The most important property of the system is the property. The concept of a system, properties of systems

There are many concepts of a system. Consider the concepts that most fully reveal its essential properties (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. The concept of a system

"A system is a complex of interacting components."

"A system is a set of connected operating elements."

"A system is not just a collection of units ... but a collection of relationships between these units."

And although the concept of a system is defined in different ways, it is usually understood that a system is a certain set of interrelated elements that form a stable unity and integrity, which has integral properties and patterns.

We can define a system as something whole, abstract or real, made up of interdependent parts.

system any object of animate and inanimate nature, society, process or set of processes, scientific theory, etc., can be, if they define elements that form a unity (integrity) with their connections and interconnections between them, which ultimately creates a set of properties, inherent only to this system and distinguishing it from other systems (emergence property).

System(from the Greek SYSTEMA, meaning "a whole made up of parts") is a set of elements, connections and interactions between them and the external environment, forming a certain integrity, unity and purposefulness. Almost every object can be considered as a system.

System is a set of material and non-material objects (elements, subsystems) united by some kind of links (information, mechanical, etc.), designed to achieve a specific goal and achieve it in the best possible way. System defined as a category, i.e. its disclosure is made through the identification of the main properties inherent in the system. To study the system, it is necessary to simplify it while retaining the main properties, i.e. build a model of the system.

System can manifest itself as a holistic material object, which is a naturally conditioned set of functionally interacting elements.

An important means of characterizing a system is its properties. The main properties of the system are manifested through the integrity, interaction and interdependence of the processes of transformation of matter, energy and information, through its functionality, structure, connections, external environment.

Property is the quality of the object parameters, i.e. external manifestations of the way in which knowledge about an object is obtained. Properties make it possible to describe system objects. However, they can change as a result of the functioning of the system.. Properties are external manifestations of the process by which knowledge about an object is obtained, it is observed. Properties provide the ability to describe system objects quantitatively, expressing them in units that have a certain dimension. The properties of system objects can change as a result of its action.

There are the following basic properties of the system :

· The system is a collection of elements . Under certain conditions, elements can be considered as systems.

· The presence of significant relationships between elements. Under significant connections are understood as those that naturally, necessarily determine the integrative properties of the system.

· Presence of a specific organization, which is manifested in a decrease in the degree of system uncertainty compared to the entropy of system-forming factors that determine the possibility of creating a system. These factors include the number of elements of the system, the number of significant links that an element may have.

· The presence of integrative properties , i.e. inherent in the system as a whole, but not inherent in any of its elements separately. Their presence shows that the properties of the system, although they depend on the properties of the elements, are not completely determined by them. The system is not reduced to a simple collection of elements; decomposing the system into separate parts, it is impossible to know all the properties of the system as a whole.

· emergence – the irreducibility of the properties of individual elements and the properties of the system as a whole.

· Integrity - this is a system-wide property, which consists in the fact that a change in any component of the system affects all its other components and leads to a change in the system as a whole; and vice versa, any change to the system is reflected in all components of the system.

· Divisibility – it is possible to decompose the system into subsystems in order to simplify the analysis of the system.

· Communication. Any system operates in the environment, it experiences the effects of the environment and, in turn, affects the environment. Relationship between environment and system can be considered one of the main features of the functioning of the system, an external characteristic of the system, which largely determines its properties.

The system is inherent property to develop, adapt to new conditions by creating new links, elements with their own local goals and means to achieve them. Development– explains complex thermodynamic and informational processes in nature and society.

· Hierarchy. Under the hierarchy refers to the sequential decomposition of the original system into a number of levels with the establishment of a relationship of subordination of the lower levels to the higher ones. Hierarchy of the system consists in the fact that it can be considered as an element of a system of a higher order, and each of its elements, in turn, is a system.

An important system property is system inertia, which determines the time required to transfer the system from one state to another for given control parameters.

· Multifunctionality - the ability of a complex system to implement a certain set of functions on a given structure, which manifests itself in the properties of flexibility, adaptation and survivability.

· Flexibility - this is the property of the system to change the purpose of functioning depending on the conditions of functioning or the state of subsystems.

· adaptability - the ability of the system to change its structure and choose options for behavior in accordance with the new goals of the system and under the influence of environmental factors. An adaptive system is one in which there is a continuous process of learning or self-organization.

