Energy. ATP synthesis in mitochondria

Adenosine triphosphoric acid-ATP- an obligatory energy component of any living cell. ATP is also a nucleotide consisting of the nitrogenous base of adenine, the sugar of ribose, and three residues of the phosphoric acid molecule. This is an unstable structure. In metabolic processes, phosphoric acid residues are sequentially split off from it by breaking the energy-rich, but fragile bond between the second and third phosphoric acid residues. The detachment of one molecule of phosphoric acid is accompanied by the release of about 40 kJ of energy. In this case, ATP passes into adenosine diphosphoric acid (ADP), and with further cleavage of the phosphoric acid residue from ADP, adenosine monophosphoric acid (AMP) is formed.

Schematic diagram of the structure of ATP and its transformation into ADP ( T.A. Kozlova, V.S. Kuchmenko. Biology in tables. M., 2000 )

Consequently, ATP is a kind of energy accumulator in the cell, which is "discharged" when it is split. The breakdown of ATP occurs during the reactions of synthesis of proteins, fats, carbohydrates and any other vital functions of cells. These reactions go with the absorption of energy, which is extracted during the breakdown of substances.

ATP is synthesized in mitochondria in several stages. The first one is preparatory - proceeds stepwise, with the involvement of specific enzymes at each step. In this case, complex organic compounds are broken down into monomers: proteins - into amino acids, carbohydrates - into glucose, nucleic acids - into nucleotides, etc. Breaking bonds in these substances is accompanied by the release of a small amount of energy. The resulting monomers under the action of other enzymes can undergo further decomposition with the formation of simpler substances up to carbon dioxide and water.

Scheme Synthesis of ATP in the mitochondria of the cell

EXPLANATIONS TO THE SCHEME CONVERSION OF SUBSTANCES AND ENERGY IN THE PROCESS OF DISSIMILATION

Stage I - preparatory: complex organic substances under the action of digestive enzymes break down into simple ones, while only thermal energy is released.
Proteins -> amino acids
Fats- > glycerin and fatty acids
Starch ->glucose

Stage II - glycolysis (oxygen-free): carried out in the hyaloplasm, not associated with membranes; it involves enzymes; glucose is broken down:

In yeast fungi, the glucose molecule, without the participation of oxygen, is converted into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide (alcoholic fermentation):

In other microorganisms, glycolysis can be completed with the formation of acetone, acetic acid, etc. In all cases, the breakdown of one glucose molecule is accompanied by the formation of two ATP molecules. During the oxygen-free breakdown of glucose in the form of a chemical bond, 40% of the anergy is retained in the ATP molecule, and the rest is dissipated in the form of heat.

Stage III - hydrolysis (oxygen): carried out in mitochondria, associated with the mitochondrial matrix and the inner membrane, enzymes participate in it, lactic acid undergoes cleavage: CsH6Oz + ZH20 --> 3CO2 + 12H. CO2 (carbon dioxide) is released from the mitochondria into the environment. The hydrogen atom is included in a chain of reactions, the end result of which is the synthesis of ATP. These reactions go in the following order:

1. The hydrogen atom H, with the help of carrier enzymes, enters the inner membrane of mitochondria, which forms cristae, where it is oxidized: H-e--> H+

2. Hydrogen proton H+(cation) is carried by carriers to the outer surface of the membrane of the cristae. For protons, this membrane is impermeable, so they accumulate in the intermembrane space, forming a proton reservoir.

3. Hydrogen electrons e are transferred to the inner surface of the cristae membrane and immediately attach to oxygen with the help of the oxidase enzyme, forming a negatively charged active oxygen (anion): O2 + e--> O2-

4. Cations and anions on both sides of the membrane create an oppositely charged electric field, and when the potential difference reaches 200 mV, the proton channel begins to operate. It occurs in the enzyme molecules of ATP synthetase, which are embedded in the inner membrane that forms the cristae.

5. Hydrogen protons through the proton channel H+ rush inside the mitochondria, creating a high level of energy, most of which goes to the synthesis of ATP from ADP and P (ADP + P -\u003e ATP), and protons H+ interact with active oxygen, forming water and molecular 02:
(4Н++202- -->2Н20+02)

Thus, O2, which enters the mitochondria during the respiration of the organism, is necessary for the addition of hydrogen protons H. In its absence, the entire process in mitochondria stops, since the electron transport chain ceases to function. General reaction of stage III:

(2CsHbOz + 6Oz + 36ADP + 36F ---> 6C02 + 36ATP + + 42H20)

As a result of the breakdown of one glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed: at stage II - 2 ATP and at stage III - 36 ATP. The formed ATP molecules go beyond the mitochondria and participate in all cell processes where energy is needed. Splitting, ATP gives off energy (one phosphate bond contains 40 kJ) and returns to the mitochondria in the form of ADP and F (phosphate).

Hydrogen atoms removed from substrates in the Krebs cycle, as a result β -oxidation of HFA, as well as pyruvate dehydrogenase, glutamate dehydrogenase and some other reactions, enter the respiratory chain of enzymes (Fig. 23), which is otherwise called electron transport chain .

The proton and electron transfer process (hydrogen atom = hydrogen proton (H+) + electron (e)) begins with the transfer of hydrogen atoms from the reduced form of NAD or FAD.

Rice. 23. Scheme of the electron transport chain

Reduced NAD donates hydrogens to a flavoprotein whose coenzyme is FMN, while reduced FAD always donates hydrogens to the coenzyme Q. After coenzyme Q only electrons are transported through the cytochrome system; the role of the final - terminal - electron acceptor is performed by oxygen. Before we study the operation of the electron transport chain in more detail, let's get acquainted with the chemical structure of its individual components.

