The climate of Russia and its influence on the architecture of buildings. Relationship between climate and building architecture Influence of natural and climatic factors on design

As stated above, climate is the long-term weather pattern observed in a given area. The problem of climate assessment can be considered at three levels or in three aspects. A macro-climatic (background) assessment should be understood as an assessment of meteorological conditions in a large area of ​​the territory, allocated by the commonality of climatic characteristics (region, district, sub-region). We can talk about the climate of the central region of the European part of Russia, the climate of the Urals, the Kola Peninsula, subregion 1 B (according to the SNiP map), etc. Assessment of the mesoclimate (or its co-scale local climate) involves the identification of climatic features characteristic of a city or a large settlement as a whole: the climate of Moscow, Vladivostok, Salekhard, etc.

Architectural and climatic analysis is carried out in order to establish links between architecture, which is understood as the art of building buildings, structures and their complexes, and the climatic conditions in which architectural objects are built or will be built. Architectural and climatic analysis begins with an analysis of individual climatic characteristics: the amount of solar radiation, wind speed, temperature and humidity, etc., each of which in its own way affects the choice of architectural and urban planning and related engineering and construction solutions. An example of areas for accounting for climatic parameters in the process of architectural design is given in Table. 2.1.

Architectural climatography is based on a comprehensive analysis of climatic factors that affect the architectural environment and the person in it. Some of these factors, while acting simultaneously, mutually reinforce this influence. For example, at low air temperatures it is analyzed together with wind action, at high temperatures - together with air humidity and solar radiation, etc. up to complex indicators that take into account four or more factors.

The connection of the architectural composition with climatic conditions (“+” - the connection exists)

table 2.7

The end of the table. 2.7

In architecture, the building is considered not just as a physical shell that protects the internal environment and a person from adverse climatic influences, but as a set of architectural forms and techniques that make it possible to better adapt it to natural and climatic conditions and make this protection more efficient and less energy intensive. This is what architectural climatography, which studies aspects of the relationship between architecture and various climate factors, differs from other types of applied climatology, including building climatology.

The ability of buildings to protect their internal environment and adjacent territory from adverse climatic influences directly depends on how environmental factors were taken into account in the architectural and planning solution of these buildings at the design stage, how well the use of certain building materials and structures, plastic and color solutions.

Since weather conditions differ in summer and winter in most parts of the world, it is almost impossible to find an architectural and construction solution that is equally effectively adapted to winter and summer weather conditions. In this regard, another practical task arises - the creation of an adaptive architectural form and environment, differently, but equally effectively "working" in different types of weather. The ability of buildings to adapt to changing weather conditions is determined by the presence of unchanging, "passive" climate-protective architectural techniques, which in most cases are complemented by transformable, "active" climate-protective architectural details and elements. The former include, for example, the tectonics of buildings and the design of their walls or the orientation of buildings along the sides of the horizon. The second category includes architectural solutions related, for example, to the creation of buffer zones between external fences and internal premises, the microclimate in which is controlled by transformable enclosing structures, transformable light openings, sun protection devices, etc.

Thus, in the most general form, three main areas of climate protection solutions in architecture can be distinguished:

• a) passive buildings with permanent climate protection functions through the use of passive architectural solutions;
• b) buildings with active climate-regulating architectural solutions that can change the degree and even the direction of climate protection depending on weather conditions;
• c) buildings that combine the two principles listed above. In this case, passive methods can be completely replaced or simply supplemented by active methods of climate control, giving the building the highest "climatic mobility".

In passive buildings (type "a") adaptability to external climatic influences can be achieved through a different mode of use of the interior under different types of weather or at different times of the year. Or vice versa, they should provide for an internal layout that allows maximum preservation of the functions of the premises, regardless of the season or weather conditions. Often, this layout comes at the expense of functionality. In such buildings, it is also very important at the design stage to correctly determine the most suitable building materials and design solutions.

In buildings with active climate-protective architecture (type "b"), the premises can adapt to external climatic influences - insolation, wind, temperature - due to transformable architectural elements: interactive facade structures, buffer zones, sun-protection or sun-catching devices, etc.

The use of modern building technologies and materials allows architects to design buildings that are much more flexible and effective in terms of climate protection. Such buildings can more accurately respond to weather changes or be used in different types of climates. However, this universality should not deprive them of their individuality associated with the natural and climatic conditions of the area for which they are designed, deprive them of the “spirit of place”, depersonalize, make them alien in relation to the natural environment. Therefore, modern technologies should not be opposed to local architectural traditions. Only a combination of the experience gained in traditional architecture in protecting against adverse climates and new technological capabilities allows architects to find their own, new, expressive and at the same time characteristic of a particular culture architectural solution that provides maximum functional efficiency, durability and economy at all stages of the life cycle. building.