· Reliability – this property of the system to implement the specified functions for a certain period of time with the specified quality parameters.

· Safety – the ability of the system not to cause unacceptable impacts on technical objects, personnel, and the environment during its operation.

· Vulnerability - the ability to receive damage under the influence of external and (or) internal factors.

· Structured - the behavior of the system is determined by the behavior of its elements and the properties of its structure.

· Dynamism is the ability to function in time.

· The presence of feedback.

Any system has a purpose and limitations. The purpose of the system can be described by the objective function U1 = F (x, y, t, ...), where U1 is the extreme value of one of the quality indicators of the system functioning.

System Behavior can be described by the law Y = F(x), which reflects changes at the input and output of the system. This determines the state of the system.

State of the system- this is an instant photograph, or a cut of the system, a stop in its development. It is determined either through input interactions or output signals (results), or through macro parameters, macro properties of the system. This is a set of states of its n elements and links between them. The task of a particular system is reduced to the task of its states, starting from the birth and ending with the death or transition to another system. The real system cannot be in any state. Restrictions are imposed on her condition - some internal and external factors (for example, a person cannot live 1000 years). Possible states of a real system form a certain subdomain Z SD (subspace) in the state space of the system – a set of admissible states of the system.

Equilibrium- the ability of the system in the absence of external disturbing influences or under constant influences to maintain its state for an arbitrarily long time.

Sustainability- this is the ability of the system to return to a state of equilibrium after it has been brought out of this state under the influence of external or internal disturbing influences. This ability is inherent in systems when the deviation does not exceed a certain established limit.

3. The concept of system structure.

System structure- a set of system elements and links between them in the form of a set. System structure means the structure, location, order and reflects certain relationships, the relationship of the components of the system, i.e. its structure and does not take into account the set of properties (states) of its elements.

The system can be represented by a simple enumeration of elements, but most often, when studying an object, such a representation is not enough, because it is required to find out what the object is and what ensures the fulfillment of the set goals.

Rice. 2. System structure

The concept of a system element. A-priory element is an integral part of a complex whole. In our concept, a complex whole is a system that is an integral complex of interrelated elements.

Element- a part of the system that has independence in relation to the entire system and is indivisible with this method of separating parts. The indivisibility of an element is considered as the inexpediency of taking into account its internal structure within the model of a given system.

The element itself is characterized only by its external manifestations in the form of connections and relationships with other elements and the external environment.

The concept of communication. Connection- a set of dependencies of the properties of one element on the properties of other elements of the system. To establish a relationship between two elements means to identify the presence of dependencies of their properties. The dependence of the properties of elements can be one-sided and two-sided.

Relationships- a set of bilateral dependencies of the properties of one element on the properties of other elements of the system.

Interaction- a set of relationships and relationships between the properties of elements, when they acquire the character of mutual assistance to each other.

The concept of the external environment. The system exists among other material or non-material objects that are not included in the system and are united by the concept of "external environment" - objects of the external environment. The input characterizes the impact of the external environment on the system, the output characterizes the impact of the system on the external environment.

In fact, the delineation or identification of a system is the division of a certain area of the material world into two parts, one of which is considered as a system - an object of analysis (synthesis), and the other - as an external environment.

External environment- a set of objects (systems) existing in space and time, which are supposed to have an effect on the system.

External environment is a set of natural and artificial systems for which this system is not a functional subsystem.

Structure types

Let's consider a number of typical structures of systems used in the description of organizational, economic, production and technical objects.

Usually the concept of "structure" is associated with a graphical display of elements and their relationships. However, the structure can also be represented in matrix form, the form of a set-theoretic description, using the language of topology, algebra, and other system modeling tools.

Linear (serial) the structure (Fig. 8) is characterized by the fact that each vertex is connected to two neighboring ones. If at least one element (connection) fails, the structure is destroyed. An example of such a structure is a conveyor.

Ring the structure (Fig. 9) is closed, any two elements have two directions of communication. This increases the speed of communication, makes the structure more tenacious.

Cellular the structure (Fig. 10) is characterized by the presence of redundant connections, which increases the reliability (survivability) of the functioning of the structure, but leads to an increase in its cost.