As noted earlier, all components of the electron transport chain are enzymes that catalyze redox processes.

Flavoprotein is the first enzyme to accept protons and electrons from primary dehydrogenase, an enzyme that removes hydrogen atoms directly from the substrate. The coenzyme of the flavoprotein is FMN. With the structure and redox reactions of FMN, we met earlier (see Chapter 4). This enzyme is closely associated with iron-sulfur proteins.

Iron-sulfur proteins have a small molecular weight (about 10 kDa). They contain non-heme iron bound to the sulfur atoms of cysteine residues. On fig. 24 shows only one of the possible variants of the complex of the iron atom with sulfur atoms that exist in proteins containing non-heme iron.

Rice. 24. Scheme of the formation of a complex of an iron atom with sulfur atoms in iron-sulfur proteins

These proteins are involved in the transfer of protons and electrons and are thought to be involved in several steps. However, the mechanism by which iron-sulfur proteins undergo reversible oxidation-reduction is still not clear.

coenzyme Q or ubiquinone is dissolved in the lipid portion of the inner mitochondrial membrane. Ubiquinone can diffuse both across and along the membrane. It is the only non-protein-bound component of the respiratory chain; for this reason, it cannot be classified as an enzyme. coenzyme Q accepts two hydrogen protons and two electrons from iron-sulfur proteins, turning into hydroquinone:

Cytochromes are hemoproteins. Currently, about 30 different cytochromes are known. All of them, depending on their ability to absorb light, are divided into classes, denoted by lowercase letters - a, b, c etc. Within each class, separate types of cytochromes are distinguished, designating them with digital indices - b, b 1 , b 2 etc.

Cytochromes differ from each other in the structure of the theme, the structure of the polypeptide chain and the way the theme is attached to it. Figure 25 shows the structure of the topic, which is part of all cytochromes b.

Cytochromes are stained red-brown; The color is due to the presence of a metal cation. Cytochrome classes b And With contain iron cations in their composition, and cytochromes of the class A - copper cations.

Cytochromes A And a 3 form a complex called cytochrome oxidase. The unique feature of the complex a a 3 is that this system of cytochromes donates electrons directly to oxygen.

The transfer of electrons along the chain of cytochromes includes reversible reactions:

Fe 3+ + e ----→ ←---- Fe 2+ and Cu 2+ + e ----→ ←---- Cu +

Having become acquainted with the characteristics of the components of the electron transport chain and with the redox reactions occurring in it, let's move on to the consideration of the process, which is the main one in the accumulation of energy in the form of ATP.

Rice. 25. Structure theme of cytochrome b

The mechanism of conjugation of respiration with ADP phosphorylation. The transport of protons and electrons from reduced NAD to molecular oxygen is an exergonic process:

NADH + H + + ½O 2 → OVER + + H 2 O + energy

If we further simplify the recording of this process, then we get the equation for the reaction of hydrogen combustion in oxygen, which is known to everyone from school:

H 2 + ½O 2 → H 2 O + energy

The only difference is that during the combustion reaction, energy is immediately released completely, and in the respiratory chain, due to the fact that it is divided into several redox reactions, a gradual release of energy occurs. This energy is stored in the phosphate bonds of ATP and used for the life of cells.

The first result of the operation of the electron transport chain is the formation of endogenous water, in which the hydrogen atoms are hydrogens removed from the substrates by the corresponding dehydrogenases, and the oxygen atom is the terminal electron acceptor (see Fig. 23). Having taken on 2 electrons, it turns into a reactive anion (O 2-), which immediately interacts with hydrogen protons "ejected" by the coenzyme Q. The formation of endogenous water occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.

The mechanism of conjugation of respiration with ADP phosphorylation was developed by the English biochemist P. Mitchell, whose hypothesis was called proton-motive or chemiosmotic. In our country, P. Mitchell's hypothesis was developed in the works of V.P. Skulachev.

According to chemiosmotic hypothesis the energy of proton and electron transfer along the respiratory chain is initially concentrated in the form of a proton potential created by the movement of charged hydrogen protons across the membrane. The transport of protons back across the membrane is associated with ADP phosphorylation, which is carried out by proton-dependent ATP synthase (H + = ATPase).

Since the driving force of ATP synthesis is the proton potential, let's take a closer look at its formation.

Along with the transfer of protons and electrons along the respiratory chain, an additional release of hydrogen protons from the matrix into the intermembrane space takes place. Hydrogen protons arise during the dissociation of water in the matrix:

H 2 O -→ ←- H + + OH -

The transport of hydrogen protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane is thought to be carried out by proton translocases. As a result of such a transfer, the membrane is negatively charged from the side of the matrix (due to the remaining negatively charged hydroxyls), and positively charged from the side of the intermembrane space (due to the pumping of positively charged hydrogen protons). As a result of this distribution of charges, an electric potential arises, denoted Δψ (delta psi). And due to the resulting difference in the concentration of hydrogen protons on both sides of the inner membrane of mitochondria, a chemical gradient of protons, denoted by ApH, is created. Both emerging potentials create an electrochemical transmembrane gradient of protons (ΔμН +) on the membrane, therefore ΔμН + = Δψ + ΔрН

Synthesis of ATP. The membrane on which the electrochemical transmembrane gradient of protons is created is called energized . The energized membrane tends to discharge by pumping protons from the intermembrane space back into the matrix (Fig. 26). This process is carried out with the help of proton-dependent ATPase.

