or computer equipment, hardware, hardware (from English hardware).
criminal slang
The bugbear is a thief who specializes in stealing from safes.
Mokruha - murder.
The cop is a detective.
Bomb - rob.
Any language is a developing, not a dead, forever frozen phenomenon. According to N.V. Gogol,
“Our extraordinary language is still a mystery ... it is boundless and can, living like life, be enriched every minute.”
If we read the chronicles or even the works of writers who created only a hundred years ago, we cannot but notice that they wrote then, and therefore spoke, not in the way we speak and write now. So. for example, the word Necessarily in Russian meant kindly, in the XX century. the meaning of this word has changed, now it means certainly. We find it difficult to understand the 19th century phrase:
"He treated her for sure,"
— if we do not know the old meaning of the word. The same happens with other phenomena peculiar to language.
Historical changes in language
All levels of the language are subject to historical changes - from phonetics to sentence construction.
Alphabet changes
The modern Russian alphabet goes back to the Cyrillic alphabet (the ancient Slavic alphabet). The styles of letters, their names, composition in Cyrillic differs from the modern one. The first reform of Russian writing was carried out by Peter 1. Some letters were excluded from the alphabet, the lettering was rounded and simplified. In 1918, such a letter of the Russian alphabet as ***** was canceled, it no longer meant any special sound, so all the words where it was necessary to write this letter had to be memorized.
Changes at the level of phonetics
These are changes in the pronunciation of sounds. For example, in modern Russian there are letters ь, ъ, which now do not denote sounds.
Until the 11th - early 13th centuries, these letters in Russian denoted sounds: /b/ was close to /E/, /b/ - to /O/. Then those sounds disappeared.
Even in the middle of the XX century. the pronunciation of Leningraders and Muscovites differed (meaning literary pronunciation). So, for example, Leningraders the first sound in the word pike was pronounced like [sh], and Muscovites like [w']. Now the pronunciation has smoothed out, there are no such differences anymore.
Vocabulary changes
The vocabulary of the language is also changing. It has already been said that the meaning of a word can change.
- from the stocks of dialects (this is how the dialect word entered the Russian literary language taiga),
- from the professional language, jargons (for example, the word double-dealer, denoting once a beggar who collected alms with both hands).
The Russian language is changing and enriching in terms of word formation. So, if it takes root in the language, it gives rise to many new words formed with the help of suffixes and prefixes that are characteristic of Russian word formation. For example: 
computer - computer, computer scientist, computerization.
At the beginning of the 20th century, it was hard to imagine that indeclinable nouns or adjectives would appear in the Russian language. However, inflexible nouns such as
cinema, blinds, show, beige, khaki
perfectly exist in the modern language, speaking of its inexhaustible possibilities.
Russian syntax is also changing
Language, as alive as life, lives its own life, in which each of us is involved. Therefore, we must not only improve it, but also take care of the heritage that we have.
Our short cheat sheet-presentation - "The Russian language as a changing phenomenon"
Interesting:
What changes does the fact that the word cloud was once cognate with the words drag, envelop? These are changes in the composition of the language: once the word cloud was divided into morphemes, now, having lost its connection with words with the same root, it began to consist of the root cloud- and the ending -o.
The word umbrella was borrowed from the Dutch language, from which the word umbrella was formed. Why did it happen?
The word umbrella stood on a par with the words bridge, leaf, pencil, i.e. with words, where the suffix -ik- indicated the diminutive meaning of the subject. The word umbrella came to mean a large object, and the word umbrella - a small object.
Did you like it? Do not hide your joy from the world - shareThere were four periods in the history of the Russian language:
Old Russian language of the Kyiv state of the XI-XVI centuries
The language of the Great Russian people of the Muscovite state of the XIV-XVII centuries
The period of formation of the modern Russian literary language (end of the 17th - beginning of the 19th century)
Modern Russian language - from the first quarter of the 19th century to the present day.
The language of each of the periods is characterized by its own phonetic, morphological and syntactic features. In addition, in each of the periods, many words left the language, new words appeared in it. Many words have lived in the language for a long time and have not changed their meaning.
The history of the origin of words, their meanings is dealt with by a special science - etymology. There are etymological dictionaries in which you can clarify the origin of a word.
