Methods of geographical research and main sources of geographical information. Sources of geographic information and methods for obtaining it

Previously, during my school youth, I thought that geographical sources were only a textbook, a map and a geography teacher. But, with the development of technology and the desire to leave the Earth without “blank spots”, man has created many quick and easy ways to study the planet. Many sources of information tend to become outdated, and people need to take care of updating them.

Main geographical sources

Geography, as a science common to all mankind, also presupposes a standard set of sources:

The map is the oldest source of geoinformation.
Experimental research is the practical study of the planet by man through travel and expeditions.
Geoinformatics - the use of high technologies (satellite images, creation of computer models).
Museums and storage facilities are a way to preserve and replenish received geoinformation and objects.

The trend in the development of computer technology suggests a gradual shift away from maps on tangible (paper) media due to their property of constant obsolescence. For example, a map of the Amazon River basin can be safely thrown away after 50 years - so quickly does it change the topography of the territories through which it flows.

The role of geographical sources

Their main role is to preserve and increase geographical knowledge, as well as inform people about it. Science cannot do without the accumulation of sources that will allow people to use the acquired knowledge both economically (construction, mining) and for personal needs (travel organization). Oddly enough, we use geoinformation sources almost every day. The simplest example is a GPS navigator.

It is he who helps us find a street in a large city and build a route to it. Another commonly used source would be space weather satellites. If earlier, to find out the weather, we looked at the thermometer outside the window, now we receive this information from the Internet, where it gets from weather satellites, naturally, after it is processed at the Hydrometeorological Center.

The volume and quality of socio-geographic information, which is “a body of knowledge and a system of data reflecting the features and patterns of the territorial organization of society, the functioning and development of TOS”, become important in conducting research and writing research work.

Among the main requirements that can be presented to socio-geographic information are:

– modernity, i.e. it must correspond to the time interval of the study. However, this condition may not be met when conducting a retrospective analysis of the development of the research object;

– targeting, i.e. information must be tied not only to time, but also to a specific territory. In the study of a real object (process or phenomenon) in the spatial aspect, the geographical individuality of the study is realized;

– the dynamism of information means its constant change, movement in time and space. The evolutionary development of the object of study is determined by the complication of its structure, the involvement of new functional properties, and the increase in the number of factors of its development. This information should not escape the geographer's field of vision;

– correspondence of the information received to the research topic, and therefore to the stated goal. Its relevance and timeliness become important;

– the objectivity (reliability) of information ensures the reliability of the conclusions obtained and recommendations proposed for implementation;

– verifiability. Some of the published socio-geographic information may be questioned about its reliability (correctness), therefore it is necessary to take a critical approach to the selection of information sources and carry out verification (clarification, check) of the received data through other sources. The researcher must be especially selective in approaching materials published on the Internet.

Taking into account the extensiveness of socio-geographical research, a significant amount of information resources can act as a source of the necessary information, including:

– scientific and literary sources, including scientific and popular science publications, monographs, textbooks and teaching aids, ongoing periodicals and collections of scientific works, dissertations for academic degrees, encyclopedic dictionaries, etc.;

– regulatory sources, including any legal acts of international, state, regional and local significance;

– cartographic or graphical information presenting complex processes in a simplified form;

– results of independent field (full-scale) research and observations;

– statistical sources containing data on the course of a particular process, the “behavior” of the object of study;

– archival and stock materials;

– electronic sources;

– results of sociological research;

– data from monitoring studies.

None of the above sources can become “self-sufficient” for conducting socio-geographic research. In the process of work, a complex of theoretical and applied developments (research) of previous researchers is used, as well as data obtained independently during field work, sociological surveys, collection of statistical information, work in archives, etc.

However, information cannot simply be included in the work. It must be analyzed, verified and interpreted in relation to this study. To perform these operations, the student (master's student) must use the time allotted for production and research practices. The broad goal of conducting practical training is to formulate and solve one’s own research problem, to develop skills in applying knowledge in the field of economic, social and political geography to solve applied problems. That is why industrial practice must have clearly defined goals and objectives corresponding to the topic of the selected original scientific research in each course of study.

During the period of practical training, students (master's students) collect and process primary information - statistical data, cartographic materials, graphic-analytical constructions, historical and geographical information, sociological information, develop an original research methodology and determine a set of indicators for the purpose of a deeper and more comprehensive study of the object and subject of observation etc. The main places for the accumulation and storage of geographic information are libraries, scientific institutions, archives, the territorial department of the Federal Statistics Service of the Russian Federation, regional and municipal authorities, employment centers, various organizations and departments.

A student (master's student) can obtain a theoretical basis for the research being carried out from printed sources of geographic information, which are quite diverse in both content and scale. Particular attention should be paid to monographs both on social geography and related disciplines: physical geography, economics, sociology, political science, resource science, ecology, cultural studies, tourism studies, etc. Conceptual ideas, important theoretical positions and practical (applied) data are contained in other sources, including collections of scientific papers, materials of conferences at various levels, scientific reports, etc. The electronic catalog of printed publications that make up the collection of the scientific library of Perm State National Research University is available free of charge on the website www.library.perm.ru. Here you can also get acquainted with new arrivals, scientific journals in foreign languages, access the websites of the US Library of Congress, the Russian State Library (Moscow), the Russian National Library (St. Petersburg), the All-Russian Institute of Scientific and Technical Information (St. . Moscow) and others.

A special source of geographic information is the abstract journal “Geography”. It contains abstracts of scientific publications in various areas of geographical science, secondary information materials (bibliographic descriptions, annotations, literature reviews) in conjunction with a reference and search engine. To compile it, over two thousand different sources, Russian and foreign, are used. Each issue includes approximately 1,500 abstracts. The abstract journal "Geography" has been published annually since 1952 (12 issues per year).