The complexity of adapting an architectural solution to climatic conditions lies in the fact that there is no universal architectural and climatic indicator that determines the need to use one or another architectural method of climate protection, which could be applied with the same degree of accuracy and reliability in any climatic regions. Therefore, the sequence of architectural and climatic analysis provides for the identification of those climatic parameters and their combinations that create the main problems for a particular area, after which they begin to develop architectural and climatic measures to reduce their negative impact on the internal environment of the building and the territory adjacent to it. In a continental climate with contrasting weather conditions in winter and summer, these solutions can be mutually exclusive, so the architect's task often comes down to finding a reasonable compromise between the most unfavorable and least favorable climatic influences. This is an important part of the creative process to find a harmonious solution to the relationship between architecture and the natural and climatic conditions of a particular area.

Climatic protective functions of buildings and types of weather. The most obvious way to take into account the complexity of the impact of a combination of meteorological elements and climatic characteristics on the architectural environment is the method of weather complexes. For various types of weather (Table 2.2), the corresponding architectural and typological characteristics are used in architecture. At the same time, we note that for buildings, in particular residential ones, the concept operating mode. There are four operating modes (Table 2.3): isolated, closed, adjustable, or semi-open, And open. Illustration to the table. 2.3 is fig. 2.1.

Table 2.2

Classifications of weather types

Table 2.3

Weather types and building operating conditions

Rice. 2.1.

A- hot (isolated mode); b- dry hot or arid (indoor mode); V- warm (semi-open mode); G- comfortable (open mode); e - cool (semi-open mode); e - cold (closed mode); and -

severe (isolated mode)

The method of taking into account the duration of weather complexes directly reveals the relationship of climate with the tasks of urban planning and the typology of buildings. This method helps architects to outline ways to uncover the relationship of weather complexes with the categories of architectural composition, for example, with architectural space, mass (plasticity of a volumetric solution), plasticity of a surface. So, for comfortable and warm weather, the open nature of architectural spaces is typical (free development of microdistricts, squares; planning of internal premises, providing aeration and opening to the external environment), dissected mass of the building (courtyards, courdoners, division of buildings into blocks); dissected (often actively dissected) plastic surfaces (loggias, balconies, windows of significant size, shading canopies, canopies, perforated fences). For cold weather with wind, enclosed, semi-enclosed and oriented spaces are recommended; the mass is undivided, slightly divided, streamlined and oriented; the plasticity of the surface is undivided. Finally, the method of weather complexes allowed domestic architectural climatology for the first time to reach the level of coverage of world architectural practice, to quickly compare many cities according to their architectural and climatic requirements for an open environment and buildings. These possibilities greatly expand the effectiveness of architectural and climatic analysis.

At the same time, it should be noted that this method is focused not on improving the comfort of the microclimate, but on climate protection. According to established practice, 1 month is taken as the minimum duration of the type of weather that determines the mode of operation of a dwelling. At the same time, when designing, it is necessary to take into account such weather conditions (combinations of meteorological elements) that can threaten the life and health of the population, although their frequency may not exceed 1-2%. This is a fundamental and very promising direction for the further development of architectural climatography.

Living environment in comfortable weather almost no climate protection functions. Thermal conditions of comfortable weather do not limit the time a person stays in the external environment, although within the limits indicated in Table. 2.2 extremes may be desirable insolation or shading. Comfortable weather is characterized by temperatures of 18-25°C, relative air humidity of 30-60%, air speed of 0.1-0.2 m/s indoors, 1-3 m/s outside. This is the best period of the Moscow summer. The mode of operation of the premises is open, in which the premises, as a rule, are directly connected with the external environment (open windows). Enclosing structures of buildings with high thermal insulation qualities, heating and cooling equipment are not required; loggias, verandas, active natural air exchange of premises with the external environment are characteristic.

Living environment in cool weather protects the person from easy cooling. In an urban environment, wind protection and the use of insolation create conditions close to comfortable. Cool weather is characterized by outside temperatures from 6 to 10°C (April-May, October in Moscow). The temperature of 4°C was adopted as the lower limit of cool weather, since at outside temperatures of 4.5-5°C and above, air exchange through the windows is quite acceptable, the mode is half-open or adjustable, and not closed (as in cold weather). The upper limit of cool weather is due to the fact that at an outside temperature of 12 ° C and below, it is desirable to heat non-insolated rooms and save internal heat emissions of the building. The relative humidity of the outdoor air in the specified temperature range does not play a big role, since the moisture content of the outdoor air is significantly below the physiological limit of feeling stuffy. The buildings are characterized by: the circulation of rooms to the sunny sides of the horizon; moderately compact space-planning solutions; in apartments - the availability of space for storing outerwear; air exchange through vents, transoms, valves; transformation (opening and closing windows) and the necessary airtightness and heat-shielding qualities of fences; heating devices of low power; accumulation of internal heat releases.