The words that have existed in the language for a very long time and do not go out of use in oral and written speech include words denoting important, vital concepts that are found in all Slavic languages.
These are the names of body parts: arm, leg, nose; names of dwellings and parts of the dwelling: house, door, window, wall, stove, floor; designations of related relations: mother, father, son, brother, sister.
How old is the word sun? No scientist can answer this question. The sun is a large hot ball that emits light, it is a heavenly body. In this sense, our ancestors used it, in this sense it still exists.
In addition to words that are preserved in the language throughout all periods of its development, there are special groups of words: archaisms and neologisms.
Traces of the disappeared words
Archaism is an obsolete, outdated word. Some of the words leave the language completely, leaving no traces in it.
So the words left: balia - a doctor; sackcloth - bag, basket; gonositi - to save.
A number of words have been preserved only in geographical names, as common nouns they have long ceased to be used.
For example, Mytishchi is located near Moscow. In the Old Russian language, this was the name of the place where myto was collected - duties.
We conducted a study of some words of the Russian language.
Let's make a trip to old Moscow. (Staging - puppet show).
Let's leave early. It had just dawned, and there were still few people on the street. Look, someone has put a ladder to the post and is climbing it. This is a lamplighter. In the morning he changes the kerosene lamps in the lantern, and lights it in the evening.
And here is the old Moscow transport - the horse-drawn carriage - a two-story trailer with an open top. Horses are pulling this trailer - where there is one, where there are two. Although he moves along the rails, but very slowly. They wait a long time for the oncoming horse-drawn carriage, because the rails are laid in one way. What if the horse-drawn carriage derails? No problem. All passengers will leave, and the coachman, the conductor and a man of 5-6 passengers will swing it by the steps and put it in place. The bell will ring again, the horse-tram will carry the Muscovites further.
The city woke up, shops opened. Let's go to one of them. The owner of the shop, a merchant, solemnly sits behind the cash register. Near the first buyers bustle clerks (employees of the merchant).
And there are more and more people on the street. The policeman (a policeman who watched order in the city) stretched out, greeting the chief of police, the chief of police, who was passing in a carriage.
Artisan people hurry to work. Some guy with a cardboard ran past us. And the other one is carrying something else. Why don't they study? And nothing surprising. Previously, the children of the poor, having learned how to write and read somehow, went to work as apprentice boys in a shop, in a barbershop. Yes - yes, exactly "boys". This was the name of a person, usually a teenager, who performed a variety of work - served, brought, carried. And everything had to be done quickly, so he ran all day. From the old days, we only have the expression errand boy.
Lamplighter, horse-drawn carriage, coachman, shops, merchant, clerks, policeman, carriage, police chief, artisans, errand boys, apprentices
The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words disappear, others appear. The withering away of the word does not occur immediately, at first it becomes of little use, and then completely disappears.
The death of words is caused by life itself. If an object passes away from life, the word itself leaves with it. For example: konka, bench, flail, etc. Such words are called historicisms.
In fiction, obsolete words are used to characterize the era that the author describes. For example, in S. Alekseev's book "Stories about Suvorov and Russian soldiers" the following historicisms are found: field marshal, courier, centurion, grenadiers, hussars, verst, etc. There are a lot of archaisms in the book: army (army), this (this), victoria (victory), to say (to say).
Some obsolete words have been preserved in proverbs, sayings, set expressions, for example: cherish like the apple of an eye like an arshin swallowed a penny broken is not worth it
It is interesting to get acquainted with old words. How much you learn about the past! And even many words of our days will become clear. You've probably heard the word stun. “He stunned me,” that is, he surprised me with something, struck me. And it comes from the old days, when warriors fought in heavy armor. If a warrior was hit hard on the helmet (helmet), he lost consciousness, fell and could not fight. He was "stunned".
We have prepared a museum of old words. Now we will go there and get acquainted with some historicisms.
"Tools of agricultural labor of the Slavs":
A knotted harrow is a spruce trunk with branches cut to half the length, for loosening the soil and planting seeds in the ground.
A threshing floor is a place for processing grain harvested from the field.
Scythe - a long curved knife on a long handle for cutting grass, cereals.