Multiconnected structure (Fig. 11) has the structure of a complete graph. The reliability of functioning is maximum, the efficiency of functioning is high due to the presence of the shortest paths, the cost is maximum.

starry structure (Fig. 12) has a central node that acts as a center, all other elements of the system are subordinate.

graphovaya structure (Fig. 13) is usually used in the description of production and technological systems.

Network structure (net)- a kind of graph structure, which is a decomposition of the system in time.

For example, a network structure can display the operation of a technical system (telephone network, electrical network, etc.), stages of human activity (when manufacturing products - a network diagram, when designing - a network model, when planning - a network model, a network plan, etc. d.).

Hierarchical the structure is most widely used in the design of control systems, the higher the level of the hierarchy, the fewer links its elements have. All elements except the upper and lower levels have both command and subordinate control functions.

Hierarchical structures represent the decomposition of the system in space. All vertices (nodes) and connections (arcs, edges) exist in these structures simultaneously (not separated in time).

Hierarchical structures in which each element of the lower level is subordinate to one node (one vertex) of the higher one (and this is true for all levels of the hierarchy) are called treelike structures (structures type "tree"; structures on which tree-order relations hold, hierarchical structures with strong connections) (Fig. 14, a).

Structures in which an element of a lower level can be subordinated to two or more nodes (vertices) of a higher level are called hierarchical structures with weak connections (Fig. 14, b).

In the form of hierarchical structures, the designs of complex technical products and complexes, the structures of classifiers and dictionaries, the structures of goals and functions, production structures, and organizational structures of enterprises are presented.

In general, the termhierarchy more broadly, it means subordination, the order of subordination of the lowest in position and rank of persons to the highest, arose as the name of the "service ladder" in religion, is widely used to characterize relationships in the apparatus of government, the army, etc., then the concept of hierarchy was extended to any coordinated subordination order of objects.

Thus, in hierarchical structures, only the allocation of levels of subordination is important, and there can be any relationship between levels and components within a level. In accordance with this, there are structures that use the hierarchical principle, but have specific features, and it is advisable to highlight them separately.

Translated from Greek, the word "system" means "connection, a whole made up of parts." These parts, or elements, are in unity, within which they are ordered in a certain way, interconnected, and have one or another effect on each other.

Management also has the property of being systematic, so we begin the study of its mechanism with an acquaintance with the basic provisions of systems theory. In accordance with it, any system has a number of basic features.

First, as already mentioned, it is a set of elements, or separate parts, selected according to one or another principle, which are its structure-forming factors and play the role of subsystems. The latter, although relatively independent, interact in various ways within the system; in its simplest form, by being near and adjacent to each other; more complex forms of interaction are conditionality (the generation of one element by another) and the mutual influence exerted by them on each other. To preserve the system, such interaction must be harmonious.

As a result of the interaction, the elements and form system-wide qualities, that is, signs characteristic of the system as a whole and each of them separately (for example, the human body as a whole and each of its organs carry out metabolic processes, have nerve cells, are constantly updated, etc.).

The properties of elements (subsystems) determine the place of the latter in the internal organization of the system and are implemented in their functions. This is manifested in a certain influence on other elements or objects that are outside the system and are capable of perceiving, transforming and changing this influence in accordance with it.

Secondly, the system has boundaries separating it from the environment. These boundaries can be "transparent", allowing penetration into the system of external influences, and "opaque", tightly separating it from the rest of the world. Systems that carry out a free two-way exchange of energy, matter, information with the environment are called open; otherwise, we speak of closed systems that function relatively independent of the environment.

If the system does not receive resources from the outside at all, it tends to decay (entropy) and ceases to exist (for example, a clock stops if it is not started).

Open systems that independently draw the resources they need from the external environment and transform them to meet their needs are, in principle, inexhaustible. At the same time, insufficient, or vice versa, excessively active exchange with the environment can destroy the system (due to lack of resources or inability to assimilate them due to excessive quantity and diversity). Therefore, the system must be in a state of internal equilibrium and balance with the environment. This ensures its optimal adaptation to it and successful development.

Open systems strive for constant change through specialization, differentiation, integration of elements. This leads to complication of connections, improvement of the system itself, allows achieving goals in many ways (only one is possible for closed ones), but requires additional resources.