Rice. 26. Synthesis of ATP coupled with an electron transport chain

H + -ATPase is built into the inner membrane of mitochondria. It looks like a mushroom and consists of two protein factors F 0 and F 1 (Fig. 27). The F0 factor permeates the entire thickness of the inner mitochondrial membrane. The spherical part protruding into the mitochondrial matrix is the F 1 factor. The structure, properties and functions of these protein factors are completely different.

Factor F 0 consists of three hydrophobic polypeptide chains of different structure. This factor performs the function of a proton-conducting channel through which hydrogen protons get to the factor F 1 .

Factor F 1 is the water-soluble part of H + -ATPase and is a protein complex consisting of nine subunits of five different types. One epimolecule of factor F 1 contains 3 α , 3β and one subunit γ , δ , ε (α 3 β 3 γδε ). Factor F 1 carries out the synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphoric acid. ADP and ATP binding sites are located in the subunits α And β each of which can hold one molecule of ADP or ATP. According to X-ray diffraction analysis, ADP and ATP binding sites are located at the junction of subunits α And β . Subunit β performs a catalytic function in the synthesis of ATP (Fig. 27).

Rice. 27. Structure of proton-dependent ATPase

There are several concepts explaining the mechanism of ATP formation through H + -ATPase. All concepts consider hydrogen protons that enter through the proton-conducting channel to factor F 1 as activators of various processes leading to the formation of ATP from ADP and phosphoric acid.