Numbers for 1998 – 1999 and since 2009 they are in the reading room of the Faculty of Geography, the rest are in the scientific and bibliographic department of the Perm State National Research University library.

Another important literary source of geographical information is dissertations for the scientific degree of candidate and doctor of science. The list of dissertations and dissertations themselves in the specialty 25.00.24 (until 2005 - 11.00.02) - Economic, social and political geography, defended at our university, are stored in the periodical literature department of the Perm State National Research University library. To work with them, you must issue a letter certified by the head of the department where the student (master’s student) is studying.

During any work, new scientific categories, concepts, and terms come into the field of view of a young researcher. In this case, a variety of scientific and bibliographic literature is of great help: dictionaries, encyclopedias, glossaries contained in textbooks and teaching aids. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to name the Great Russian Encyclopedia, the Great Geographical Dictionary, toponymic dictionaries, etc.

An important source of information is the most popular scientific geographical journals, collections of scientific works periodically published by scientific and educational institutions. They publish innovative articles of a theoretical, methodological and applied nature. For many years, collections of scientific papers from Tartu, Perm, Tyumen and other universities were published annually. Geographical journals have gained worldwide fame: “Izvestia RAS. Geographical Series" (Moscow), "News of the Russian Geographical Society" (St. Petersburg), "Geography and Natural Resources" (Irkutsk, journal of the Institute of Geography SB RAS), "Geography at school", "USA and Canada: economics, politics, culture”, “Japan”, “Asia and Africa today” (published by the Institute of Asia and Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences), etc. No less popular are geographical journals published in the country’s leading universities: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Voronezh, Perm, Smolensk, Bashkir, Udmurt, etc.

Important information is contained in periodicals on related sciences: economics, sociology, political science, ecology: “World Economy and International Relations” (published by MGIMO (U) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation), “Russian Economic Journal”, “Bulletin of Economics”, “Polis” ( “Political Research”), “Socis” (“Sociological Research”), “Expert”, etc. The list of journals on geographical and related topics available in the scientific library of Perm State National Research University is indicated in the appendix. 2.1.

With the support of federal ministries and departments, journals are published on individual sectors of the economy: “Oil, Gas and Business”, “Coal”, “Automotive Industry”, etc. In them, a researcher can obtain information about the latest technical and technological developments of domestic and foreign scientists. It also contains some data regarding production, consumption, cost, export-import of goods and services.

When writing papers on regional studies, assistance can be provided by the magazines “GEO”, “Around the World”, “National Geographic Russia”, “Tourism”, “Picturesque Russia”, etc., which contain a large amount of popular science information on individual regions of Russia and the world .

It is important to note that the latest issue of most journals lists all material published during the calendar year. Some of these magazines are located in the reading room of the Faculty of Geography of Perm State National Research University.

Another type of periodical press - newspapers - can also include information of interest to a geographer - the so-called current information. Particularly noteworthy in this regard is the newspaper “Geography”, which is a methodological publication for teachers of geography, ecology and natural history (published since 1992). Among the central newspapers, Rossiyskaya Gazeta stands out - the official printed publication of the Kremlin (Government of the Russian Federation). It reflects events in both domestic and international life. Special editions of the newspaper dedicated to individual regions, countries or types of economic activity are also quite informative. When conducting geographical research at the micro-, topo- and nano-levels, local newspapers published by municipal authorities can be of great importance. They cover the entire spectrum of life activities of the population in a clearly localized territory, and in this regard they are irreplaceable.

A specific type of information is regulatory and legislative documents, including:

– international legal acts (Convention on Human Rights, Kyoto Protocol, UN Maritime Convention, Antarctic Treaty, etc.);

– The Constitution of the Russian Federation, constitutions and charters of regions - subjects of the Russian Federation; constitutions of specific countries;

– interstate pacts;

– declarations, federal agreement;

– codes, federal laws, laws of constituent entities of the Russian Federation and municipalities;

– acts of the President of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation;

– annual messages of the President of the Russian Federation to the Federal Assembly;

– acts, laws, resolutions of the chambers of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation;

– acts of representative and executive bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local self-government;

– charters of municipalities, etc.

Students and undergraduates can familiarize themselves with all of the listed types of regulatory documents using the “ConsultantPlus” program, access to which is available in the reading room, computer class of the Faculty of Geography and departments.

The importance of using legislative and legal literature in socio-geographical research is explained by the need to establish a legal framework for scientific research, determine the official status of a particular real-life object, and formally evaluate a particular process. Socio-geographical research is based on and follows legal norms. However, research results can serve as an important factor in making changes (additions), improving, improving standards and their implementation in practice in national, regional or municipal development.

In addition to literary sources, cartographic and graphic materials become of great importance in research works on economic and social geography.

The latter can contain a large amount of geographical information in a concise, easy-to-read form.

The advantage of cartographic material over textual material is that the map is a visual (generalized) model of the territory. It is distinguished by its brevity and information capacity. The map displays connections between geographical objects, phenomena, processes in dynamics or statics. Textual information cannot give the researcher more than what is written in it. The map can illustrate cause-and-effect relationships and territorial differences. Cartographic materials allow us to most fully diagnose social, ecological, economic, planning, service, political, environmental phenomena and processes. This information is used in the process of visual and measurement analysis of maps, decoding and retrieving information data. That is why this kind of material is usually included in literary sources. However, some maps or map diagrams that have thematic homogeneity can be published in the form of atlases or thematic collections. For example, “National Atlas of Russia” (vol. 1–3), “Socio-economic geography of the world” (authors: V.N. Kholina, A.S. Naumov, I.A. Rodionova. M., 2006), “Regions of Russia” (author: A.L. Chepalyga, I.V. Chepalyga. M., 2006).