Thirdly, each system has a certain structure, that is, an ordered set of interrelated elements (sometimes in everyday life the concept of structure is used as a synonym for the concept of organization).

Orderliness gives the system an internal organization, within which the interaction of elements is subject to certain principles, laws. Systems where such organization is minimal are called disordered, for example, a crowd on the street. The structure may, to one degree or another, depend on the characteristics of the elements themselves (for example, relationships in purely female, male, children's or mixed teams are not the same).

Fourthly, in each system there is a certain explicit system-forming relation or quality, which, to one degree or another, manifests itself in all the others, ensures their unity and integrity. If it is determined by the nature of the system, then it is called internal, otherwise - external. At the same time, internal relations can spread to other systems (for example, through imitation, borrowing experience). The possibility of realizing the relations and properties of the system exclusively on this basis (substrate) makes it unique. In social systems, in addition to an explicit system-forming relationship, there may be implicit ones.

Fifth, each system has certain qualities. The multi-qualitative nature of the system is a consequence of the infinity of connections and relationships that exist at its various levels. Qualities are manifested in relation to other objects, moreover, differently. For example, the same person in the role of leader may yell at subordinates and fawn over his immediate superior. The qualities of the system to a certain extent affect the quality of the elements included in them, transform them. The ability to achieve this characterizes the strength of the system.

Sixth, the system is characterized by emergence, that is, the emergence of qualitatively new properties that are absent from its elements, or not characteristic of them. Thus, the properties of the whole are not equal to the sum of the properties of the parts, although they depend on them, and the elements united in the system may lose the properties inherent in them outside the system, or acquire new ones.

The non-identity of the sum of the qualities of the elements with the qualities of the system as a whole is due to the presence of a structure, therefore structural transformations lead to qualitative ones, but the latter can also occur due to quantitative changes. Thus, a system can qualitatively change without changing its structure, and within the same quantitative composition, several qualitative states can exist.

Seventh, the system has feedback, which is understood as a certain reaction of it as a whole or of individual elements to each other's impulses and external influences.

Now let's look at what systems are.

According to the nature of the links between the elements of the system, they are divided into centralized and decentralized. In the first, all communications are carried out through one central element; secondly, they can occur without an "intermediary" directly. Systems where the interconnection of elements goes only along one line are called partial, and along many - complete. In chain systems, each element is connected to no more than two others.

Systems characterized by the predominance of internal links compared to external ones, where the centripetality is greater than centrifugal, and the individual elements have common characteristics, are called integral.

Systems that remain as a whole when one or more elements change or disappear can be called stable, stable. If at the same time it is possible to restore the lost elements, then the system is called regenerative.

Changing systems are dynamic. Their elements and they as a whole can change linearly, unidirectionally with equal intensity, and then growth will be observed, or non-linearly, differently directed, with unequal intensity, which leads to their qualitative changes and development. Immutable systems are static.

From the point of view of the state, dynamic systems are divided into primary, initial, or secondary, which have already undergone certain changes. If the system does not allow further development, without being transformed into another, it is considered complete; if development can continue - unfinished. Incompleteness can be substrate (transformations can occur in the basis of elements) and structural (composition and ratio of elements change).

If the system retains its characteristics when the substrate changes, it is called stationary.

A system consisting of a number of heterogeneous elements is called complex. Complexity means that the introduction of a new unit into the system not only generates new relationships, but also changes existing ones. The degree of complexity also depends on the interconnectedness of these elements and on their number.

Perhaps the most important types of systems are mechanical and organic. Mechanical systems have a constant set of unchanging elements, clear boundaries, unambiguous connections, they are not able to change and develop, they function under the influence of external impulses. The release of an element from a mechanical whole disrupts its functioning. The most obvious example of them is the clock mechanism.

In a mechanical system, the elements are in external connection with each other, without affecting the inner being of each of them, and remain in indifferent independence. They are less dependent on the system, and outside of it they remain unchanged (the wheel of a watch can play the role of a spare part for a long time).

Organic systems are characterized by opposite qualities. In them, the dependence of the part on the whole increases, and the whole on the part, on the contrary, decreases. Moreover, the deeper the connection of the parts, the greater the role of the whole in relation to them. In addition, they have such important properties that mechanical systems do not have, such as the ability to self-organize and self-reproduce.