EVERYONE SHOULD KNOW ABOUT THE ESSENCE OF GEORGY PETRAKOVICH'S WORKS! THERMONUCLEI IN A CELL I will quote in full the interview with Georgy Petrakovich, published in the magazine "Miracles and Adventures" No. 12, 1996, pp. 6-9. Special correspondent of the magazine Vl. Ivanov met with a full member of the Russian Physical Society, surgeon Georgy Nikolaevich Petrakovich, who published sensational works on thermonuclear reactions occurring in living organisms and the transformation of chemical elements into them. This is much more fantastic than the most daring experiments of alchemists. The conversation is dedicated to the true miracle of evolution, the main miracle of wildlife. We do not agree with the author of the bold hypothesis on everything. In particular, being a materialist, it seems to us that he excludes the spiritual principle from those processes where it, apparently, should be present. Nevertheless, G. Petrakovich's hypothesis interested us, because it intersects with the works of Academician V. Kaznacheev about "cold fusion" in a living cell. At the same time, the hypothesis throws a bridge to the concept noosphere. V. Vernadsky, pointing to the source that continuously feeds the noosphere with energy. The hypothesis is also interesting in that it paves the scientific way to explain a number of mysterious phenomena, such as clairvoyance, levitation, iridology and others. We ask you to excuse us for some scientific complexity of the conversation for an unprepared reader. The material itself, unfortunately, by its nature cannot be subject to significant simplification. CORRESPONDENT. First, the essence, the salt of a miracle, seemingly incompatible with ideas about living organisms... What kind of strange force operates in us, in the cells of our body? Everything is like a detective story. This power was known, so to speak, in a different capacity. She acted incognito, as if under a mask. They spoke and wrote about it like this: hydrogen ions. You understood and called it differently: protons. These are the same hydrogen ions, the bare nuclei of its atoms, positively charged, but at the same time they are elementary particles. Biophysicists have not noticed that Janus is two-faced. Is not it? Can you elaborate on this? G.N. PETRAKOVICH. A living cell receives energy as a result of ordinary chemical reactions. So considered the science of cellular bioenergetics. As always, electrons take part in the reactions, it is their transitions that provide the chemical bond. In the smallest "bubbles" of irregular shape - the mitochondria of the cell - oxidation occurs with the participation of electrons. This is the postulate of bioenergetics. Here is how this postulate is presented by the country's leading bioenergetician, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V.P. Skulachev: "In order to experiment with the use of nuclear energy, nature had to create a person. As for the intracellular energy mechanisms, they extract energy exclusively from electronic transformations, although the energy effect here is immeasurably small compared to thermonuclear processes." "Exclusively from electronic transformations ..." This is a delusion! Electronic transformations are chemistry and nothing more. It is thermonuclear reactions that underlie cellular bioenergy, and it is the proton, also known as the hydrogen ion - a heavy charged elementary particle - that is the main participant in all these reactions. Although, of course, the electron also takes a definite and even important part in this process, but in a different role, completely different from the role assigned to it by scientific specialists. And what is most surprising: in order to prove all this, it turns out that it is not necessary to conduct any complex research, research. Everything lies on the surface, everything is presented in the same indisputable facts, observations, which the scientists themselves obtained with their hard work. It is only necessary to reflect unbiasedly and in depth on these facts. Here is an indisputable fact: it is known that protons are "ejected" from mitochondria (the term is widely used by specialists, and it sounds like a disregard for these laborious particles, as if it were waste, "garbage") into the space of the cell (cytoplasm). Protons move unidirectionally in it, that is, they never return, in contrast to the Brownian movement in the cell of all other ions. And they move in the cytoplasm at a tremendous speed, exceeding the speed of movement of any other ions many thousands of times. Scientists do not comment on this observation in any way, but they should be seriously thought about. If protons, these charged elementary particles, move in the space of the cell with such a huge speed and "purposefully", it means that the cell has some mechanism for their acceleration. Undoubtedly, the acceleration mechanism is located in the mitochondria, from where protons are initially "ejected" with great speed, but that's what it is like. .. Heavy charged elementary particles, protons, can be accelerated only in a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field - in a synchrophasotron, for example. So, molecular synchrophasotron in mitochondria? no matter how strange it may seem, yes: the subminiature natural synchrophasotron is located precisely in a tiny intracellular formation, in mitochondria! Protons, having fallen into a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field, lose the properties of the chemical element hydrogen for the entire time they stay in this field, but they exhibit the properties of heavy charged elementary particles. "For this reason, in a test tube it is impossible to fully repeat the processes that constantly occur in living For example, in a test tube of a researcher, protons are involved in oxidation, and in a cell, although free-radical oxidation occurs, peroxides are not formed. Meanwhile, scientists are guided precisely by "test-tube" experience when they study processes in a living cell. Protons accelerated in the field easily ionize atoms and molecules, "knocking out" electrons from them. At the same time, molecules, becoming free radicals, acquire high activity, and ionized atoms (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and other elements) form electrical and osmotic potentials in cell membranes (but already of a secondary order, dependent on protons). CORRESPONDENT. It's time to draw the attention of our readers to the fact that a living cell invisible to the eye is more complicated than any gigantic installation, and what is happening in it cannot yet be even approximately reproduced. Perhaps galaxies - on a different scale, of course - are the simplest objects of the universe, just as cells are the elementary objects of a plant or animal. Perhaps the levels of our knowledge about cells and galaxies are roughly equivalent. But the most striking thing is that the thermonucleus of the Sun and other stars corresponds to the cold thermonucleus of a living cell, or, more precisely, of its individual sections. The analogy is complete. Everyone knows about the hot fusion of stars. But only you can tell about the cold fusion of living cells. G.N. PETRAKOVICH. Let's try to present the most important events at this level. Being a heavy charged elementary particle, the mass of which exceeds the mass of an electron by 1840 times, the proton is a part of all atomic nuclei without exception. Being accelerated in a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field and being in the same field with these nuclei, it is able to transfer its kinetic energy to them, being the best energy carrier from the accelerator to the consumer - the atom. Interacting in the cell with the nuclei of target atoms, it transfers to them in parts - by elastic collisions - the kinetic energy acquired by it during acceleration. And having lost this energy, it is eventually captured by the nucleus of the nearest atom (inelastic collision) and enters into this nucleus as an integral part. And this is the way to the transformation of elements. In response to the energy received during an elastic collision with a proton, its own quantum of energy is ejected from the excited nucleus of the target atom, which is characteristic only of the nucleus of this particular atom, with its own wavelength and frequency. If such interactions of protons occur with many nuclei of atoms that make up, for example, any molecule; then there is an emission of a whole group of such specific quanta in a certain frequency spectrum. Immunologists believe that tissue incompatibility in a living organism manifests itself already at the molecular level. Apparently, the difference in a living organism between a "own" protein molecule and a "foreign" one, with their absolute chemical identity, occurs in these very specific frequencies and spectra, to which the "sentinel" cells of the body - leukocytes - react differently. CORRESPONDENT. An interesting incidental result of your proton-nuclear theory! Even more interesting is the process that the alchemists dreamed of. Physicists have pointed to the possibility of obtaining new elements in reactors, but this is very difficult and expensive for most substances. A few words about the same at the cell level... G.N. PETRAKOVICH. The capture of a proton that has lost its kinetic energy by the nucleus of a target atom changes the atomic number of this atom, i.e. the “capturing” atom is capable of changing its nuclear structure and becoming not only an isotope of a given chemical element, but in general, given the possibility of multiple “capture” of protons, take a different place than before in the periodic table: and in some cases even not the closest to the former. Essentially, we are talking about nuclear fusion in a living cell. It must be said that such ideas have already excited the minds of people: there have already been publications about the work of the French scientist L. Kervran, who discovered such a nuclear transformation in the study of laying hens. True, L. Kervran believed that this nuclear synthesis of potassium with a proton, followed by the production of calcium, is carried out with the help of enzymatic reactions. But, proceeding from what has been said above, it is easier to imagine this process as a consequence of internuclear interactions. In fairness, it should be said that M.V. Volkenstein generally considers the experiments of L. Kervran an April Fool's joke of his cheerful American scientists colleagues. The first thought about the possibility of nuclear fusion in a living organism was expressed in one of the fantastic stories of Isaac Asimov. One way or another, paying tribute to both, and to the third, we can conclude that, according to the stated hypothesis, internuclear interactions in a living cell are quite possible. And the Coulomb barrier will not be an obstacle: nature has managed to bypass this barrier without high energies and temperatures, softly and gently, CORRESPONDENT. You think that a vortex electromagnetic field arises in a living cell. It holds protons as if in its grid and accelerates them, accelerates them. This field is emitted, generated by electrons of iron atoms. There are groups of four such atoms. They are called by specialists like this: gems. Iron in them is divalent and trivalent. And both of these forms exchange electrons, the jumps of which generate the field. Its frequency is incredibly high, according to your estimate of 1028 hertz. It far exceeds the frequency of visible light, which is also usually generated by jumps of electrons from one atomic level to another. Don't you think that this estimate of the frequency of the field in the cell is too high for you? G.N. PETRAKOVICH. Far from it. CORRESPONDENT. Your answer is clear to me. After all, it is precisely very high frequencies and the corresponding small wavelengths that are associated with the high energy of quanta. So, ultraviolet with its short waves is stronger than ordinary rays of light. Very short waves are needed to accelerate protons. Is it possible to test the proton acceleration scheme itself and the frequency of the intracellular field? G.N. PETRAKOVICH. So, the discovery: in the mitochondria of cells, an ultra-high-frequency, ultra-short-wave alternating electric current is generated and, according to the laws of physics, an ultra-short-wave and ultra-high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field, respectively, is generated. The shortest wavelength and highest frequency of all variable electromagnetic fields in nature. Instruments that could measure such a high frequency and such a short wave have not yet been created, so such fields do not yet exist for us at all. And the discovery does not yet exist ... Nevertheless, let's turn again to the laws of physics. According to these laws, point variable electromagnetic fields do not exist independently, they instantly merge with each other at the speed of light by synchronization and resonance, which significantly increases the voltage of such a field. The point electromagnetic fields formed in electromagnetism by moving electrons merge, then all the fields already mitochondria merge. A combined microwave, ultra-short-wave alternating field is formed for the entire mitochondrion. It is in this field that the protons are held. But mitochondria in one cell are not two or three - in each cell there are tens, hundreds, and in some - even thousands, and in each of them this ultra-short-wave field is formed; and these fields tend to merge with each other, all with the same synchronization and resonance effect, but already in the entire space of the cell - in the cytoplasm. This desire of the alternating electromagnetic field of the mitochondrion to merge with other similar fields in the cytoplasm is the very "draught force", the energy that "throws out" protons from the mitochondrion into the cell space with acceleration. This is how the intra-mitochondrial "synchrophasotron" works. It should be remembered that protons move towards the nuclei of target atoms in a cell in a significantly enhanced field - so short-wavelength that it can easily, as if along a waveguide, pass between the nearest atoms, even in a metal lattice. This field will easily "carry" with it a proton, whose size is a hundred thousand times smaller than any atom, and is so high-frequency that it does not lose any of its energy. Such a superpermeable field will also excite those protons that are part of the nucleus of the target atom. And most importantly, this field will bring the "incoming" proton so close to them that it will allow this "incoming" proton to give part of its kinetic energy to the nucleus. The largest amount of energy is released during alpha decay. At the same time, alpha particles are ejected from the nucleus with great speed, which are firmly bound two protons and two neutrons (that is, the nuclei of helium atoms). In contrast to a nuclear explosion, a "cold fusion" does not accumulate a critical mass in the reaction zone. Decay or synthesis can stop immediately. No radiation is observed, since alpha particles outside the electromagnetic field immediately turn into helium atoms, and protons into molecular hydrogen, water or peroxides. At the same time, the body is capable of creating the chemical elements it needs from other chemical elements by means of a "cold fusion" and neutralizing substances that are harmful to it. Holograms are formed in the zone where the "cold fusion" occurs, reflecting the interactions of protons with the nuclei of target atoms. Ultimately, these holograms in an undistorted form are taken out by electromagnetic fields into the noosphere and become the basis of the energy-information field of the noosphere. A person is able arbitrarily, with the help of electromagnetic lenses, the role of which in a living organism is played by piezocrystal molecules, to focus the energy of protons, and especially alpha particles, into powerful beams. At the same time, demonstrating phenomena that stagger the imagination: lifting and moving incredible weights, walking on hot stones and coals, levitation, teleportation, telekinesis, and much more. It cannot be that everything in the world disappears without a trace, on the contrary, one should think that there is a kind of global "bank", a global biofield, with which the fields of all who lived and live on Earth have merged and are merging. This biofield can be represented by a super-powerful, super-high-frequency, super-short-wave and super-penetrating variable electromagnetic field around the Earth (and thus around and through us). In this field, the nuclear charges of proton holographic "films" about each of us are kept in perfect order - about people, about bacteria and elephants, about worms, about grass, plankton, saxaul, who lived once and live now. Those who live now and support this biofield with the energy of their field. But only rare units have access to its informational treasures. This is the memory of the planet, its biosphere. The still unknown global biofield has colossal, if not limitless, energy, we all bathe in the ocean of this energy, but we don’t feel it, just as we don’t feel the air around us, and therefore we don’t feel that it exists around us ... Its role will increase . This is our reserve, our support. CORRESPONDENT. By itself, this field of the planet, however, will not replace working hands and a creative mind. It only creates the prerequisites for the manifestation of human abilities.