A large number of anamorphic maps that clearly show the disproportions of world development are posted on the website www.worldmapper.org in the public domain (in English).

Graphic materials also carry important information reflecting the statics and dynamics of socio-economic processes. Graphs and diagrams provide a visual representation of the state and trends in the functioning of territorial systems and can be considered as sources for diagnosing and forecasting their future development.

Cartographic and graphic materials can serve as a starting point for research, an impulse for scientific research. Having in his methodological research arsenal the necessary approaches and methods, information resources and general knowledge about the course of a process or the nature of a phenomenon, a specialist in the field of socio-economic geography is able to correctly assess and identify development trends and see the promising state of an object. The result of this research may also be a map or a series of maps with a detailed decoding of the encoded information.

Carrying out research work is impossible without the use of statistical data characterizing the quantitative patterns of life of territorial communities of people in all their diversity (economic, social, political, spiritual, cultural development, natural environment) in inextricable connection with their qualitative content.

In global studies, international statistics published by the UN and its specialized organizations, the International Monetary Fund, the World Resources Institute, the World Trade Organization, Eurostat, etc. are widely used. Among the annual collections, it is necessary to name the “Human Development Report”, published by the UN Development Program, “State of World Population" (published by the UN Population Fund), "World Development Report", "World Development Indicators", "Economic and Social Survey" (World Bank), "Report on the World Social Situation" (UN Department of Economic and Social Development ), “World Resources” (World Resources Institute), “State of Food and Agriculture” (FAO), etc. These and other reports are freely available on the UN website (Russian version) - http://www.un.org/russian/esa/surveys.htm.

A large volume of statistical information, updated annually on more than 100 indicators, is contained on the official website of the US CIA - www.cia.gov in the “Factbook” section (in English). The classification of countries by level of socio-economic development is published annually on the website of the International Monetary Fund – www.imf.org in the “World Economic Outlook” section. Financial indicators of the development of countries around the world are reflected on the World Bank website (www.worldbank.org) in the annual reports of Global Development Finance. Statistics on international trade relations are updated annually on the World Trade Organization website (www.wto.org) in the “Resources” section.

Among the Russian research institutes that study international issues and publish some statistical data, it is necessary to name the scientific organizations that are part of the Russian Academy of Sciences: Institute of World Economy and International Relations, Institute of the USA and Canada, Institute of Europe, Institute of Latin America, Institute of the Far East , Institute of Socio-Economic Problems of Population, Council for the Study of Productive Forces (SOPS), etc.

When studying the processes of development and territorial organization of the Russian Federation and its regions, information from statistical collections is widely used: “Russian Statistical Yearbook”, “Regions of Russia”, “Russia in Figures” (published annually), “Socio-economic situation of Russia” (published monthly, in the country as a whole and in individual federal districts), etc.

Industry statistical information published by the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (information website – www.gks.ru) is contained in the collections “Transport in Russia”, “Tourism in Russia”, “Healthcare in Russia”, “Small Business in Russia”, etc. .

Geographic studies of the population, geodemographic situation, settlement systems, conditions and living standards of people are usually based on statistical information contained in reports published after all-Russian population censuses (VPN website 2002 - www.perepis2002.ru, VPN website 2010 - www .perepis-2010.ru), statistical collections such as “Demographic Yearbook of Russia”, electronic version of the journal “Population and Society” - “Demoscope-Weekly” (access on the Internet - www.demoscope.ru), etc.

The Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation also prepares collections concerning the relationship between Russia and its partners, for example: “Russia and the CIS Countries”, “Group of Eight in Figures”, as well as collections on federal districts.

Regional studies use statistical data published in the annual statistical collections of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

The territorial body of the Federal Statistics Service of the Russian Federation for the Perm Territory (information website - http://permstat.gks.ru) annually publishes the following statistical collections: “Statistical Yearbook of the Perm Territory”, “Economic and Social Situation of the Perm Territory”. In addition, the collections “Municipalities of the Perm Territory. Main socio-economic indicators”, “Industrial production of the Perm region” (published annually), “Perm region: socio-economic results” (published monthly), etc.

Statistical data on the state of the natural environment and measures aimed at maintaining a favorable environmental situation can be gleaned from the annual reports “State and Environmental Protection of the Perm Territory”, “State and Environmental Protection of the City of Perm” (since 2000, available on the website “Nature of the Perm region” – www.permecology.ru).

Industry-specific statistical information is also contained in annual reports on the activities of industrial and transport enterprises posted on company websites.

When conducting microgeographic studies, statistical information can be obtained through field (empirical) studies. The most common are expeditionary studies, during which primary “field” observations and collection of primary information about the processes of functioning of territorial systems take place. They are carried out by studying the geography of population, agricultural production, construction industry, transport, service sector, recreational systems, etc. To conduct such research, the staff of the Department of Socio-Economic Geography has developed a special methodology, which has not lost its significance in modern conditions. Statistical information in this case can be obtained directly from an enterprise, organization, local civil registry office, house management, municipality, or by conducting independent observation.

The researcher can obtain subjective information by conducting sociological surveys, interviews, and questionnaires. Sociological methods make it possible to obtain and analyze the opinions of respondents who are local residents (so-called first-hand information). This is qualitative information, which, however, cannot be considered objective, because depends on a large number of factors directly influencing it (primarily related to human individuality).

However, data from opinion polls and questionnaires are an important source of information in recreational, tourism, medical, behavioral, social, and electoral geography. They are indispensable in research that cannot be measured quantitatively (for example, in studies of lifestyles, the image of a territory, the way of life of peoples and ethnic groups, etc.), in the construction of cognitive and mental maps.