Oratay is a plowman.
Ovin (riga) - a room for drying sheaves before threshing.
A sickle is a hand tool in the form of a curved knife for cutting cereals.
Plow - a tool of agricultural labor for plowing the soil.
Tok is a cleared and compacted platform on the threshing floor, on which bread was threshed.
The flail is a hand-held threshing tool.
"Hunting and Fishing"
A dragnet is a net pulled by two people along the bottom of a lake or river. Nets and nets are kept on the water with the help of floats tied to the upper edge, stone sinkers are tied along the lower edge of the nets.
Gaff, spears, fishing hooks.
The net is a net-like trap, consisting of a large bag and wings on the sides.
Top - braided fishing tackle in the form of a funnel.
The weights are gigantic nets for catching birds, which are stretched between tall trees.
Rogatin is a hunting weapon in the form of a spear with a long shaft for hunting bears.
Rozhon - a sharp stake used in bear hunting.
"Weaving"
A spindle is a device for spinning.
Distaff, comb, loom
Tow is the fibrous part of flax.
Hemp is a fiber made from hemp stalks.
Trepalo - a device for scutching and cleaning fibers
"Wood products"
A bucket is a wide, low wooden bucket.
Bondar (bochar) is a barrel maker.
Burak is a birch bark vessel with a wooden bottom and a detachable lid.
A barrel is a wooden container with two bottoms and usually with slightly curved sides.
Bratina is a circular table bowl used in the old days for drinking wine.
Endova - a large open dish with a pouring spout for wine.
A jug is a vessel with a lid in the form of a jug for liquids.
A tub is a barrel with straight sides and a hugging bottom.
Lokhan - wooden round or oblong dishes for household needs.
Lukoshko - a hand-made basket made of lubok or twigs.
Bast is the bark of a tree along with the fibrous interior.
A tub is a small wooden tub with two planks protruding against each other - ears.
“Clothes and Jewelry”
Shirt - men's and women's clothing
Sundress - women's clothing.
Shirt - bottom shirt.
Bast shoes - shoes woven from birch bark, bast or rope.
Pistons - shoes made of leather, sometimes pigskin, like slippers.
Kokoshnik - women's headdress
Kolt - temporal female jewelry
Amulet - an item that protects its owner
Hryvnia - neck decoration
Sheath - sheepskin coat
Onuchi - footcloths, windings for boots or bast shoes
Fibula - fastener for a cloak
"Armament"
Mace - a short stick with an iron spherical thickening at the end.
Shaft - a long round stick, on which a spear point is mounted or a flag is hung.
A quiver is a bag of arrows.
The sword is a cold weapon with a double-edged long straight blade.
Mace - a club made of wood with a thickened end.
A saber is a cold weapon with a long curved blade.
The ax is a battle axe.
Sulica is a short spear.
"Trade, money"
Rook - merchant ship
Volok - a section between two navigable rivers, through which in the old days a ship was dragged to continue the journey.
The guest is a merchant; who visits someone.
Ruble - chopped off pieces of gold or silver.
In the Russian language there are very ancient words that, having served people, disappear. Look at the image of an ancient warrior and read the words that call his armor.
Words leave the language if objects, phenomena, things leave life. A modern warrior cannot be armed with a spear, sword, bow and arrows. These objects were no longer needed, and the words that call them are gradually disappearing from life. Some words received a new meaning: a spear - from an athlete, a helmet from a tanker or an astronaut, a banner pole, a gentleman - a lazy person, a white hand. But there are also words that are outdated, but the objects called them have remained, for example: warrior - warrior, in vain - in vain, very - very, only - only, actor - actor.
Here is a picture of a man. Here are the names of the parts of the body. - What did the words vyya, lanita, finger, mouth, forehead mean? (neck, cheek, finger, lips, forehead)
As you can see, some words have died and others have appeared in their place.
Now it is clear to us from which words the words originated:
Ring, thimble, glove - from the word finger
Bangs - from the word forehead
Oral - from the word of the mouth
Thus, unlike historicisms, archaisms are designations for things and phenomena that have now received a different name.
We found the old roots of words in our other words. We say, for example: soup with veal, cabbage soup with pork, beef cutlets.