G.N. PETRAKOVICH. Another aspect of the topic. Our eyes, if not a mirror of the soul, then their transparent media - the pupil and the iris - are still screens for the topographic "movie" constantly coming from us. "Whole" holograms fly through the pupils, and in the irises, protons carrying a significant charge of kinetic energy continuously excite the molecules in the pigment clumps. They will excite them until everything is in order in the cells that "sent" their protons to these molecules. Cells will die, something else will happen to them, to the organ - the structure in lumps of pigments will immediately change. This will be clearly recorded by experienced iridologists: they already know for sure - from the projections in the iris - which organ is sick and even with what. Early and accurate diagnosis! Some physicians are not very favorable to their colleagues-iridodiagnostics, considering them almost charlatans. In vain! Iridology, as a simple, accessible, cheap, easily translated into mathematical language, and most importantly, an accurate and early method for diagnosing various diseases, will have a "green light" in the near future. The only drawback of the method was the lack of a theoretical basis. Its foundation is outlined above. CORRESPONDENT. I think it would be necessary for our readers to explain the process of formation of holograms of each individual. You will do it better than me. G.N. PETRAKOVICH. Let us imagine interactions of accelerated protons with some large bulk (three-dimensional) molecule in a cell, occurring very quickly. For such interactions with the nuclei of the target atoms that make up this large molecule, many protons will be consumed, which, in turn, will leave, in turn, a volumetric, but "negative" trace in the form of vacuum, "holes" in the proton beam, too. This trace will be the real hologram, which embodies and retains a part of the structure of the molecule itself that reacted with protons. A series of holograms (which happens "in nature") will display and preserve not only the physical "appearance" of the molecule, but also the order of physical and chemical transformations of its individual parts and the entire molecule as a whole over a certain period of time. Such holograms, merging into larger volumetric images, can display the life cycle of the entire cell, many neighboring cells, organs and body parts - the whole body. There is another consequence. Here it is. In wildlife, regardless of consciousness, we communicate primarily with fields. In such communication, having entered into resonance with other fields, we risk losing, partially or completely, our individual frequency (as well as purity), and if in communication with green nature this means "dissolve in nature", then in communication with people, especially with those who have a strong field, it means to partially or completely lose their individuality - to become a "zombie" (according to Todor Dichev). There are no technical devices for "zombie" under the program and it is unlikely that they will ever be created, but the impact of one person on another in this regard is quite possible, although, from the standpoint of morality, it is unacceptable. In self-care, this should be considered, especially when it comes to noisy collective actions, in which it is not reason and not even true feeling that always prevails, but fanaticism - the sad child of malicious resonance. The flow of protons can only increase due to merging with other flows, but in no way, in contrast to, for example, an electron flow, not mix - and then it can carry complete information already about whole organs and tissues, including - and about such a specific organ like the brain. Apparently, we think in programs, and these holograms are able to transmit a stream of protons through our eyes - this is evidenced not only by the "expressiveness" of our eyes, but also by the fact that animals are able to assimilate our holograms. In confirmation of this, one can refer to the experiments of the famous trainer V.L. Durov, in which academician V. M. Bekhterev. In these experiments, a special commission immediately came up with any tasks that were feasible for them, V.L. Durov immediately handed over these tasks to the dogs with a "hypnotic look" (at the same time, as he said, he himself, as it were, became a "dog" and mentally completed the tasks with them), and the dogs exactly fulfilled all the instructions of the commission. By the way, photography of hallucinations can also be associated with holographic thinking and the transmission of images by a stream of protons through the gaze. A very important point: the information-carrying protons “mark” the protein molecules of their body with their energy, while each “labeled” molecule acquires its own spectrum, and with this spectrum it differs from a molecule with exactly the same chemical composition, but belonging to a “foreign” body. The principle of mismatch (or coincidence) in the spectrum of protein molecules underlies the body's immune reactions, inflammation, and tissue incompatibility, as we have already mentioned. The olfaction mechanism is also built on the principle of spectral analysis of molecules excited by protons. But in this case, all molecules of the substance in the air inhaled through the nose are irradiated with protons with an instant analysis of their spectrum (the mechanism is very close to the mechanism of color perception). But there is a "work" that is performed only by a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field - this is the work of the "second", or "peripheral" heart, about which a lot was written at one time, but whose mechanism no one has yet discovered. This is a special topic for conversation. To be continued...