Questioning requires the availability of a ready-made questionnaire, which respondents fill out independently. Therefore, the questions formulated must be understandable to the population. At the same time, they must correspond to the topic of the study, and the answers must provide complete information about the phenomenon or process being studied. Therefore, the wording of questions should be brief, extremely clear and convenient for coding data for the purpose of analysis. You should also pay attention to the composition of the questionnaire and the layout of the questions. The sample of respondents must be representative, i.e. correspond to the population of the area, its gender, age, professional, educational composition.

Conducting interviews requires special training of the researcher, who should not impose his own opinion and express his judgments. In this case, you should pay attention to the environment in which the conversation takes place, as well as the state of the interlocutor. Interviews are often repeated to determine changes in the situation or position of the interlocutor.

It is important to note that some studies may be based on comparison and contrast of quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (opinion survey data) information. Such research is aimed at identifying inconsistencies between the real situation and that described in official sources. In this case, the identified facts themselves serve as a source of geographical information about the state and development of the TPS or its individual structural elements.

Another source of empirical information is hiking and travel, during which one gets acquainted with different countries, regions, national heritage, etc.

Archival and stock materials are an irreplaceable source of historical and geographical information. In the archives you can find information about the socio-economic, political-administrative, demographic, cultural state of a particular territory for a certain historical period.

The State Archives of the Perm Territory (SAPK, website www.archive.perm.ru) is a repository of more than 1 million different documents on paper, photo and electronic media related to the economy, social relations, and demographic features of the development of the Perm Territory since the 18th century. until our time. The GAPC stores cartographic and topographic materials. Data on the history, economy and life of the region’s population in the 20th century. can be obtained from the Perm State Archive of Contemporary History (PGANI, website www.permgani.ru). Working in government archives is subject to certain rules that you must familiarize yourself with before visiting the institution. The quantity and quality of information received depends on the correct execution of requests. Partial information about the documents stored in the archives is posted on the official Internet pages. More complete information can be obtained from thematic collections with a list of documents in the archives themselves. Work with documents, as a rule, is allowed only the next day after the request is submitted.

Fund materials are stored in archives, scientific institutions, as well as in the personal libraries of scientists, travelers, local historians, etc. These can be scientific reports, field diaries, dissertations, theses, manuscripts of research articles, etc.

Theses, final qualifying bachelor's theses and master's theses defended at the Department of Socio-Economic Geography since 2007 are issued for use by students (master's students) upon appropriate request. The use of this source of geographic information is advisable at the very beginning of the study in order to become familiar with existing developments in the research field, clearly define the spatiotemporal boundaries of independent scientific research, and clarify any other information. In this case, in the text of the research work it is necessary to refer to the stock materials of the department.

New information capabilities are brought by the computerization of the research process, which became possible thanks to the development of information and communication technologies. The intellectualization of human labor, the transformation of information into the subject of instant transmission, long-term storage and active practical use give rise to the demand for the creation of electronic sources of information.

Among the latter, the global information network Internet stands out, allowing you to obtain the necessary information in the shortest possible time. Search engine mechanism (multilingual: Google, Yahoo!, Inktomi, AltaVista, Alltheweb, Bing, DuckDuckGo; Russian-language: Yandex, Mail.ru, Rambler, Aport, Nigma, Qip.ru, Guenon; English-language and international: AskJeeves, Teoma, MSN , TinEye, Ask.Com, MyWay, AOL, About.Com, EarthLink, etc.) ensures the opening of a large number of pages of different posting times in different languages. The uniqueness of searching for information on the Internet is due to its immediacy, volume and specific focus. It is important to take into account that obtaining the most accurate information about a phenomenon (object or process) is determined by the correct formulation of the search query. At the same time, it is necessary to remember the disadvantages of online publications: one should beware of redundancy of information, its bias, and therefore it is necessary to sample it and check it using official sources.

Among the many information capabilities of the Internet, it is necessary to mention Internet encyclopedias, in which any user can be not only a reader, but also a creator of new articles. The unique multilingual universal online encyclopedia "Wikipedia" (www.ru.wikipedia.org) contains more than 450 thousand pages in Russian in all areas of knowledge (including other languages - more than 13 million articles). Another popular electronic encyclopedia is Krugosvet (www.krugosvet.ru).

“The Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius” (BEKM) is the most authoritative multimedia encyclopedic publication in Russia, created with the participation of leading Russian scientists: academicians, doctors of science and corresponding members of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The fundamental nature, completeness of content, breadth of coverage and versatility of materials have made BEKM the leader of the domestic market of information and reference literature.

The multimedia format provides a fundamentally new level of presentation of material: the combination of text, photographs, interactive tables, three-dimensional models, diagrams, audio and video fragments makes encyclopedic articles visual, multidimensional and fascinating.

A list of the most popular and useful sites in socio-geographical research is given in the appendix. 2.2.

Electronic sources of information are not limited to online publications. These also include geographic information system (GIS) databases, maps created with their help, electronic catalogs and atlases. The latter have gained popularity and widespread use in recent decades. GIS technologies allow you to perform various manipulations with data, combine various indicators with each other and build appropriate maps. Electronic sources of geographic information are portable. Among the popular electronic atlases we will name the “Social Atlas of the Regions of Russia”, containing extensive analytical information and cartographic materials on a wide range of socio-economic problems of Russia and its regions, various integral indices of social and economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation (developed by the Independent Institute of Social Policy, www.atlas .socpol.ru).

In recent years, information from monitoring observations has become widely used. Many regions have ongoing environmental, social and political monitoring. Monitoring information is most often stored in regional geographic information systems. This information has dynamic properties, because collected regularly, processed and stored for a long time. A dynamic series of information makes it possible to get an idea of the phenomenon being studied not only for a specific date, but also for a long period of time, and therefore, identify development trends and predict future changes.