Veal - calf meat
Pork - pig meat
But why beef?
It turns out there used to be a word beef. They called them cattle: cows, bulls, oxen.
Or the old word reh. It meant “hole, opening”. Now it is clear why we say hole, lattice, sieve.
But the old word lop. It meant a wide leaf. From it were formed the words burdock (wide leaf) shovel (a tool resembling a leaf in shape) a blade (also looks like a leaf) lop-eared (a person with ears as big as lops)
We can explain the meaning and origin of the word ruble.
Ruble - in the old days, the Slavs had gold or silver bars instead of money, which, if necessary, were chopped: hence the word ruble (stump)
Shirt, shirt, border, ruble. These words are not only close in sound, but also close in their meaning, since they come from the same word “hack”. "Hack" means "scar, edge, edge, edge, edge"
3. New words crowd out old ones.
Why do new words appear?
With the development of society, industry, agriculture, science, culture, new objects appear in each country, new phenomena arise, new events occur. Imagine a new item has appeared, an unusual event has occurred, for which there is no name yet. The language should have words to designate them.
New words have their own name - neologisms.
The reason for the appearance of neologisms is social and scientific and technological progress, discoveries in the field of science and technology, achievements in the field of culture.
So at one time the words appeared: Stakhanovite, electricity, combine. Spartakiad, cosmonaut, cosmodrome, landed on the moon, radar, helicopter, astronautics, etc.
The main sign of neologism is the absolute novelty of the word for most native speakers. The word is in a state of neologism for a very short time. As soon as the word begins to be actively used, it loses the sign of novelty, that is, it gradually enters the lexical system of the language as a common one. Now it is impossible to consider these words as neologisms. They were new for their historical period.
Often the literary language is replenished with new words due to the vocabulary of folk dialects. These new words could exist alongside the old ones for some time, and then they forced the old words out of use. Thus, the eyes, lips, forehead appeared from the living folk speech, having displaced from the general use the words of the Old Russian language eye, mouth, forehead. The nouns eye, peephole meant a ball in the Old Russian language. In the 16th century, the word eye became synonymous with the word eye (probably an association for shape and brilliance).
Mouth - no matter how insulting it is, but our mouth has the same root as the “snout”; its first meaning was: what they dig. In the Old Russian language, "mouth" meant a beak, a point, a cape.
Words like airbus, computer science, electric car, of course new words. But they can no longer be called neologisms. But such words as nanotechnology, bioreactor, bionics, etc. are the neologisms of our days.
Abbreviation (abbreviation) in the modern Russian language has become one of the most common ways to create neologisms. For example: OMON, special forces, CIS.
Neologisms include the so-called occasionalisms (lat. Occasionalis - random) - these are words formed by writers and used only once in a certain work: wide-noisy oak forests, in heavy snake hair.
Especially many occasionalisms are created by children:
I got pasta; I am no longer a baby, but a big one, etc.
In the last decade, a large number of borrowed words associated with the development of electrical engineering and computer technology have entered the Russian language. The following words can be considered neologisms: dealer, manager, marketing, mortgage, impeachment, briefing, modem, pager, etc. These words have already entered the Russian vocabulary and are widely used. However, they are not yet fixed by existing dictionaries and are perceived as new.
4. Meeting with foreign guests
One of the ways of vocabulary development is the borrowing of foreign words to denote new concepts. The penetration of foreign words is a completely natural phenomenon, since economic, political and cultural ties between the peoples of different countries give rise to a mutual exchange of new concepts, introduce new ideas, new household items and culture. Now these are well-known words that have come to visit our language and have remained in it forever.
Football - English. , postman - Italian. , coat of arms - Polish.
The vocabulary of the Russian language at various periods of its development included many foreign words, the fate of which is not the same.
Some of them fell into disuse over time (voyage, fortecia - a fortress; stimball - a steamboat).
Part of the words firmly entered the Russian language, became Russified, appeared for many derivative words (master, defect, tendency)
The Russian language, like the languages of other peoples inhabiting the globe, was replenished with words that came to us as guests and remained with us forever. Our friendship with such words has been tested for centuries.
From the words that came into the Russian language from other languages, we made a crossword puzzle.