Millions of biochemical reactions take place in any cell of our body. They are catalyzed by a variety of enzymes that often require energy. Where does the cell take it? This question can be answered if we consider the structure of the ATP molecule - one of the main sources of energy.

ATP is a universal source of energy

ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate, or adenosine triphosphate. Matter is one of the two most important sources of energy in any cell. The structure of ATP and the biological role are closely related. Most biochemical reactions can only take place with the participation of molecules of a substance, especially this applies. However, ATP is rarely directly involved in the reaction: for any process to take place, energy is needed that is contained precisely in adenosine triphosphate.

The structure of the molecules of the substance is such that the bonds formed between the phosphate groups carry a huge amount of energy. Therefore, such bonds are also called macroergic, or macroenergetic (macro=many, large number). The term was first introduced by the scientist F. Lipman, and he also suggested using the icon ̴ to designate them.

It is very important for the cell to maintain a constant level of adenosine triphosphate. This is especially true for muscle cells and nerve fibers, because they are the most energy-dependent and need a high content of adenosine triphosphate to perform their functions.

The structure of the ATP molecule

Adenosine triphosphate is made up of three elements: ribose, adenine, and residues

Ribose- a carbohydrate that belongs to the group of pentoses. This means that ribose contains 5 carbon atoms, which are enclosed in a cycle. Ribose is connected to adenine by a β-N-glycosidic bond on the 1st carbon atom. Also, phosphoric acid residues on the 5th carbon atom are attached to the pentose.

Adenine is a nitrogenous base. Depending on which nitrogenous base is attached to the ribose, GTP (guanosine triphosphate), TTP (thymidine triphosphate), CTP (cytidine triphosphate) and UTP (uridine triphosphate) are also isolated. All these substances are similar in structure to adenosine triphosphate and perform approximately the same functions, but they are much less common in the cell.

Residues of phosphoric acid. A maximum of three phosphoric acid residues can be attached to a ribose. If there are two or only one of them, then, respectively, the substance is called ADP (diphosphate) or AMP (monophosphate). It is between the phosphorus residues that macroenergetic bonds are concluded, after the rupture of which from 40 to 60 kJ of energy is released. If two bonds are broken, 80, less often - 120 kJ of energy is released. When the bond between the ribose and the phosphorus residue is broken, only 13.8 kJ is released, therefore, there are only two high-energy bonds in the triphosphate molecule (P ̴ P ̴ P), and one in the ADP molecule (P ̴ P).