Living environment in cold weather protects a person from extreme cold. In an urban environment, effective wind protection (windbreaks) and the use of the sun are desirable, which alleviate cooling conditions, but do not create comfort. Cold weather from the standpoint of ensuring the comfort of the internal environment of buildings, as well as the need to protect people in the urban environment from the wind and the use of solar radiation, is characterized by temperatures up to -25°C; wind speed is 3-10 m/s, but at low temperatures it should not exceed: 5 m/s at temperatures up to -28°C and 2 m/s at -36°C. These values ​​are typical for winter in the European territory of Russia, in Western and southern Eastern Siberia. The lower limit of cold weather is taken from the conditions of air exchange due to the inflow of outside air.

Living environment in severe weather should completely isolate a person from external influences. At an external temperature of -35°С and below, the relative humidity of the internal air does not exceed 5%, and taking into account internal moisture emissions - 25%, i.e. less than the hygiene limit of 30%. Below the temperature taken as a limit, artificial ventilation with air humidification and protection of a person outside the building from frostbite and excessive heat loss are required. Buildings are characterized by: mode of operation - closed; compact space-planning solutions that ensure minimal heat loss; closed heated staircase; wardrobes for outerwear; necessary (for air exchange) air permeability and high heat-shielding qualities of fences; windows closed, sealed; central heating of medium power, exhaust duct ventilation (for buildings over 10 floors, other approaches to assessing the air exchange of premises are required).

Living environment in warm weather should provide for the possibility of overheating of the premises. However, good shading and aeration create comfortable conditions or close to them in an urban environment. Characteristic air temperature is from 20 to 32 ° C, depending on the relative humidity of the air (the hottest days in central Russia). The upper limit of warm weather is due to the different influence of humidity and the degree to which air movement can be used to compensate for temperature rise. At an air temperature of 32-33°C and above, it is very difficult to deal with overheating by ventilation. Therefore, the limit of 32°C is taken as the upper limit of warm weather at low and normal air humidity. At high humidity, the moisture content limit plays an important role, which determines the upper limit of the weather in terms of air temperature of 28 ° C at humidity up to 75% and 25 ° C at higher humidity. This applies to cases where the radiation temperature and air temperature are the same, and the wind speed is in the range of 0.5-1.0 m/s.

In warm weather, it is recommended for buildings: two-sided layout of apartments (offices, other premises) to ensure active through or corner ventilation of internal spaces; open spaces - loggias, verandas, terraces, adjoining courtyards; transformation of spaces and enclosing structures in the daily course, open windows, the obligatory presence of sun protection devices on the windows, mechanical fans-hair dryers in the rooms. However, the most expensive methods, which include planning with through or corner ventilation, are sun protection devices on windows (the most effective are external ones), etc. are not always used.

Living environment in hot dry (.dry) weather protects a person from severe overheating, excessive insolation, and often from dust and wind exposure. The mode of operation of buildings is closed. Characterized by compact space-planning solutions that ensure minimal heat input from the outside, an increase in the cubic capacity of internal spaces, open spaces for evening and night rest, light openings protected from the sun, artificial (evaporative) cooling, forced local ventilation, use of the cooling effect of soil floors and building foundations. In an urban environment, active shading and watering soften the microclimate, but are not always able to create completely comfortable conditions. Protection from the overheated dusty winds of the deserts, trapping of cool night air currents from the mountains and hills, and the installation of fountains are necessary. Typical temperatures are 33-36°C and humidity less than 24% (daytime summer hours in Central Asia).

Living environment in hot weather also protects a person from severe overheating, excessive insolation and stuffiness. The feeling of stuffiness is caused by a combination of high temperature and high humidity. The mode of operation of buildings is isolated, requiring complete air conditioning in the mode of removing excess moisture to create conditions for thermal comfort. Evaporative (increases moisture content) and radiation (condensate forms) cooling is unacceptable. Characterized by compact space-planning solutions, open spaces for evening and night rest, the use of the cooling effect of soil floors and building foundations. Windows should be tightly closed during air conditioning operation, have sun protection devices. The urban environment and traditional dwellings are characterized by shading and active aeration, since only air movement can alleviate the feeling of stuffiness and overheating, but is not able to provide complete physiological comfort. Typical air temperatures are 30-35°C with a humidity of 60-25% (the hottest days on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, typical conditions for tropical marine and equatorial climate types).

As can be seen, in the proposed classification, hot weather with high and normal humidity is one type, although they differ in many ways and have a different geographical distribution. The combination is based on the commonality of typological requirements for obtaining comfortable conditions for the architectural environment (cooling with a decrease in humidity, aeration, sun protection, etc.).

Architectural and climatic analysis in terms of assessing background conditions by weather types requires counting the number of days (months or half a day) with a particular weather. According to the prevailing in the 1960-1980s. In the practice of design and construction in the USSR, when the tendency to typify projects and the desire for cost-effective solutions prevailed, the climatic regions that determined the right to introduce new projects covered territories within which the frequency of weather varied by 15-20% from one region to another. At that time, it was concluded that the minimum weather repeatability, which at that stage should have been taken into account in the type design, is 8% of the length of the year. The value of 8% indicates that buildings and town planning formations were designed and are being designed to a large extent now with a significant tolerance for conditions that are far from comfortable.