Modern sources of information significantly expand the possibilities of socio-geographical research and stimulate scientific research in all fields of science.

The combination of various geographical data makes it possible to expand the research problem, conduct comprehensive research, most reliably diagnose the current geosituation in any territory and extend development trends into the near future. At the same time, a significant amount of available information confronts the researcher with the problem of responsibility for the choice of data used, and, consequently, the final results of scientific research. A solution to this problem can be found in the creation of national geoinformation databases, the active use of geoinformation technologies and increasing the motivation for conducting research work.

Geographic maps can be classified according to various criteria.

Thematic maps display just one or a few phenomena in detail. Examples of thematic maps: vegetation map, climate map, geological map, soil map, political map, etc.

General geographic maps depict in equal detail both natural objects and phenomena (relief, rivers, lakes, vegetation) and socio-economic ones (settlements, roads, industrial enterprises). They are labeled with the names of: oceans, rivers, seas, bays, straits, lakes, rivers; continents, islands, capes; plains, mountains, ridges; settlements, etc. The names of settlements are depicted to the right of the symbol, parallel to the southern frame or along the nearest parallel. The names of rivers are placed in the middle of the channel or along its axis, and the names of seas, islands and states are placed inside the contours, positioned in the direction of greater extent.

Rice. Classification of geographical maps

Maps also distinguish by territory coverage. The classification of maps according to the size of the territory depicted on them includes the following groups: 1) star maps; 2) maps of planets and Earth; 3) maps of the hemispheres; 4) maps of continents and oceans; 5) maps of seas, bays, straits; 6) maps of countries; 7) maps of large natural regions; 8) maps of republics, territories, regions, administrative districts; 9) city maps; 10) maps of urban areas.

There is a classification of cards by appointment, taking into account the diversity of spheres of human activity. For example, scientific reference maps are intended for carrying out scientific research and obtaining reference information, tourist maps - for obtaining information about interesting local objects, cafes, hotels, technical maps - for solving engineering problems. Educational maps are the main visual aid for studying geography, as well as economics, history and other academic disciplines.

Divide cards into groups and by scale. There are small-scale maps with a scale smaller than 1: 1,000,000, intended for studying large areas, medium-scale maps with a scale from 1: 200,000 to 1: 1,000,000, and large-scale maps with a scale of 1: 200,000 and larger.

Large scale maps are topographic maps.

Let us remind you that in its content cards can be:

general geographical;
thematic.

Thematic maps

Vegetation maps, for example, depict the distribution and composition of vegetation in different areas. There are also mineral maps, forest maps, relief maps, synoptic maps, industrial maps, which show large cities - industrial centers and their specialization. All these maps characterize geographical objects and phenomena on a specific topic: vegetation, relief, industry. That is why they are called thematic. For example, a political map will first of all give an idea of the location of countries and their borders.

General geographical maps

General geographic maps display various elements of the earth's surface - relief, vegetation, rivers, settlements, transport networks, etc. For example, a physical map of Russia.

By territory coverage distinguish between maps of the world, individual continents, countries and their parts (regions).

A political map of the World

A political map of the World- one of the most important cartographic sources in the world geography course, since this map shows different countries, their capitals, communication routes and other useful information.

Let's look at the political map. In addition to the borders of states, on the political map you see the largest cities and capitals of countries, communication routes and seaports, the largest hydrographic objects (seas, rivers, lakes, bays, straits). Some other geographic features, such as terrain, may also be shown.

On the political map of the world you will find more than 230 countries and territories.

The borders of the state take quite a long time to form. They can change for various reasons: historical, political, economic, cultural, natural.

In order to know the political map of the world or individual continents and their parts, it is necessary to constantly refer to it, train in determining the geographical location of certain countries or regions, and monitor the changes taking place in the world.

The most complex is the political map of Western Europe. Let us together determine the geographical location of the countries in this region (Table 1).

Table 1. Western European countries

		Population (2007)	Capital(s)
	84 thousand km 2	8.3 million people
		70 thousand people	Andorra la Vieja
	30.5 thousand km 2	10.6 million people	Brussels
		1 thousand people
Great Britain	244 thousand km 2	61 million people
Germany	356 thousand km 2	82.3 million people	Bonn, Berlin
	132.0 thousand km 2	11.2 million people
	43 thousand km 2	5.5 million people	Copenhagen
Ireland	70 thousand km 2	4.4 million people
Iceland	103 thousand km 2	290 thousand people	Reykjavik
	504 thousand km 2	45.3 million people
	301 thousand km 2	59.3 million people
Liechtenstein (Principality of Liechtenstein)		34 thousand people
Luxembourg (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg)	2.6 thousand km 2	463 thousand people	Luxembourg
		397 thousand people	Valletta
		33 thousand people
Netherlands	41 thousand km 2	16.4 million people	Amsterdam
Norway	324 thousand km 2	4.7 million people
Portugal	92 thousand km 2	10.7 million people	Lisbon
San Marino		28 thousand people	San Marino
Finland	337 thousand km 2	5.3 million people		552 thousand km 2	61.7 million people
Switzerland	41 thousand km 2	7.5 million people
	450 thousand km 2	9.1 million people	Stockholm

Time zone map- an interesting, and most importantly, useful map (Fig. I).

For the convenience of counting time, the entire surface of the Earth was divided into 24 time zones. Each time zone differs by one hour from the next. The belts are numbered from 0 to 23 from west to east from Greenwich meridian. In all points located within the same zone, the same thing is considered standard time. Moscow, for example, is in the second time zone.