What are the structural features of ATP. Due to the fact that a macroenergetic bond is formed between phosphoric acid residues, the structure and functions of ATP are interconnected.

The structure of ATP and the biological role of the molecule. Additional functions of adenosine triphosphate

In addition to energy, ATP can perform many other functions in the cell. Along with other nucleotide triphosphates, triphosphate is involved in the construction of nucleic acids. In this case, ATP, GTP, TTP, CTP and UTP are the suppliers of nitrogenous bases. This property is used in processes and transcription.

ATP is also required for the operation of ion channels. For example, the Na-K channel pumps 3 molecules of sodium out of the cell and pumps 2 molecules of potassium into the cell. Such an ion current is needed to maintain a positive charge on the outer surface of the membrane, and only with the help of adenosine triphosphate can the channel function. The same applies to proton and calcium channels.

ATP is the precursor of the second messenger cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) - cAMP not only transmits the signal received by the cell membrane receptors, but is also an allosteric effector. Allosteric effectors are substances that speed up or slow down enzymatic reactions. So, cyclic adenosine triphosphate inhibits the synthesis of an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of lactose in bacterial cells.

The adenosine triphosphate molecule itself can also be an allosteric effector. Moreover, in such processes, ADP acts as an ATP antagonist: if triphosphate accelerates the reaction, then diphosphate slows down, and vice versa. These are the functions and structure of ATP.

How is ATP formed in the cell

The functions and structure of ATP are such that the molecules of the substance are quickly used and destroyed. Therefore, the synthesis of triphosphate is an important process in the formation of energy in the cell.

There are three most important ways to synthesize adenosine triphosphate:

1. Substrate phosphorylation.

2. Oxidative phosphorylation.

3. Photophosphorylation.

Substrate phosphorylation is based on multiple reactions occurring in the cytoplasm of the cell. These reactions are called glycolysis - the anaerobic stage. As a result of 1 glycolysis cycle, two molecules are synthesized from 1 glucose molecule, which are further used for energy production, and two ATP are also synthesized.

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 2ADP + 2Fn --> 2C 3 H 4 O 3 + 2ATP + 4H.

Cell respiration

Oxidative phosphorylation is the formation of adenosine triphosphate by the transfer of electrons along the electron transport chain of the membrane. As a result of this transfer, a proton gradient is formed on one of the sides of the membrane, and with the help of the protein integral set of ATP synthase, molecules are built. The process takes place on the mitochondrial membrane.

The sequence of steps of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria makes up the overall process called respiration. After a complete cycle, 36 ATP molecules are formed from 1 glucose molecule in the cell.

Photophosphorylation

The process of photophosphorylation is the same oxidative phosphorylation with only one difference: photophosphorylation reactions occur in the chloroplasts of the cell under the action of light. ATP is produced during the light stage of photosynthesis, the main energy-producing process in green plants, algae, and some bacteria.

In the process of photosynthesis, electrons pass through the same electron transport chain, resulting in the formation of a proton gradient. The concentration of protons on one side of the membrane is the source of ATP synthesis. The assembly of molecules is carried out by the enzyme ATP synthase.

The average cell contains 0.04% adenosine triphosphate of the total mass. However, the highest value is observed in muscle cells: 0.2-0.5%.

There are about 1 billion ATP molecules in a cell.

Each molecule lives no more than 1 minute.

One molecule of adenosine triphosphate is renewed 2000-3000 times a day.

In total, the human body synthesizes 40 kg of adenosine triphosphate per day, and at each time point the supply of ATP is 250 g.

Conclusion

The structure of ATP and the biological role of its molecules are closely related. The substance plays a key role in life processes, because the macroergic bonds between phosphate residues contain a huge amount of energy. Adenosine triphosphate performs many functions in the cell, and therefore it is important to maintain a constant concentration of the substance. Decay and synthesis proceed at a high speed, since the energy of bonds is constantly used in biochemical reactions. It is an indispensable substance of any cell of the body. That, perhaps, is all that can be said about the structure of ATP.

Metabolism (metabolism) is the totality of all chemical reactions that occur in the body. All these reactions are divided into 2 groups

1. Plastic exchange(assimilation, anabolism, biosynthesis) - this is when from simple substances with energy expenditure formed (synthesized) more complex. Example:

During photosynthesis, glucose is synthesized from carbon dioxide and water.

2. Energy exchange(dissimilation, catabolism, respiration) is when complex substances break down (oxidize) to simpler ones, and at the same time energy is released necessary for life. Example:

In mitochondria, glucose, amino acids and fatty acids are oxidized by oxygen to carbon dioxide and water, and energy is generated. (cellular respiration)

The relationship of plastic and energy metabolism

Plastic metabolism provides the cell with complex organic substances (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids), including enzyme proteins for energy metabolism.
Energy metabolism provides the cell with energy. When doing work (mental, muscular, etc.), energy metabolism increases.

ATP- universal energy substance of the cell (universal energy accumulator). It is formed in the process of energy metabolism (oxidation of organic substances).

During energy metabolism, all substances break down, and ATP is synthesized. In this case, the energy of chemical bonds of decayed complex substances is converted into the energy of ATP, energy is stored in ATP.
During plastic exchange, all substances are synthesized, and ATP breaks down. Wherein ATP energy is consumed(the energy of ATP is converted into the energy of chemical bonds of complex substances, stored in these substances).