If the design of buildings took into account the likely operating conditions, following the example of hydraulic structures (for example, according to a 1% flood), then the cost of their construction would increase significantly. Meanwhile, in order to ensure complete safety, it may someday come to taking into account weather events that have a frequency of 1-2%. At present, it seems appropriate to take into account meteorological conditions with a probability of at least 5%, and in some cases, when designing urban areas, even rarer phenomena, especially those associated with a danger to the life of the population (say, strong gusty winds).

So, for example, the picture of weather conditions in Moscow is as follows. During the year, cool weather lasts 230 days (63%), cold - 73 days (20%), comfortable - 55 days (15%). These types of weather determine architectural decisions. Seven days (2%) is observed warm (overheating) weather, which "does not make weather", as its short duration does not allow buildings to overheat.

Yakutsk: cool weather lasts 113 days, or 31% (half that in Moscow), cold - 121 days, or 33% (more than 1.5 times more than in Moscow), and severe, which does not exist in Moscow at all , - 84 days, or 23%. Summer is very similar to Moscow: comfortable weather - 40 days - 11% (in Moscow - 15%), warm (overheating) - the same 2%.

Adler-Sochi: cool weather lasts 234 days - 64%, the same as in Moscow; comfortable - 58 days, or 16%, as in Moscow, but instead of cold 69 days, or 19%, warm (overheating) weather lasts and another 4 days, or 1% - hot, humid weather.

Analyzing the material presented above on the duration of weather complexes in Moscow, Yakutsk and Adler-Sochi, you need to pay attention to the following. The main type-forming weather classes in Moscow and Yakutsk have a significant frequency, and they determine the main requirements for architectural solutions. Nevertheless, in both Moscow and Yakutsk, warm weather is observed 7 days a year (2%), which, as noted, is not taken into account when designing buildings. However, it is she who creates the most dangerous overheating situations for the health of citizens. Due to this, a situation of compromise typical of architectural climatography is created: “complete comfort - pay, if you can’t - endure it!”, i.e. the assessment of the role of the frequency of occurrence or duration of this or that weather depends on the level of requirements for comfort, on material opportunities and social tasks at certain stages of the development of society.

In order to ensure complete comfort in the summer in the cities mentioned, it is necessary to fulfill the requirements for a warm weather living environment. For example, as the experience of the last 15-20 years has shown, in the Central region of Russia, including Moscow, “heat waves” can be observed in summer, which have such a great intensity and duration that the lack of adaptation of the living environment to them causes great harm to the city and its residents. The “heat wave” of 2010, which lasted almost a month, is memorable, a phenomenon whose frequency is 2% (about once every 50 years). Since the living environment was not adapted to such weather, this phenomenon had very serious consequences for Muscovites and residents of other cities in the region. Suffice it to say that during the month that this heat wave lasted, the death rate in Moscow more than doubled.

By the way, the severe weather, which in Moscow lasts for several days in January and February and in which pedestrians need warm transitions between buildings, and in the internal environment - forced supply and exhaust ventilation with heating and humidification of the air - is also not yet taken into account. in the practice of design preparation for construction. However, in order to get frostbite with a combination of temperature and wind speeds characteristic of severe weather, it takes several minutes, a maximum of half an hour. Such a danger arises for the inhabitants of Central Russia every winter, and more than once.

It can also be noted that in the Adler-Sochi region, hot humid weather lasting only 4 days (1%) is not reflected in architectural solutions, since this weather requires full air conditioning (cooling and reduction of moisture content), forced exhaust ventilation. The complex of means used in Sochi actually corresponds only to warm (overheated) weather, the duration of which is 69 days, or 19%, per year.

Another important aspect of creating a comfortable and safe architectural environment from the point of view of climatic impact is a comprehensive assessment of the climatic conditions of the building area from the standpoint of developing climate protection measures using appropriate architectural and planning tools. For such an assessment, specially designed nomograms can be used that take into account the simultaneous impact of a number of climatic facts and show the required direction of impact on the climatic parameters of the building. The main architectural, planning and engineering means of microclimate control available for this are presented in Appendix 2.

For this type of architectural and climatic analysis, the way to assess the comfort of climatic conditions is a factor-by-factor assessment, but focused not on the architectural environment, but on the person of whom he is the subject. Such an analysis requires data on the age, health and type of activity of people in a particular situation, as is done with a hygienic assessment of the microclimate. In the first approximation, an adult healthy pedestrian can be taken as a subject, since under adverse conditions all other groups of the population can be protected by the internal environment of buildings, and certain types of activities that do not meet the weather conditions in the building area can be deliberately limited.