Living beings or their communities can be cited as an example of an organic system. A specific form of an organic system is a socio-economic one (society, collective, organization, etc.).

Socio-economic systems are always ordered, integral, functionally and technologically heterogeneous, hierarchical in structure, dynamic in terms of composition and number of elements. Subsystems (elements) in socio-economic systems are distinguished according to certain clear criteria, usually depending on their type and goals.

Such systems are stable, and at the same time constantly developing, evolving into more complex formations (although sometimes they can temporarily stabilize or degrade). This development proceeds under the influence of the contradictory interaction of external and internal factors, the intensity of which is very different. Therefore, it is uneven, can be intermittent, spasmodic and not always predictable.

Small changes in one of the elements of the social system can lead to significant consequences for it as a whole, therefore, with the help of small but thoughtful actions in the right place and at the right time, it is easy to achieve large desired results (the theory of leverage).

In order for a social system to be dynamically stable, it must have a control element that integrates its individual links, controls their functioning, the flow of resources, the removal of waste, the results obtained, and is capable of correcting these processes based on feedback. For the success of self-development and self-reproduction of the system, the control element must have no less degree of complexity than the control element. , - A systematic approach, the main goal of which is to integrate the elements of the organization, is the basis of modern management. He considers any organization as an integral set of various activities and elements that are in contradictory unity and interconnection, within the framework of spatio-temporal existence, in dynamics, taking into account the historicity, stages, and cyclical development.

SYSTEMS. CHARACTERISTICS. PROPERTIES.

CONCEPT OF THE SYSTEM

We will use the concept of a system, which takes into account such important components of any material object as an element, connections, interactions, goal setting.

Rice. 1. The concept of a system

System- a set of elements that make up the unity, connections and interactions between them and the external environment, forming the integrity inherent in this system, qualitative certainty and purposefulness.

By definition, an element is a constituent part of a complex whole. A complex whole is a system that is a holistic complex of interconnected elements.

An element is an indivisible part of a system.

The element itself is characterized only by its external manifestations in the form of connections and relationships with other elements and the external environment.

The set A of system elements can be described as:

A \u003d (a i), i \u003d 1, ..., n,

where a i - i-th element of the system;

n is the number of elements in the system.

Each a i element is characterized by m specific properties Z i1 , ..., Z im (weight, temperature, etc.), which uniquely define it in the given system.

The set of all m properties of the element a i will be called the state of the element Z i:

Z i = (Z i1 , Z i2 , Z i3 , ..., Z ik , …, Z im)

The state of the element, depending on various factors (time, space, environment, etc.), may change.

Successive changes in the state of the element will be called the movement of the element.

Connection- a set of dependencies of the properties of one element on the properties of other elements of the system. To establish a relationship between two elements means to identify the presence of dependencies of their properties.

The set Q of connections between elements a i and a j can be represented as:

Q = (q ij ) , i,j = 1 ... n.

The dependence of the properties of elements can be one-sided and two-sided.

Relationships- a set of bilateral dependencies of the properties of one element on the properties of other elements of the system.

Interaction- a set of interconnections and relationships between the properties of elements, when they acquire the character of mutual assistance to each other.

System structure- a set of system elements and links between them in the form of a set.

The structure is a static model of the system and characterizes only the structure of the system and does not take into account the set of properties (states) of its elements.

The system exists among other material objects that are not included in the system and which are united by the concept of "external environment" - objects of the external environment.

The input characterizes the impact of the external environment on the system, the output characterizes the impact of the system on the external environment.

External environment- a set of objects (systems) existing in space and time, which are supposed to have an effect on the system.

The external environment is a set of natural and artificial systems for which this system is not a functional subsystem.

For a given system, the external environment (environment) is a set of objects outside the system:

1) changes in the characteristics of which affect the system;

2) the features of which change due to the behavior of the system.

The solution of the problem of assigning objects to the system itself or to its environment is largely arbitrary and depends on the goals of studying the system. The general problem of selecting the environment is quite complex. In order to specify the environment completely, it is necessary to know all the factors that affect the system or are affected by it. This task is as difficult as specifying the system itself.