Horizontally:
1. Apparatus for breathing under water.
2. Paint.
3. Globe.
4. "thin feather, taught at school"
5. The first book of Pinocchio.
6. Document of the graduate.
7. "Yeralash".
8. The science of numbers.
9. It writes "chicken paw."
10. Winter, summer, spring
Vertically:
11. Station.
12. General.
13. Black Ivashka, wooden shirt. Where he passes his nose, he puts a note there.
14. Pine and Christmas tree leaves-needles. And on what leaves words and lines grow.
15. A lesson where problems are solved.
16. for drawing.
17. "Favorite" business of the student.
18. The enemy of the pencil.
2. He rides down the street, the kids are lucky.
3. "City News".
Horizontally:
1. Scuba.
2. Watercolor.
3. Globe.
4. Notebook.
5. ABC.
6. Certificate.
7. Journal.
8. Algebra.
9. Doodle.
10. Vacation.
Vertically:
11. Station.
12. General.
13. Pencil.
14. Paper.
15. Mathematics.
16. Album.
18. Eraser.
2. Bus.
3. Newspaper.
Here is what some of these words told us.
NOTEBOOK. I am from Greece. My Greek root is tetra, which means “four,” and the original meaning is a piece of paper folded in four. Try folding the sheet in half, and then in half again. It remains to cut this little book, sew it in the middle, and the notebook is ready. It will have four sheets. So the first notebooks were, then there were more sheets, but the name remained the same.
PENCIL. And I have two roots, and all of them are from Turkic (Oriental0 languages: kara means “black”, tash means “stone”. After all, the main thing in me is a black stylus that looks like a stone. But my story is not easy. A pencil began its journey from lead sticks used for writing. The trace of such a pencil remained very weak, and the hands were covered with a gray coating. Then black sticks appeared, they began to prepare “clothes" for them - leather, metal and, finally, wooden. Now the rod can be of different colors , but we still use the word pencil.
NEWSPAPER. And my homeland is Italy, although, by the way, I have many relatives in other countries, because my modern meaning is conveyed by similar words in more than one Russian language. But this meaning (a periodical in the form of large sheets, dedicated to the events of current political and social life) arose much later than the original one. Indeed, at first in Italy, a “newspaper” was called a small coin, which was paid for the first sheet of “Written News”. Then this sheet, after the name of the coin, was also called a newspaper, and the word went for a walk around the world. It has taken root in our language.
HOLIDAYS. If you translate the word holidays into Russian, you get "dog days". The word vacation in Latin means "dog, puppy." "Vacation" the ancient Romans called the brightest star in the constellation Canis Major. When hot days came, the sun passed through this constellation. Then they took a break in classes, the "vacation" came. The word holidays in Russian also means a break in classes, but not only in the summer. We have autumn, winter, spring and summer holidays.
How many hours are spent in elementary school on penmanship, and still some students manage to write like a chicken with a paw, and the result is SCRIBE. It turns out that in the Turkic language kara- means "bad", and -kul came from another language meaning "hand", and in some Turkic languages, also "letter", "handwriting". And it turns out that "scribble" is bad handwriting, a "bad hand."
The word sport and its ancestors.
Many words just like people love to travel.
The word does not sit still, so it wanders from country to country, like a bird. And during a long journey, the word sometimes changes so much that it becomes completely unlike itself.
All of you are familiar with the word sport. This word sounds the same in the languages of many peoples. But how it came into being, not everyone knows.
The word sport was born a long time ago in France. And it was pronounced differently: “deport”. It meant nothing more than "entertainment", "fun".
Once this word boarded a ship - either merchants took it with them, or brave sailors - and, having crossed the English Channel, found itself in England. Only the British began to pronounce it in their own way: "dysport". And then they completely dropped the “di” part. The word "sport" came to be. This word began to be called competitions, but not all, but only some, for example, horse racing, rowing races.
And the word went to walk around the world until it returned to its homeland, to France. At first, the French did not want to recognize their compatriot, but then they got used to it.
More than a hundred years ago, the word "sport" penetrated into our country. At first, anything was called a sport in Russia - playing dominoes, collecting stamps, breeding pets, and even needlework. It took a long time before the word sport got the meaning we give it today.