In the general case, factor analysis of climate for architectural purposes requires knowledge of the provisions of architectural climatology, knowledge of the functional purpose and technical and economic indicators of the object for which the analysis is carried out, and the criteria that determine this or that decision. So, for example, the need for sun protection of sites and buildings associated with a long stay of the population is determined by the duration of the period with an air temperature of 2 GS and above. It is also known that favorable conditions on balconies and loggias in Moscow develop: if there is insolation - at temperatures of 12-16°C; if sun protection is used - at 16-26 ° C. As can be seen from this example, the analysis of comfort conditions requires taking into account a set of evaluation criteria and means of regulating the environment, implemented, as a rule, in the form of separate methodological developments. In a generalized form, climate protection measures when choosing an architectural and planning solution can be determined by the nomograms shown in Fig. 2.2.

strong wind cooling of buildings

walks invalid G

wind protection for pedestrians

obligatory

destruction

mechanical

snow and sand transfer

discomfort

desirable

E cm "f"

• -15 -10 -5 0 5

air temperature, ! WITH

wind speed, m/s

pedestrians in autumn and spring "nyaya wind protection for areas with reduced

wind protection

wind protection

territory

defence from

stimulation

summer wind protection of the territory

wind protection, . during

/ / o "suhoveev

winter wind protection in high humidity

’ maximum use of insolation

maximum use

• -1_I_I_I_
• -20 -15 -10 -5

At overheating at increased humidity

G "///

• 1 / o°>

overheat protection

natural air mobility _I_I_I_I_1_

air humidity, %

air temperature, C C Accounting for the microclimate:

Rice. 2.2. Examples of graphical methods for climatic analysis of the architectural environment:

graph of the impact of wind and air temperature on the living environment; b- bioclimatic graph of the comfort zone; V- diagram

selection of the main urban planning measures to regulate the microclimate

On the territory of our country, buildings and structures are exposed to a complex of climatic influences in various combinations and of varying intensity.

Building climatology - a science that reveals the relationship between climatic conditions and the architecture of buildings and urban formations.

The main task of building climatology is to substantiate the feasibility of urban planning decisions, the choice of building types and enclosing structures, taking into account the climatic features of the construction area.

The correct choice of the size and shape of the premises depends on a number of factors, among which a special place is occupied by the air environment, the characteristics of which depend on climatic conditions and the construction site.

Architects have known for millennia that cities and buildings should be designed and built according to the climate, and that street widths, building heights, and window sizes should be chosen according to orientation and depth. It is necessary to carefully and justifiably fit buildings and structures into nature.

As practice shows, all architectural and urban masterpieces were created with these eternal truths in mind.

In the southern dry areas of the city, the buildings have always had the character of "self-shading structures", and the buildings have always been a kind of "thermoses" with massive walls, a closed compact layout and rare small windows.

For humid southern areas, on the contrary, the characteristic features are: open planning, well-ventilated urban spaces, light "breathing" walls of buildings and large light openings.

The southern regions are characterized by a significant number of sunny days per year, very high radiation and lighting contrast. All these factors predetermine the specific nature of fine architectural plasticity and the high saturation of the color ratios of the elements and details of buildings.

In the northern and most central regions, a predominantly cloudy sky is observed, which causes large plastic walls and details and pastel colors of the facades of buildings and structures.

Without taking into account the above truths, it is impossible to provide the necessary comfort in buildings with minimal costs for the operation of buildings. This becomes especially important in the age of the energy crisis and the all-round saving of energy resources. Only the rational design of cities, agro-industrial complexes and residential development, taking into account climatic conditions, orientation to the sides of the horizon, the use of optimal sizes and proportions of light openings, as well as sun protection devices, provides significant savings in material and financial costs.

It should be noted that only due to the rational choice of the size of the light openings, which contribute to an increase in the use of natural light by 1 h during the day, you can save up to 3 million kW / h of electricity per year only in industrial buildings.

By using the requirements for insolation of buildings, it becomes possible to increase the building density by 8-10% and increase the construction of more economical meridional-type houses with a wide body, which can significantly reduce urban planning costs without reducing the volume of commissioning of residential buildings.

The rational use of sun protection devices reduces the cost of operating civil buildings, for industrial buildings it helps to increase labor productivity by reducing the production of defective products and the cost of artificially regulating the microclimate in the premises.

Thus, when designing buildings and structures, it is necessary to know the climatic factors and take them into account, since knowledge of the climatic conditions of the environment allows you to find an expressive architectural form, give the building an individual image, due to the natural and climatic factors of the construction site.

The design and development of cities is largely based on the study of the natural conditions of the area. Climate is one of the most important factors taken into account in urban planning.

Climate- this is an average, long-term regime of atmospheric phenomena, characteristic for each place on the Earth. Basically, the climate is determined by the geographical location of the place. The climatic characteristics are most significantly affected by the latitude and height of the terrain, proximity to the sea coast, and the peculiarity of the vegetation cover.

The relative stability of the climate is explained by the fact that the amount of solar heat received by the Earth is almost constant from year to year. The earth's surface itself does not change significantly, with its continents and oceans, mountains and plains on land, cold and warm currents in the seas and oceans. Air currents in the atmosphere, although they are distinguished by great diversity and variability, have their own patterns that manifest themselves over a long time.