When defining the boundaries of a system and its environment, it is often used abstraction method or idealization. When using this method, the system and its environment include those items that seem to be the most important, describe the connections between them as accurately as possible, and explore the most interesting features, neglecting those that do not play a significant role.

This method is widely used in physical and chemical research. For example, springs without mass, air without friction, ideal gases, etc.

When creating technical systems, the following universal factors are included in the system environment: - state of technology; - natural environment; - policy of the organization; - economic conditions for new technologies; - human factor.

Note: You can consider examples of the mutual influence of the system and the environment. The emergence of information technology and the change in society as a customer and consumer of information services.

SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

System structure there is a stable order in space and time of its elements and connections.

The structure of the system reflects the order in which elements enter the subsystems, and then the sequential integration of the subsystems into an integral system. This structure is always of a pair-hierarchical type and has at least two levels: the senior level is the system; the lowest level is an element.

Classification of types of structures:

1). depending on the nature of the organization in the system of elements and their relationships There are three types of structures: network, hierarchical, skeletal.

2). In terms of spatial organization structures are distinguished: - flat; - voluminous; - dispersed, when the elements are evenly distributed in space; - locally concentrated.

3). By temporal allocate: - Extensive structures in which over time there is an increase in the number of elements; - intensive structures in which there is an increase in the number of bonds and their power with a constant number of elements; - reducing, opposite to extensive; - degrading, opposite to intensive; - stable.

Structure is the most conservative characteristic of a system.

Function there is an action, behavior, activity of the system

The function of an element arises as a realization of its system-defined properties and in the formation of an element and its connections in the system.

A function of a system or a set of functions arises as a generation, specific for each system, of the whole complex of functions and dysfunctions of the elements of its constituents.

Any element has a huge number of properties. Some of these properties are suppressed during the formation of bonds, while others become pronounced. However, the degree of suppression of system-insignificant properties of elements, as a rule, is not complete. In this regard, during the formation of the system, not only “useful functions” arise that ensure the preservation of its qualitative features by the system, but also dysfunctions that negatively affect the functioning of the system.

The main systemic function characteristics are:

Compatibility at the elemental level;

Variability (lability);

Ability to activate on the properties of elements;

Intensity (severity);

The degree of determinism.

The fundamental concept of TS is the concept of "system" (gr. systema is a connection made up of parts).

System- a set (set) of elements between which there are connections (relationships, interaction). Thus, the system is understood not as any set, but orderly(due to the relationship).

Terms " attitude" And " interaction» are used in the broadest sense, including the whole set of related concepts such as limitation, structure, organizational connection, connection, dependence, etc.

System S is an ordered pair S=(A, R), where A is a set of elements; R is the set of relationships between A.

System- this is a complete, integral set of elements (components), interconnected and interacting with each other so that the function of the system can be realized.

System- this is an objective part of the universe, including similar and compatible elements that form a special whole that interacts with the external environment. Many other definitions are also allowed. What they have in common is that the system is some correct combination of the most important, essential properties of the object under study.

If you bring together (combine) homogeneous or heterogeneous elements (concepts, objects, people), then this will not be a system, but only a more or less random mixture. To consider this or that set of elements as a system or not also depends largely on the goals of the study and the accuracy of the analysis, determined by the ability to observe (describe) the system.

The concept of "system" arises there and then, where and when we materially or speculatively draw a closed boundary between an unlimited or some limited set of elements. Those elements with their respective mutual conditioning that fall inside form a system.

Those elements that remained outside the boundary form a set, called in systems theory "system environment" or simply "environment", or "external environment".

It follows from these considerations that it is impossible to consider a system without its external environment. The system forms and manifests its properties in the process of interaction with the environment, while being the leading component of this impact.

Any human activity is purposeful. This is most clearly seen in the example of labor activity. The goals that a person sets for himself are rarely achievable only at the expense of his own capabilities or external means available to him at the moment. This set of circumstances is called a "problem situation". The problematic of the existing situation is realized in several "stages": from a vague feeling that "something is wrong", to the realization of the need, then to the identification of the problem and, finally, to the formulation of the goal.

Target is a subjective image (abstract model) of a non-existent but desired state of the environment that would solve the problem that has arisen. All subsequent activities contributing to the solution of this problem are aimed at achieving the set goal, i.e. as the work of creating a system. In other words: system There is means to an end.