4. Conclusion
In different historical periods of our Motherland, the Russian language has changed. Some words left the language, others came. To find out the meaning of the word, you can refer to the etymological dictionary.
Language is in a constant process of change. In connection with the historical change of phonemes, not only the form of the word changes, but the meaning and concept of the language. This change of language is a continuous development. Language change occurs first in the speech of some people, in particular the younger generation. The desire of the younger generation to adapt to the feeling of a new era is reflected and spread within the language as a subject of social and cultural formation of the masses. When the transformation of individual speech penetrates into common usage, the change is not halted, but reinforced by general language skills, although this penetration into a linguistic society is not so easy to achieve. As with any cultural transformation, so in the case of a change in language, a conservative force acts and prevents this penetration in the person of a powerful center of society. It is clear that even during the life of one generation, many changes occur in the language, but only some of them are fixed at the level of the entire nation-native speaker and remain in the language for a long time.
In different aspects of the language, changes occur at different rates.
subject to the most rapid changes lexical composition of the language. This can be seen both in the example of new words that have appeared in the Russian language over the past 10-15 years (all computer terminology, many new names of professions and activities, etc.), and in the example of a large number of borrowings from English in Korean, almost all of which belong to the period after 1945. As a rule, the emergence of new vocabulary is associated with the following phenomena: 1) borrowing a word from another language (with or without displacement of a previously used word); 2) the emergence of new words to designate objects and phenomena that were previously absent in culture; 3) intralinguistic processes, in which a word or expression, originally invented and used by a small group of people, spreads to the language of the entire nation, 4) changing the meaning of a word over time. Note that in recent years this process of updating vocabulary has accelerated in all languages due to the greater ease of information exchange between people than at any time in history. Naturally, the process of some words going out of use is also going on in parallel.
Consider all these 4 processes using the example of Korean and other languages:
1) borrowing. From the Chinese language, from the 4th century, and from the Japanese language from the end of the 19th century, hieroglyphic words are borrowed. The share in modern Korean is 70%, in special terminology it is higher. Since the 20th century, there have been active borrowings from English.
2) the emergence of new words to denote new objects or phenomena. In Korean, they can be made up of both native Korean roots, and from hieroglyphic and even English, while the meaning of the word may be completely unrelated to the original meanings of the roots (원피스, 소개팅, 왕따, 고스톱, 화이트 데이),
3) the penetration of words from the lexicon of a small group of people into the masses: Korean modern slang 화이팅, 공주병, 호박, 당근, 깡통, 형광등, Russian “teapot”, “brake”, etc.
4) change in the meaning of words: Russian “comrade”, Italian “banca”, Korean originally hieroglyphic 생각 and 사랑, acquiring a new meaning 바가지, 동네북, changing the shade of the meaning of the word 아줌마 …
There are also reverse processes: expulsion and colloquial vulgarization of words. A dead language is also a product of this process. In modern language, words with "-뱅이" suffixes: "가난뱅이 - poor man», «주정뱅이 - alcoholic»; «-치»: «장사치 - huckster», «거라치 – princeling", etc., are disparaging in nature, but earlier they had the opposite meaning: a polite appeal to males
The suffix "-뱅이" was formed from the word "방(房)" in the nominative form. The "-치" suffix was formed in the following order: first, the "-디" suffix softened - [디>지], after which the "-지" softened again - [지>치] (4,15).
You can give an example of the following words: "디새 - shingles», «고마 – concubine», «구위 – department". These words were replaced by their hieroglyphs and disappeared, being dialect variants.
Thus, at first glance, the vocabulary looks like a rather unreliable guideline in determining the family ties of a language, but it also has a certain basic composition that is little subject to change over centuries and even millennia, and can be used to study the origin of the language and its family ties.
Slightly slower than vocabulary changes phonetic composition of the language: the appearance and disappearance of individual phonemes, the possibility or impossibility of their combination, various alternations. In this process, we are talking about centuries, and as a rule, the written language fixes these changes much later than they occur in oral speech. Examples of such changes are:
1) the disappearance of phonemes: in the Russian language in 1917, the use of the letters fita, izhitsa, a solid sign at the end of a word, yat (well, I did not find them in symbols !!!) was canceled. That is, earlier these letters meant the sounds of speech, then the sounds gradually fell into disuse, and only then were the letters removed from use. A similar process took place in the Korean language, when, following the sounds v, zh, and some complex diphthongs and triphthongs, letters also disappeared from use, the last of which - (●) - fell out of use only in the 20th century.