Climatic features in themselves, that is, outside of their influence on land fertility and agriculture, are of all physical and geographical factors of the least importance for the formation and development of modern cities. It is well known that the concentration of the population in cities is due to economic reasons, and not to climatic features as such. For example, Ancient Rome, the first and only "giant city" of antiquity, has always been distinguished by unhealthy climatic conditions; London is famous for its unhealthy dampness and notorious fogs; Venice was built on the lagoons; in the swamps - St. Petersburg.

However, the importance of climate in relation to the nature of the planning of buildings, greening of cities, up to the choice of the type and material of housing, is enormous. In urban planning practice, the following main climatic characteristics are taken into account:

Air temperature and humidity;

Wind regime in the territory;

Arrival of solar radiation.

Air temperature determines the choice of heat-insulating properties of the enclosing structures of buildings. First of all, the calculated outdoor temperature in the cold season is taken into account. For thermotechnical calculations of enclosing structures, the following outdoor temperatures are used: the average temperature of the coldest five-day period and the absolute minimum temperature of the outdoor air. The lower the calculated temperatures, the more effective the thermal insulation of walls and country floors, the denser the window double (or even triple) sashes should be.

When making urban planning decisions, the average annual temperature, the average temperature by months, as well as the temperature difference, i.e. the difference between summer and winter temperatures, are taken into account.

Air temperature affects the layout of residential areas and neighborhoods. Distances from housing to service establishments, the so-called radius of accessibility, depend on the temperature regime. At low winter temperatures, these radii should probably be smaller, especially to children's institutions. For the northern cities of Russia, special projects of buildings are being developed, interconnected by insulated transitions.

Air temperature affects the layout of apartments. In a hot climate at high summer temperatures, it is necessary to provide through ventilation of apartments, the creation of loggias. It should be borne in mind that the microclimate of the city creates an increased temperature (by 2–3 degrees) in conditions of dense urban development due to the reduction of turbulent wind mixing of air, increased insolation surface and heat release from industrial facilities and housing.

wind mode. Wind - the movement of air relative to the earth's surface, caused by an uneven distribution of atmospheric pressure. The wind regime is taken into account in urban planning, primarily from the point of view of identifying the dominant directions and their speeds. The wind diagram clearly reflects the prevailing wind direction at a given point.

Rose of Wind- this is a graphical representation of the frequency of winds (in percent) along the horizon points (Fig. 3.1).

Rice. 3.1. Rose of Wind

The wind rose is built on 8 or 16 points - the main geographical cardinal points. In these directions, on a certain scale, the recurrence values ​​of directions or the values ​​of average and maximum wind speeds corresponding to each rhumba are plotted as vectors. The ends of the vectors are connected by a broken line. The prevailing wind direction corresponds to the largest vector of the wind rose, directed towards its center. The basis for constructing the wind rose is a long-term series of observations at the nearest meteorological station.

Based on the analysis of the wind rose by directions, conclusions are drawn about the functional zoning of the territory, the mutual placement of residential and industrial areas. Industrial areas with harmful emissions into the atmosphere should be located on the leeward side so that they do not pollute the air of residential areas. The main wind direction is also taken into account when arranging airfields for the landing and take-off of aircraft.

In the harsh climate of the north, taking into account the directions of the prevailing winds makes it possible to organize wind protection for a residential area. Wind protection is carried out by using artificial wind barriers (buildings, green plantings of tall stem vegetation) or natural barriers (using lee slopes, large arrays of existing greenery).

Characteristics of areas by wind speeds allows you to carry out measures for wind protection or, conversely, the organization of ventilation. The optimum wind speed is up to 4 m/s. Areas where the wind speed is less than 1 m / s are classified as unventilated, and more than 4 m / s - to zones of intensive ventilation.

In order to weaken the high speeds of the prevailing winds, the direction of the streets in the city is corrected. In addition, additional wind protection measures are being developed, such as planting trees and shrubs. In conditions of strong winds, the best wind protection is provided by the use of extended multi-section buildings located across the prevailing wind direction. In areas with low wind speeds, on the contrary, complex configurations of buildings and their long length should be avoided. Here, tower-type buildings are more preferable, providing maximum preservation of the initial wind speed.

Humidity- the content of water vapor in the air, one of the essential characteristics of the climate . Absolute humidity- the amount of water vapor in grams contained in 1 m³ of air. Relative Humidity- this is the percentage of absolute humidity to the maximum amount of water vapor that 1 m³ of air can contain at a given temperature.

Moisture has a huge impact on the heat-shielding qualities of building envelopes. It is known that water is an excellent conductor of heat, and air, especially dry air, has thermal insulation properties. Therefore, heat-insulating materials with a large number of air-filled pores have excellent heat-shielding properties. However, when moisture penetrates, the thermal insulation ability of any material deteriorates sharply. In addition, moisture dissolves chemicals that lead to the rapid destruction of materials.