Choose one, the most correct option. In the process of plastic exchange
1) more complex carbohydrates are synthesized from less complex
2) fats are converted into glycerol and fatty acids
3) proteins are oxidized with the formation of carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen-containing substances
4) energy is released and ATP is synthesized

Answer

Choose three options. How does plastic exchange differ from energy exchange?
1) energy is stored in ATP molecules
2) the energy stored in ATP molecules is consumed
3) organic substances are synthesized
4) there is a breakdown of organic substances
5) end products of metabolism - carbon dioxide and water
6) as a result of metabolic reactions, proteins are formed

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. In the process of plastic metabolism, molecules are synthesized in cells
1) proteins
2) water
3) ATP
4) inorganic substances

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. What is the relationship between plastic and energy metabolism
1) plastic exchange supplies organic substances for energy
2) energy exchange supplies oxygen for plastic
3) plastic metabolism supplies minerals for energy
4) plastic exchange supplies ATP molecules for energy

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. In the process of energy metabolism, in contrast to plastic,
1) the expenditure of energy contained in ATP molecules
2) energy storage in macroergic bonds of ATP molecules
3) providing cells with proteins and lipids
4) providing cells with carbohydrates and nucleic acids

Answer

1. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of the exchange and its type: 1) plastic, 2) energy. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) oxidation of organic substances
B) the formation of polymers from monomers
B) breakdown of ATP
D) storage of energy in the cell
D) DNA replication
E) oxidative phosphorylation

Answer

2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of metabolism in a cell and its type: 1) energy, 2) plastic. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) oxygen-free breakdown of glucose occurs
B) occurs on ribosomes, in chloroplasts
C) end products of metabolism - carbon dioxide and water
D) organic substances are synthesized
D) the energy stored in ATP molecules is used
E) energy is released and stored in ATP molecules

Answer

3. Establish a correspondence between the signs of metabolism in humans and its types: 1) plastic metabolism, 2) energy metabolism. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) substances are oxidized
B) substances are synthesized
C) energy is stored in ATP molecules
D) energy is spent
D) ribosomes are involved in the process
E) mitochondria are involved in the process

Answer

4. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of metabolism and its type: 1) energy, 2) plastic. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) DNA replication
B) protein biosynthesis
B) oxidation of organic substances
D) transcription
D) ATP synthesis
E) chemosynthesis

Answer

5. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and types of exchange: 1) plastic, 2) energy. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) energy is stored in ATP molecules
B) biopolymers are synthesized
C) carbon dioxide and water are formed
D) oxidative phosphorylation occurs
D) DNA replication occurs

Answer

Choose three processes related to energy metabolism.
1) the release of oxygen into the atmosphere
2) the formation of carbon dioxide, water, urea
3) oxidative phosphorylation
4) glucose synthesis
5) glycolysis
6) water photolysis

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. The energy needed for muscle contraction is released when
1) breakdown of organic substances in the digestive organs
2) irritation of the muscle by nerve impulses
3) oxidation of organic substances in the muscles
4) ATP synthesis

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. What process results in the synthesis of lipids in a cell?
1) dissimilation
2) biological oxidation
3) plastic exchange
4) glycolysis

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. The value of plastic metabolism - the supply of the body
1) mineral salts
2) oxygen
3) biopolymers
4) energy

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. Oxidation of organic substances in the human body occurs in
1) pulmonary vesicles when breathing
2) body cells in the process of plastic exchange
3) the process of digestion of food in the digestive tract
4) body cells in the process of energy metabolism

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. What metabolic reactions in a cell are accompanied by energy costs?
1) the preparatory stage of energy metabolism
2) lactic acid fermentation
3) oxidation of organic substances
4) plastic exchange

Answer

1. Establish a correspondence between the processes and constituent parts of metabolism: 1) anabolism (assimilation), 2) catabolism (dissimilation). Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) fermentation
B) glycolysis
B) breathing
D) protein synthesis
D) photosynthesis
E) chemosynthesis

Answer

2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and metabolic processes: 1) assimilation (anabolism), 2) dissimilation (catabolism). Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) synthesis of organic substances of the body
B) includes a preparatory stage, glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation
C) the released energy is stored in ATP
D) water and carbon dioxide are formed
D) requires energy costs
E) occurs in chloroplasts and on ribosomes

Answer

Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Metabolism is one of the main properties of living systems, it is characterized by what happens
1) selective response to external environmental influences
2) change in the intensity of physiological processes and functions with different periods of oscillation
3) transmission from generation to generation of features and properties
4) absorption of necessary substances and excretion of waste products
5) maintaining a relatively constant physical and chemical composition of the internal environment

Answer

1. All but two of the terms below are used to describe plastic exchange. Identify two terms that "fall out" from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) replication
2) duplication
3) broadcast
4) translocation
5) transcription

Answer

2. All the concepts listed below, except for two, are used to describe the plastic metabolism in the cell. Identify two concepts that “fall out” from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) assimilation
2) dissimilation
3) glycolysis
4) transcription
5) broadcast

Answer

3. The terms listed below, except for two, are used to characterize plastic exchange. Identify two terms that fall out of the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) splitting
2) oxidation
3) replication
4) transcription
5) chemosynthesis

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. The nitrogenous base adenine, ribose, and three phosphoric acid residues are
1) DNA
2) RNA
3) ATP
4) squirrel

Answer

All the signs below, except for two, can be used to characterize the energy metabolism in the cell. Identify two features that “fall out” of the general list, and write down in response the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) comes with energy absorption
2) ends in mitochondria
3) ends in ribosomes
4) is accompanied by the synthesis of ATP molecules
5) ends with the formation of carbon dioxide

Answer