2) the appearance of phonemes: at the present stage, it is more difficult to track it than in the language of previous periods, since the phonemes that have appeared, like those that have disappeared, are not immediately and not always fixed in the written language. In modern Russian, one can talk about the appearance of “e closed”, for which there is no separate letter, however, this sound is often used mainly in borrowed words, where “e” is written, and “e” is read - stress, progress, process, Internet, computer, sex, etc. We are also well aware that the phoneme "f" also came into the Russian language along with borrowed words. In Korean, one can trace the formation of the diphthongoids 에, 애 and 얘 from full-fledged diphthongs "ai", "oi", "yai", the same can be said about 외 and 위.
3) combinations of phonemes: an example of this phenomenon in the Russian language is the impossibility in Old Russian of finding two consonants next to each other, which is quite possible in modern Russian: modern. The building is another building (from zida - “clay”), etc. This also includes, for example, the impossibility of combining sp or st at the beginning of a word in modern Spanish - they must be preceded by a vowel. In the Korean language in the Middle Ages and modern times, one can trace the process of transition from two or even three consonants at the beginning of a word / syllable to one consonant, and in modern Korean, a process officially recorded by the language only in the south of the peninsula: the transformation of ㄹ into ㄴ in hanmun words at the beginning of a word, and dropping ㄹ before soft vowels at the beginning of a word. That is, at the time of the division of Korea into north and south, the pronunciation norm “I” apparently took place, when writing the surname “리”, in the south the spelling of such words was brought into line with pronunciation, and in the north - vice versa.
4) alternation. Without going into details of the Russian alternations of "k-ch", "Ms.", "o-a" and "e-i" in the roots of the word (those who wish can try to think about what it is all about), let's go straight to the well-known you Korean language, in which the alternation “ㅂ - 우” is a direct consequence of the once in the language of the sound “w”, which fell into disuse, becoming “p” before vowels and “w” before consonants. Also, the alternation of “ㄷ - ㄹ” was the result of a historical process (that is, most of the hieroglyphic syllables ending in ㄹ ended in ㄷ at the time of their borrowing, this is clearly tracked by a comparative analysis of the reading of hieroglyphs in various East Asian countries).
The phonetic features of a language can serve as important material for the analysis of its origin. So, in the group of Altaic languages, there are several important features (the impossibility of positioning certain phonemes at the beginning of a word, the euphony of vowels, and some others), which allowed linguists to make one or another classification within this language family.
Finally, the most stable and subject to the slowest changes is grammar and language structure. So, some Chinese grammatical forms came to the Korean language, the most famous of which is the suffix 적, as well as attributes and some other constructions, but they did not have a big impact on everyday speech, and even more so on the structure of the language.
Korean scientists also have their own interesting view on the REASONS for the changes taking place in the language. The reasons for language changes lie, firstly, within the nation responsible for the language; secondly, in changing the forms of letters and words. The first reason has three types: physiological, psychological, spiritual.
Among physiological factors particular importance is attached to the state of the vocal apparatus. The vocal apparatus of each person has its own characteristics, but there are regional communities in the course of mastering the methods of articulation.
For example, in Seoul and Southern dialects, when pronouncing the phrase "나의 것" - " my thing” you can see the obvious features of each: “나으 것”, “나에 것” . This phenomenon during the action of the vocal apparatus is especially revealed in the case of the so-called change in conditional-connective phonemes, which occurs due to adjacent sounds, for example, in such phenomena as assimilation, dissimilation, palatalization. There are also changes in unconditional self-generating phonemes that do not arise due to adjacent sounds.
Among psychological factors the most important is the instinct for simplification. This instinct, arising from the propensity to seek convenience, is expressed by assimilation, addition, and contraction.