However, in Moscow we live not according to the belt, but according to maternity time(from Latin decretum - decree, decree). In addition, you know that in Russia the clock hands are moved forward (summer time) or back (winter time) by one hour in order to make the most efficient use of the daylight hours and save energy. Therefore, Moscow, being in the 2nd time zone, practically lives according to the time of the 3rd time zone. In other words, when it is 13 o’clock in Moscow (Moscow time), then in Paris it is 11 o’clock (Central European Time), and in London it is 10 o’clock (Greenwich Time).

Rice. 1. Map of world time zones

Look at the hag of time zones. The boundaries of time zones are not drawn exactly along the meridians. For convenience, the boundaries of states, regions, states and other administrative-territorial entities within one country are taken into account. In Russia, for example, the 11th and 12th time zones are combined into one.

Air transport, telephone and telegraph communications throughout the country, as a rule, operate on the same time. In Russia, for example, it is Moscow time.

If you look closely at a map of time zones, you will notice what is remarkable about the 180th meridian. It runs through a conditional date line. Its zigzag in the region of the Chukotka Peninsula is not accidental. The fact is that on both sides of this line the hours and minutes coincide, and the calendar dates differ by one day. If the international date line crossed Chukotka, its residents would have to maintain their own calendar, one day ahead of the national calendar.

If you ever decide to travel around the world and go east from Cape Dezhnev, crossing the International Date Line, do not forget to count the same day twice. And vice versa, moving from east to west, you miss one day.

Statistical materials are one of the main sources of geographic information

is a science that studies the totality of mass phenomena in order to take into account and identify patterns of their development using quantitative (statistical) indicators. Population is just such a mass phenomenon. Statistical indicators include absolute and relative values, as well as various coefficients.

Absolute values have informative value and show the extent of geographical phenomena. For example, Russia has the largest territory in the world - more than 17 million km 2, which is almost twice the territory of countries such as China, USA or Canada. However, in terms of population, Russia is inferior to many countries. In 2007, the total population was 142 million people. - eighth place in the world.

Table 2. Population of the largest countries in the world (million people)

Relative value expresses the result of comparing (comparing) statistical indicators with each other. They make it possible to detect certain changes in geographical phenomena and their trends.

Coefficients are indicators that reflect the characteristic features of individual phenomena, for example, the coefficient of specialization or natural population growth.

In order to learn how to work with statistical materials, you must first of all imagine how they are organized and constructed (ordered).

Statistical table is a system of vertical and horizontal graphs (columns and rows), equipped with headings and filled in in a certain order with digital data. It contains statistical data necessary to characterize the geographical phenomenon being studied and its components. The headings of the horizontal rows of a statistical table correspond to the statistical “subject”, and the top headings of its vertical columns correspond to the statistical “predicate”.

Let's look, for example, at the statistical table. 3 “Changes in the share of economic regions in the population of Russia according to census data of 1926-2002.”

Table 3. Change in the share of economic regions in the Russian population according to census data for 1926-2002, %


Russian Federation, including areas:
Northern
Northwestern
Central
Volgo-Vyatsky
Central Black Earth
Povolzhsky
North Caucasian
Ural
West Siberian
East Siberian
Far Eastern
Kaliningrad region

The statistical subject contains a list of those parts and groups of the phenomenon being studied that are quantitatively characterized in the predicate. In this case, these are the economic regions of Russia. The predicate of the table shows the values of the phenomenon being studied - the proportion of the population living in the economic regions of the Russian Federation over a number of years.

Thus, any statistical table includes three required elements:

general table title;
statistical subject;
statistical predicate.

Statistical materials can be presented not only in statistical tables, but also in visual form: in diagrams, graphs, maps, maps.

Statistical maps- These are primarily cartograms and map diagrams. Let us together, using the table. 4, let’s draw up a cartogram on a contour map showing the population density of the economic regions of Russia:

write down the name of the cartogram (“Population density of economic regions of Russia”);
we will write down the name of the source on the basis of which we will build a cartogram (statistical table “Population density of economic regions of Russia”);
Let's write out the relative statistical indicators that we will depict, having first rounded their values to whole numbers;
Let's divide the indicators into groups based on the principle of equal intervals. The simplest way of breaking down is to divide the difference between the largest (63) and smallest value (1) indicator by 5. In our case (63 - 1 = 62 « 60: 5 = 12) the interval will be equal to 12, and the groups of indicators will be as follows: 1 - 12; 12-24; 24-36; 36-48; 48-60 and more than 60 people/km 2 ;
Let's make a cartogram legend in a notebook, where darker tones of color (or denser shading) depict greater intensity of the phenomenon; light shades (or sparse shading) - less. To depict colors, it is better to take shades of the same paint: from lighter to darker;
we will show on a contour map the boundaries of economic regions of Russia;
transfer the cartogram legend to the contour map in the “Symbols”;
Let's make a cartogram.

Building graphs and diagrams based on statistical indicators has a mathematical basis that is well known to you.

Based on their graphs, we can conclude that up to the 90s. XX century In the settlement of the Russian population, the historical trend of developing new lands and Russian outskirts continued.

Since the 1990s There is a reverse trend of population decline in the northern and eastern regions of Russia, primarily the Far Eastern and Northern regions.

Diagrams show the volumes and structure of geographical phenomena. They can be circular, point, linear, area, volumetric, etc. (Fig. 2). Recall that when constructing pie charts The initial radius is considered to be directed upward on the sheet of paper, i.e. “northern”. It is from this that the indicators (at the rate of I% = 3.6 degrees) that characterize a geographical phenomenon, for example, the settlement of the Earth's population depending on the proximity of the seas, are plotted clockwise by eye.

Rice. 2. Distribution of the Earth's population depending on the proximity of the coasts of seas and oceans

The scale of the diagram depends on: a) the size of the sheet; b) the values of the initial indicators; c) the difference between the highest and lowest values of indicators; d) the number of diagram signs.