Thus, increased humidity reduces the thermal insulation properties of building envelopes, stimulates the process of corrosion of metals, destruction of materials. Therefore, air humidity is taken into account when choosing materials for thermal insulation and building structures.

In addition, high humidity greatly impairs the heat perception of people. At low temperatures, humidity creates the impression of particular discomfort. Even not very cold weather is perceived negatively, at the same time, even severe frosts in dry, clear weather are easily tolerated. In a hot climate, humidity also acts uncomfortable, damp heat is very difficult for a person to tolerate.

A person's feelings largely depend on a combination of three factors:

Temperatures;

Humidity;

Air movement speeds.

So, at a temperature of 19 ° C, humidity 50% and still air, a person experiences a pleasant sensation of normal room temperature. At the same temperature and humidity, but with air moving at a speed of 0.5 m/s, a feeling characterized by the concept of “cool”, and at a speed of 2.5 m/s, a person becomes cold. And at a temperature of 24 ° C, still air saturated with water vapor, you get a feeling of stuffiness. At the same temperature and humidity, but with a wind speed of 1 m / s - a pleasant feeling of normal temperature.

Insolation- exposure to direct sunlight of any horizontal, vertical or inclined surface. This is a qualitative characteristic determined by the lighting time.

The normative duration of insolation is defined in SNIP 2.07.01 - 89 and depends on the climatic zone. In the zone located north of 58 ° N. sh., the duration of continuous insolation from April 22 to August 22 should be at least 3 hours a day. For zones south of 58° N. sh. from March 22 to September 22 - at least 2.5 hours. The placement and orientation of the buildings of preschool institutions and secondary schools, health care institutions should ensure a continuous three-hour duration of insolation.

When reconstructing residential buildings or when placing new construction in particularly difficult urban conditions (historically valuable urban environment, expensive preparation of the territory, the zone of the city and district center), it is allowed to reduce the duration of insolation of the premises by 0.5 hours.

Insolation is taken into account when organizing development and choosing a territory. Residential development should provide uniform illumination of apartments and plots of residential territory, destinations for recreation and sports of the population.

In temperate climates, buildings are positioned on the ground so as to maximize the duration of insolation. In conditions of a pronounced relief, for residential development and placement of areas for children's institutions and recreation areas, mainly southern slopes are chosen, which are well insolated and with a good microclimate.

In areas with a hot climate, on the contrary, sun protection measures are provided. Landscaping of the territory includes the installation of canopies, green spaces with a dense branched crown, which reduce the time of direct solar irradiation of the territory.

The insolation of an individual building depends on its orientation to its sides of the horizon. Distinguish meridional, latitudinal and intermediate orientation of the building.

At meridional orientation buildings have main axes in the north-south direction. This orientation ensures uniform insolation of both facades and the minimum area of ​​permanent shading areas. However, its disadvantage is that in the afternoon hours, when the sun's rays are most rich in ultraviolet and heat, only the end part of the buildings is insolated.

With latitude orientation buildings have main axes in the direction west - east. Only one (southern) facade of buildings is insolated here. Direct sunlight does not enter rooms oriented to the north.

With an intermediate orientation there are no permanent shading zones, all four facades of the building have insolation, however uneven.

The illumination of a group of buildings also depends on the distance at which one building is located from another, as well as on the height of the neighboring building. To apply the type of orientation of buildings on the ground, the compositional reception of building and the terrain are also taken into account.

In addition to the factors considered, other elements of climate are of great importance in urban planning. For example, the amount of precipitation in a given area is taken into account in the engineering improvement of the territory, the calculation of the catchment area, the regulation of surface runoff and the design of storm sewers.

“Form follows climate,” famous Indian architect Charles Correa once said. According to this idea, architecture must meet the conditions of the climate, level out its disadvantages and use its advantages.

By studying the traditions of building in various climatic conditions, one can see solutions that have been proven over the years. For example, in areas with heavy rainfall, the slope of the roof is made the steepest, and in areas where winds are blowing, in a dry climate, it is advisable to arrange a flat roof.

In modern construction, buildings are trying to be as energy efficient as possible. Natural and climatic conditions are used in such a way as to help reduce operating costs. Comfort requirements are met naturally wherever possible.

How and what means do architects use in design, working with climate?

Daylight

Natural lighting is one of the main climatic parameters taken into account when creating a project. Well thought out, it significantly reduces the need for electric light and improves the visual qualities of the space. The most elementary way to increase the level of natural light in a building is to increase the number and size of glazed surfaces, translucent barriers. Windows, atriums, overhead light - ensure that enough light enters the interior.

Orientation to the cardinal points is an important parameter that takes into account climatic conditions. How to arrange premises for various purposes and where to orient them is described in the design standards. They are different for each locality.

It is important to achieve a comfortable mode of insolation. Often you have to deal with an excess of bright sunlight and overheating. In such cases, shadow screens, roof ledges, awnings, trees and other elements are used.