This tendency to search for simplicity of speech becomes one of the factors that change the so-called folk-etymological form of speech. This can be seen in words such as [낟알→나락]; phenomenon-transition "녀름" - (obsolete "여름- summer”): “여름” (obsolete “열매- fetus”), respectively, [녀름>여름:여름>열매] (4,14).
Another important factor is the process of drawing analogies, for example, [한길- big road→행길(行- direction, line)]. In addition, concern for the beauty of intonation, the desire for a clear transmission of thought, the instinct to imitate certain vocabulary - all this entails changes in the language. All of the above psychological factors are closely related to each other.
Peculiarity spiritual factor consists in the fact that it surpasses the first two in various degrees. This influence is more reflected in a change in content than in a change in phoneme or form of speech. Changing the content means changing the concepts of the language. For example, the word "사랑" in the language of the medieval period had the meaning [思∙憶] - " think, remember", but gradually the meaning narrowed down to the value [愛] -" Love". Accordingly, it turns out that an action arises that expands the content of meaning in a unit of speech. For example, the word of the language of the medieval period "겨레 - relatives”, which conveys the meaning “members of the same genus”, began to mean “민족 - nation» (4.15).
In addition, the cultural realities of other states constantly penetrate the language, bringing with them new semantic meanings. Changes in the language of the ancient period are deeply rooted in changes in religion, culture, politics, economics, and society. Even if we consider the Neolithic period, we will see that even then Korean culture had various origins and connections with the cultures of neighboring regions and even remote lands of Siberia and Transbaikalia. In the first centuries of the new era, the population of the Korean peninsula was influenced by China. Some Korean communities acted as intermediaries in trade and cultural relations between the Chinese and the population of the Japanese islands. By the 4th century, Confucian ideas had become the state ideology of Goguryeo. Confucianism and Buddhism, along with a huge number of new concepts, appeared in Korea precisely with the advent of Chinese writing.
Even if the content and forms of words in a language are constantly changing or disappear altogether, new word formations are constantly emerging. Normally language changes can occur involuntarily in any territory, however, there is a planned force at work in the creation of new words. In the case of Korean, this is confirmed by looking at new words like 매, 가름, 조각, 목. This spiritual influence, participating in the process of the formation of a new speech, either expands the territory of the language, accommodating advanced culture, or changes it, and it is so huge that it cannot be expressed.
Very often, due to the specifics of the lexical structure of the Korean language, motivation appears in words. In fact, this motivation in the structure of the vocabulary of such languages as English, French, is completely different. For example, if we compare the words 거짓말 (거짓 – falsehood + 말 - word) - lie ( lie), 눈물 (눈 – eyes + 물 - water)-tear( tears), you can find out their structural feature, that is, you can find out: how motivated the structure of the Korean language is compared to English; Has language constantly evolved along the lines of an analytic structure? But the essence of the question of this time is to what extent the inner force of language operates and whether the cause of these changes can be found in humanity itself.
One of the significant drivers of phoneme change can be found in the relationship with accent. The accent is divided into a strong or weak mechanical accent, which emphasizes one word, syllable, sound, and a musical-modulation accent, which sets the pitch. However, the occurrence of mid-length vowels among short vowels can create a connection with a mid-length musical-modulation accent; due to the change in sound length, the phenomenon of becoming either long vowels or short vowels can create a connection with a strong or weak mechanical accent.
From this point of view, it becomes necessary at least once to think about creating a connection with such an emphasis on the following phenomena: differences between short and long vowels of the modern language; the process of converting medium length vowels from short vowels and vice versa; the disappearance in the language of the new time of points in the text of the language of the medieval period. It is possible that all of the above language changes occur in one collective in one person and spread through imitation. With the spread of changes in language, the instinct to imitate becomes the most important internal driving force. But in the instinct of imitation, the process occurs spontaneously, without experiencing social restrictions.
Later, there is a conscious intervention of people from the upper strata of society or the political control of the state. Control and intervention play a decisive role in the process of the birth of the cultural, spiritual language of the nation and, depending on the circumstances, testify to the achievement of the political development of society at a certain stage. In such a case, the emerging trend rather determines the development within the language and usually seeks to protect it instead of introducing something new. Such things that we observe today (the norm of correct pronunciation or spelling norms) are interconnected with these processes.
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