To determine the scale bar chart, for example, it is necessary to first establish what the largest and smallest bars can be. The base of the diagram is determined by the formula X = A: M, where X is the base of the diagram; A is the statistical indicator we use; M is the base of scale, which shows how many units of this indicator are per 1 square. mm area diagram. It is compiled like this. First, the center line is drawn - the base of the diagram, and then the perpendiculars are restored taking into account the scale.

Mapping on a contour map comes down to constructing diagrams within the boundaries of a certain territory, for example, within the boundaries of large regions of Russia, economic regions, and constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

Sex and age pyramid allows you to visually analyze the sex ratio by age group of the population. It is constructed as follows. Along the vertical axis, age is plotted at regular intervals (in the form of age intervals; for example, 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, etc.), and along the horizontal axis - to the left - the number (or proportion) of men, and to the right - women (on the same scale). For each age group, they build their own linear diagram and, as it were, “string” them one after another from the bottom up - from the base of the pyramid to its top (Fig. 3). Based on the shape of such a pyramid, one can determine the characteristics of the age structure of the population and identify the characteristics of the sex ratio in various age groups. Quantitative data on the ratio of sexes and age groups of the population, read from sex-age pyramids, can be used for further calculations of general demographic indicators (for example, dependency ratios), their analysis and comparison.

Rice. 3. Sex and age pyramids

The question arises of how to update statistical materials, because they soon become outdated. For this purpose, there are statistical collections, reference books, periodicals, and Internet resources.

Geographic information systems as a means of obtaining, processing and presenting geographic information

Geographic information systems (GIS) is a computer database that stores geoinformation in the form of maps of various contents, digital and text information on objects plotted on these maps. Information can be presented on the monitor screen and in the form of printouts of any scale, tables, graphs, diagrams for any of the information blocks.

Based on spatial coverage, global, national, regional, local and city GIS are distinguished. According to their purpose, they are divided into resource cadastral, land, environmental, geological, marine, educational, etc.

Thus, geographic information systems (GIS) are special systems that are capable of collecting, systematizing, storing, processing, evaluating, displaying and distributing data at a new technical level and obtaining new geographic information on this basis. It is very effective, for example, to use educational GIS when comparing thematic maps of different contents for the same territory, be it a country or a region; when establishing various geographical connections.

We would like to draw your special attention to opportunities and resources of the Internet, which can be used by you while studying the course. They include:

educational resources WWW (World Wide Web);
E-mail (electronic mail);
teleconferences.

Educational resources on the World Wide Web may be useful:

to search for additional and updated (including statistical) information for lessons during the preparation process;
to search for information in the process of preparing various kinds of creative works (reports, abstracts, business games, educational conferences, etc.).

Email can be used:

to exchange educational creative works with their peers from other schools and regions of our country;
for mutual exchange of information in the process of solving problems of distance learning and telecommunications projects.

Teleconferences can be useful:

when participating in various kinds of educational and cognitive telecommunications projects.

A geographic map is a reduced generalized image of the earth's surface, showing the location, state and connections of various natural and social phenomena, their changes over time, development and movement in accordance with the purpose of this map.

Geographic maps can naturally be considered as visual figurative and symbolic models. They have the main features of models in general: abstraction from the whole to study a part - a specific territory, specific phenomena and processes; simplification, which consists in refusing to take into account many characteristics and connections and preserving some of the most significant ones; generalization, meaning the identification of common features and properties, etc. These abstractions contribute to a deeper understanding of the phenomena depicted on the maps.

The first feature of geographic maps is their construction using map projections, which make it possible to obtain from maps correct data on the position, planned dimensions and shape of depicted earthly objects.

The second feature of geographic maps - the use of cartographic symbols as a special language of the map - makes it possible to:

a) depict the earth’s surface with the desired reduction (i.e., on the desired scale) in order to cover at a single glance the necessary part or even the entire earth’s surface, while reproducing on the map those objects that, due to reduction, are not expressed on the scale of the map, but in their own way the value must be shown;

b) show the relief of the earth’s surface on the map (for example, using contour lines), that is, convey the unevenness of the terrain in a flat image;

c) not be limited to displaying the surface of objects on a geographical map, but indicating their internal properties (for example, on a sea map you can show the physical and chemical properties of water, currents, topography and soils of the seabed, and much more);

d) show the distribution of phenomena that are not directly perceived by our senses (for example, magnetic declination, gravity anomalies, etc.), and make visible connections and relationships that are inaccessible to direct perception (for example, between sources of raw materials and enterprises for their processing);

e) exclude less significant aspects, particulars and details characteristic of individual objects, and highlight their general and essential features (for example, characterize settlements by population and administrative significance, refusing to convey their layout), i.e. resort to abstraction.

The third feature of geographical maps is especially important - the selection and generalization of the phenomena depicted, i.e. cartographic generalization.

Geographic maps have been and remain the main source of geographic information. Maps allow a simultaneous overview of space within any limits - from a small area of terrain to the surface of the Earth as a whole. They create a visual overview of the shape, size and relative position of objects, and allow you to find their spatial dimensions: coordinates, lengths, areas, heights and volumes. Maps contain the necessary quantitative and qualitative characteristics of these objects and, finally, show the connections that exist between them: spatial and some others. These properties explain the meaning and value of cards for practice.

Geographic maps, recording the position, condition and spatial connections of specific objects (phenomena), allow not only to economically and expressively present knowledge about the distribution of phenomena, but also to find patterns in this distribution. In some branches of knowledge, maps are used as the main means of research.

Maps serve as a reliable guide on land and in the ocean, during the movement of troops and on tourist trips, for airship flights and for walking routes.