Recently, the use of sunlight as a renewable energy source has been growing in popularity, especially in countries with the greatest number of sunny days.

Photovoltaic cells (solar panels) are installed on roofs and other actively illuminated surfaces of buildings.

Wind

Natural wind currents are also used to improve conditions inside and around buildings. Thanks to the knowledge of the laws of aerodynamics, it is possible to successfully cool and ventilate even huge skyscrapers near the Arabian Desert.

A double façade, with air circulating between the layers, copes with this task, saving money on air conditioning. The interaction of the shape of the building and the prevailing winds is checked by blowing the model in a wind tunnel and by calculations. The larger the building, the more important it is to check it first and, if necessary, adjust it.

Landscape

Interaction with the landscape begins with urban planning ideas. For example, on which side of the mountain ranges should the city be located? Where to lay out gardens and parks, arrange fountains and pools?

When designing a separate building, they also design its surroundings.

Intensive use of trees cools and humidifies the air, creates the necessary shade. So, it is advisable to protect the southern facade from the sun. In addition, dense plantings of greenery can form cooling wind currents. A pond near the building is another technique that improves the microclimate, while a light breeze regularly refreshes the air.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAIN CLIMATIC ELEMENTS AFFECTING ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.

The climatic elements include: air humidity, temperature, precipitation, wind, solar radiation, precipitation. The climatic characteristics of the territory, the city can be compiled by relative humidity, temperature, wind. The maximum values ​​of the main climatic factors make it possible to characterize the climate. At the same time, the critical values ​​of different climatic factors are functionally interrelated. It is possible to identify the specifics of the climate, having knowledge of the criterial values ​​of the elements. You can also find the degree of deviation of elements from comfortable conditions, formulate a set of requirements to be taken into account when designing the local area, buildings, buildings.

Overheating of premises is possible at air temperatures above 21°C. This phenomenon manifests itself in particular in the presence of insulation (irradiation with direct sunlight). Overheating of the human body begins at an air temperature above 28 ° C. In such conditions, protection from the sun is necessary, as well as the movement of air both indoors and in urban areas.

It is necessary to take into account the combined effect on a person of wind and temperature. In the transitional seasons of the year, when the outside air temperature is close to 0°C and the relative humidity is more than 70% or more, there is a need to protect the pedestrian from the wind. Protection is also desirable at temperatures down to -15°C in winter.

Protection is necessary for compliance with:

Active pedestrian protection is required at temperatures below -35°С (covered insulated passages). With a wind speed of more than 5 m/s and a negative temperature outside, there is a sharp increase in the cooling of buildings (by 12-15%) and people. The transfer of sand and snow begins at a wind speed of 6 m/s. In such conditions, it is necessary to protect residential areas of cities. At wind speeds above 12 m/s, mechanical damage to building elements occurs.

An unfavorable condition for a person is air humidity less than 30% and more than 70%. A favorable factor is air humidity in the range of 30-70% (depending on temperature).

When designing high-rise buildings, special consideration of wind parameters is necessary. This attitude to this criterion arises from the need to ensure the stability of buildings under the influence of wind loads that increase with height. Also, the higher the building, the stronger the wind turbulence near the walls. Strong wind currents flow around the volume, and some of them descend and fall on pedestrians located near the building.

On fig. Figure 1 gives a characteristic of temperature and wind, the combined effect of which must be taken into account when forming the external environment of the city.

Of great importance is the combination of relative humidity and temperature. In hot weather, it becomes necessary that high humidity does not prevent a person from giving off excess heat that accumulates in the body under these conditions to the external environment. If this need is not realized, then a person may experience heat stroke. It follows from the temperature-humidity schedule (Fig. 2) that in order to maintain comfortable conditions in the summer, when the temperature rises from 18°С to 28°С, it is necessary that the relative humidity of the air decrease to the level of 30-50%.

Rice. 1. The complex effect of temperature and wind on buildings and people in the external environment

Rice. 2. Graph of the temperature and humidity regime in the warm period of the year

Using the given graphs and the identified dependencies, a competent architect makes the right decisions to ensure comfort in a residential environment.

List of used literature:

1. Architectural physics: Proc. for universities, Spec. A-87 "Architecture" / Ed. N. V. Obolensky. – M.: Stroyizdat, 1997. – 448 p.: ill.

2. City, architecture, man and climate / Myagkov M. S., Gubernsky Yu. D., Konova L. I., Litskevich V. K. Ed. Ph.D. M. S. Myagkova, - M .: "Architecture-S", 2007. - 344 p.; ill.

3. Litskevich VK Dwelling and climate. – M.: Stroyizdat, 1984. – 288 p.; ill.

4. SNiP, * Building climatology. M. 2000.

5. SNiP 2.01.01.-82. Construction climatology and geophysics. M. 1983.

6. Guide to building climatology (design guide). – M.: Stroyizdat, 1977.

8. Aronin D. Climate and architecture, Moscow, Gosstroyizdat, 1959.