Here are some simplified examples of systems designed to achieve certain goals.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

System: Definition and classification

The concept of a system is one of the fundamental ones and is used in various scientific disciplines and spheres of human activity. The well-known phrases "information system", "man-machine system", "economic system", "biological system" and many others illustrate the prevalence of this term in various subject areas.

There are many definitions in the literature of what a “system” is. Despite the differences in wording, they all rely to some extent on the original translation of the Greek word systema - a whole made up of parts, connected. We will use the following rather general definition.

System- a set of objects united by links so that they exist (function) as a single whole, acquiring new properties that these objects do not have separately.

The remark about the new properties of the system in this definition is a very important feature of the system, which distinguishes it from a simple collection of unrelated elements. The presence of new properties in a system that are not the sum of the properties of its elements is called emergence (for example, the performance of the "collective" system is not reduced to the sum of the performance of its elements - members of this team).

Objects in systems can be both material and abstract. In the first case, one speaks of material (empirical) systems; in the second - about abstract systems. Abstract systems include theories, formal languages, mathematical models, algorithms, etc.

Systems. Principles of consistency

To identify systems in the surrounding world, you can use the following principles of consistency.

The principle of external integrity - isolation systems from the environment. The system interacts with the environment as a whole, its behavior is determined by the state of the environment and the state of the entire system, and not by some separate part of it.

System isolation in the environment has its purpose, i.e. the system is characterized by purpose. Other characteristics of the system in the surrounding world are its input, output and internal state.

The input of an abstract system, for example, some mathematical theory, is the statement of the problem; the output is the result of solving this problem, and the destination will be the class of problems solved within the framework of this theory.

The principle of internal integrity is the stability of links between parts of the system. The state of systems depends not only on the state of its parts - elements, but also on the state of the connections between them. That is why the properties of the system are not reduced to a simple sum of the properties of its elements; those properties appear in the system that are absent from the elements separately.

The presence of stable links between the elements of the system determines its functionality. Violation of these links can lead to the fact that the system will not be able to perform its assigned functions.

The principle of hierarchy - in the system, subsystems can be distinguished, defining for each of them its own input, output, purpose. In turn, the system itself can be seen as part of a larger systems.

Further division of subsystems into parts will lead to the level at which these subsystems are called elements of the original system. Theoretically, the system can be divided into small parts, apparently indefinitely. However, in practice this will lead to the appearance of elements whose connection with the original system, with its functions, will be difficult to grasp. Therefore, an element of the system is considered to be such smaller parts of it that have some qualities inherent in the system itself.

Important in the study, design and development of systems is the concept of its structure. System structure- the totality of its elements and stable links between them. To display the structure of the system, graphic notations (languages), block diagrams are most often used. In this case, as a rule, the representation of the system structure is performed at several levels of detail: first, the system's connections with the external environment are described; then a diagram is drawn with the selection of the largest subsystems, then their own diagrams are built for the subsystems, etc.

Such detailing is the result of a consistent structural analysis of the system. Method structural systems analysis is a subset of system analysis methods in general and is used, in particular, in programming engineering, in the development and implementation of complex information systems. The main idea of structural system analysis is a step-by-step detailing of the studied (simulated) system or process, which begins with a general overview of the object of study, and then involves its consistent refinement.

IN systems approach to the solution of research, design, production and other theoretical and practical problems, the analysis stage together with the synthesis stage form the methodological concept of the solution. In the study (design, development) of systems, at the stage of analysis, the initial (developed) system is divided into parts in order to simplify it and solve the problem sequentially. At the stage of synthesis, the results obtained, individual subsystems are connected together by establishing links between the inputs and outputs of the subsystems.

It is important to note that the split systems into parts will give different results depending on who and for what purpose performs this partitioning. Here we are talking only about such partitions, the synthesis after which allows us to obtain the original or conceived system. These do not include, for example, the "analysis" of the "computer" system with a hammer and chisel. So, for a specialist implementing an automated information system at an enterprise, information links between enterprise departments will be important; for a specialist in the supply department - links that display the movement of material resources in the enterprise. As a result, you can get various options for the structural diagrams of the system, which will contain various connections between its elements, reflecting a particular point of view and the purpose of the study.