In military affairs, they are the main source of information about the terrain and a mandatory aid for command and control of troops and the organization of their interaction.

In industrial, energy and transport construction, maps are used as the basis for surveys, design and transfer of engineering projects to nature. Now the most advantageous routes for railways, highways and pipelines are not found in the field, but are outlined using topographic maps in the offices of design organizations.

Maps are widely used in agriculture for land management, land reclamation, measures to increase soil fertility, to combat erosion, and in general for accounting and the most correct, effective use of all land funds.

Maps constitute an indispensable aid for school and out-of-school learning. They are not only a repository of accumulated geographical knowledge, but also an effective means for their dissemination and the rise of a common culture. Without exaggeration, it is fashionable to say that maps are used to one degree or another in all spheres of human activity.

Maps have acquired great importance as a means of scientific research, especially geographical research. Each geographical study, in one way or another, proceeds from existing maps and provides materials for their implementation and improvement. The scope of use of maps as a means of scientific research is rapidly expanding as the overall pace of scientific progress increases. In particular, this expansion is facilitated by advances in the development of computer science and in the development of modeling theory.

The study of computer science on the general problems of collecting, storing and transmitting knowledge allows us to more fully appreciate the merits of geographic maps as a special form of processing, presentation and analysis of spatial information. As noted, these advantages lie in the possibility of a one-time, holistic perception of cartographic images, the visibility of territorial differences and the convenience of analyzing spatial combinations, relationships and patterns.

The modeling method in geography, geographic information and remote sensing methods are based on the cartographic method. The vigorous introduction of modeling methods into modern science has revealed, when applied to cartography, the real power of maps as generalized and simplified spatial images of the real world, that is, its models reflecting those aspects, properties and processes of reality that are important for the purposes of specific research. Maps allow us to gain new knowledge, study development processes and predict many phenomena. Developing methods for using maps as a research tool is one of the main tasks of modern cartography.

Despite the introduction of new methods into geography, the cartographic method is one of the main ones when conducting research. And although now maps are often stored in computer memory and are parts of geographic information systems that receive information from satellites and from numerous weather stations, including data banks containing reports on the results of the work of many research teams, the map remains the most advanced way of transmitting spatial information.

Basic concepts and terms on the topic: economic and social geography of the world, geographic information system, geographic map, cartographic generalization, statistics, GPS (Global Positional System).

Topic study plan (list of questions required to study):

1. Geography as a science.

2. Traditional and new methods of geographical research.

3. A geographic map is a special source of geographic information.

4. Statistical materials as a source of geographic information.

5. Other methods and forms of obtaining geographic information.

Geographic information systems

Brief summary of theoretical issues:

1. Geography is a spatial discipline. This means that geographers are interested not only in the objects themselves, but also in how, where, and why those objects are placed in space. Economic and social geography of the world is a social geographical science that studies the territorial organization of human society.

2. Obtaining geographic information has real practical implications. The world around us today is permeated with a huge number of information, transport, social and economic connections, ignorance of which inevitably leads to your own isolation. Modern young professionals, entering the global political or economic environment, must have a set of knowledge about the countries of the world, their culture and way of life. Geography uses different research methods: traditional- cartographic, sociological, statistical, mathematical historical, comparative, modern− aerospace, geoinformation, geographic forecast, etc.

3. Maps are the main tools of a geographer. Maps exist for every type of information related to our planet (and beyond). Geographic map (first g.k. was created in Ancient Greece about 2500 years ago by the scientist Anaximander) - a reduced mathematically defined, generalized, figurative-symbolic image of the Earth’s surface on a plane, showing the location, state and relationships of natural and social phenomena. As the scale decreases, a generalization of the objects plotted on the map and their qualitative and quantitative characteristics occurs.

It helps here cartographic generalization- selection and generalization of objects and phenomena depicted on the map in accordance with the purpose and scale of the map. To depict various objects on the map, a wide variety of cartographic image methods are used: methods of high-quality background, areas, traffic signs, isolines, localized diagrams, icons, and dotted. According to the content of the cards, they are divided into: general geographical And thematic.

The first include topographic maps (M 1:200,000 and larger), survey-topographic (M from 1:200,000 to 1:1,000,000), overview (M smaller than 1:1,000,000). General geographic maps show all elements of topographic content ( settlements, individual buildings, roads, industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural objects, hydrography, relief, vegetation, etc..), i.e. everything that “lies” on the ground and can serve as a guide.

Unlike general geographical maps, thematic maps usually reveal one subject (soil, geological structure, population, vegetation, etc.). All thematic maps are divided into two sections - maps of nature (physiographic, geological, climatic, etc.) and maps of social phenomena (political, population, historical, economic, etc.).

4. Statistical materials are one of the main sources of geographic information. Statistics is a science that studies various phenomena and processes in order to take into account and identify patterns of their development using statistical indicators. In the course of geographical research, statistics solves the following scientific problems: collecting statistical data, processing the collected information, analyzing and interpreting data, presenting statistical information in text, tabular, graphical or cartographic form. Statistical information includes absolute and relative values, as well as various coefficients.

5. Modern sources of geographic information also include aerospace and geoinformation sources: aerial photography, space photography, remote sensing, satellite monitoring. A modern satellite system for high-precision determination of the coordinates of static and moving objects is called GPS. (Global Positional System).

It was developed by the US Department of Defense. The project started in 1978, and the final commissioning of GPS took place in 1995. A fundamentally new approach to working with spatial data is associated with the emergence Geographic Information Systems10 (GIS) is a system of hardware for collecting, storing and processing spatial data. We can say that GIS is a complex computer program. GIS capabilities: quick search for necessary information, GIS cartographic ability, ability to model phenomena on the earth's surface.