Performance systems, in which the main thing is the display and study of its relations with the external environment, with external systems, is called a representation at the macro level. The representation of the internal structure of the system is a representation at the micro level.

System classification

Classification systems involves the division of the entire set of systems into different groups - classes that have common features. The classification of systems can be based on various features.

In the most general case, two large classes of systems can be distinguished: abstract (symbolic) and material (empirical).

According to the origin of the system, they are divided on natural systems(created by nature), artificial, as well as systems of mixed origin, in which there are both natural elements and elements made by man. Systems, which are artificial or mixed, are created by man to achieve his goals and needs.

Let us give brief characteristics of some general types of systems.

Technical system is an interconnected, interdependent complex of material elements that provide a solution to a certain problem. Such systems include a car, a building, a computer, a radio communication system, etc. A person is not an element of such a system, and the technical system itself belongs to the class of artificial ones.

Technological system- a system of rules, norms that determine the sequence of operations in the production process.

Organizational system in general, it is a set of people (collectives) interconnected by certain relationships in the process of some activity, created and managed by people. Known combinations of "organizational-technical, organizational-technological system" expand the understanding of the organizational system by means and methods of professional activity of members of organizations.

Other name - organizational and economic the system is used to designate systems (organizations, enterprises) participating in the economic processes of creating, distributing, exchanging material goods.

economic system- a system of productive forces and production relations that develop in the process of production, consumption, distribution of material goods. A more general socio-economic system additionally reflects social ties and elements, including relations between people and teams, working conditions, recreation, etc. Organizational and economic systems operate in the field of production of goods and / or services, i.e. within an economic system. These systems are of the greatest interest as objects of implementation. economic information systems(EIS), which are computerized systems for collecting, storing, processing and disseminating economic information. A private interpretation of the EIS are systems designed to automate the tasks of managing enterprises (organizations).

According to the degree of complexity, simple, complex and very complex (large) systems are distinguished. Simple systems are characterized by a small number of internal connections and the relative ease of mathematical description. Characteristic for them is the presence of only two possible states of operability: in case of failure of the elements, the system either completely loses its operability (the ability to fulfill its purpose), or continues to perform the specified functions in full.

Complex systems have a branched structure, a wide variety of elements and relationships, and many health states (more than two). These systems lend themselves to mathematical description, as a rule, with the help of complex mathematical relationships (deterministic or probabilistic). Complex systems include almost all modern technical systems (TV set, machine tool, spacecraft, etc.).

Modern organizational and economic systems (large enterprises, holdings, manufacturing, transport, energy companies) are among the very complex (large) systems. The following features are typical for such systems:

the complexity of the appointment and the variety of functions performed;

large system sizes in terms of the number of elements, their interconnections, inputs and outputs;

a complex hierarchical structure of the system, which makes it possible to single out several levels in it with rather independent elements at each of the levels, with their own goals of the elements and features of functioning;

the presence of a common goal of the system and, as a result, centralized control, subordination between elements of different levels with their relative autonomy;

the presence in the system of active elements - people and their teams with their own goals (which, generally speaking, may not coincide with the goals of the system itself) and behavior;

the variety of types of relationships between the elements of the system (material, informational, energy connections) and the system with the external environment.

Due to the complexity of the purpose and functioning processes, the construction of adequate mathematical models that characterize the dependences of the output, input and internal parameters for large systems is impossible.

According to the degree of interaction with the external environment, there are open systems And closed systems. A system is called a closed system, any element of which has connections only with the elements of the system itself, i.e. a closed system does not interact with the external environment. Open systems interact with the external environment, exchanging matter, energy, information. All real systems are closely or weakly connected with the external environment and are open.

By the nature of the behavior of the system is divided into deterministic and non-deterministic. Deterministic systems are those systems in which the components interact with each other in a precisely defined way. The behavior and state of such a system can be unambiguously predicted. When non-deterministic systems such an unambiguous prediction cannot be made.

If the behavior of the system obeys probabilistic laws, then it is called probabilistic. In this case, predicting the behavior of the system is performed using probabilistic mathematical models. We can say that probabilistic models are a certain idealization that allows you to describe the behavior of non-deterministic systems. In practice, the classification of a system as deterministic or non-deterministic often depends on the objectives of the study and the details of the consideration of the system.