The Russian language is truly rich and majestic. Not a single foreign guest is able to understand us, and sometimes the Russians themselves hardly understand each other. This is because not only the vocabulary is infinitely large, but also the color of speech. In normal conversation, you
you use different paths without noticing it yourself. Here, for example, metaphor. First, try to remember everything you know about her. If you have come across this term for the first time, read the recommended materials on this topic below.

Phrases that are used in a figurative sense, while transferring the signs of one phenomenon to another, similar to the first, are called a metaphor. The term " metaphor' came from the Greek language.

There are three elements of comparison in Russian:

• Items being compared;
• The images with which they are compared;
• Signs on the basis of which the comparison itself takes place.

As a conclusion from the above, it follows that metaphor- is nothing more than a hidden figurative comparison of objects or phenomena.

In speech metaphor performs its special functions. The evaluation function comes first. In this case, the metaphor is used to evoke specific associations about the object under discussion and to assess their importance.

For example, "a man is a wolf." At the level of associations, the image of a predator, vicious and cruel, emerges.

The second in the list is the emotive-evaluative function. In this case metaphor used for expressive effect.

For example, “hungry like a wolf” - an association arises that this person is very, overly hungry.

The following function makes it clear that a metaphor is also needed to create figurative speech. Most often used in the literature. Here she is responsible not only for comparison, but also for the creation of new images. You draw a new image in your imagination, endow it with specific abilities, and then consider it as if it already exists. This function is called nominative.

As an example, consider the following phrase: “digest information” - you are familiar with the meaning of the word “digest”, that is, boil, cook in a saucepan. Also, information is digested, or in other words, rethought in the head.

And finally, the cognitive function. Undoubtedly thanks to metaphors you notice the most important properties of an object or phenomenon. You already know how to read, as it were, between the lines, seeing the invisible.

With features metaphors figured out, now we present to your attention their varieties. There are five of them in Russian.

• A metaphor that connects far-standing concepts is called cutting.
• The complete opposite of sharp metaphors- erased.
• Metaphor-formula- it is very close to erased in meaning and expressiveness, but much more stereotypical.
• Metaphor, the meaning of which unfolds throughout the entire utterance, is called expanded.
• Implemented metaphor. It is used as if its meaning is direct and not figurative, sometimes it looks funny.

So you got acquainted with the "metaphor". Try to use it as often as possible in speech, surprising the interlocutors.

And it is connected with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor, in essence, is almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another.

1. An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using comparison.
2. A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 "elements" in the metaphor

1. category or context,
2. An object within a specific category,
3. The process by which this object performs a function,
4. Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

• A sharp metaphor is a metaphor that brings together concepts that are far apart. Model: stuffing statements.
• An erased metaphor is a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative nature of which is no longer felt. Model: chair leg.
• The metaphor-formula is close to the erased metaphor, but differs from it in even greater stereotype and sometimes the impossibility of converting into a non-figurative construction. Model: Doubt Worm.
• An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: Book hunger continues: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.
• A realized metaphor involves operating a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical. Model: I lost my temper and got on the bus.

theories

Among other tropes, metaphor occupies a central place, as it allows you to create capacious images based on vivid, unexpected associations. Metaphors can be based on the similarity of the most diverse features of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position, etc.

According to the classification proposed by N. D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into

1. nominative, consisting in replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy;
2. figurative metaphors that serve the development of figurative meanings and synonymous means of language;
3. cognitive metaphors resulting from a shift in the combination of predicate words (meaning transfer) and creating polysemy;
4. generalizing metaphors (as the end result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing the boundaries between logical orders in the lexical meaning of the word and stimulating the emergence of logical polysemy.

Let's take a closer look at metaphors that contribute to the creation of images, or figurative.

In a broad sense, the term "image" means a reflection in the mind of the external world. In a work of art, images are the embodiment of the author's thinking, his unique vision and vivid image of the picture of the world. The creation of a vivid image is based on the use of the similarity between two objects far from each other, almost on a kind of contrast. In order for the comparison of objects or phenomena to be unexpected, they must be quite different from each other, and sometimes the similarity can be quite insignificant, imperceptible, giving food for thought, or may be absent altogether.

The boundaries and structure of the image can be practically anything: the image can be conveyed by a word, a phrase, a sentence, a superphrasal unity, it can occupy an entire chapter or cover the composition of an entire novel.

However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. For example, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson distinguish two types of metaphors considered in relation to time and space: ontological, that is, metaphors that allow you to see events, actions, emotions, ideas, etc. as a kind of substance ( the mind is an entity, the mind is a fragile thing), and oriented, or orientational, that is, metaphors that do not define one concept in terms of another, but organize the entire system of concepts in relation to each other ( happy is up, sad is down; conscious is up, unconscious is down).

George Lakoff in his work "The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor" talks about the ways of creating a metaphor and the composition of this means of artistic expression. Metaphor, according to Lakoff's theory, is a prose or poetic expression, where a word (or several words) that is a concept is used in an indirect sense to express a concept similar to this one. Lakoff writes that in prose or poetic speech, the metaphor lies outside the language, in thought, in the imagination, referring to Michael Reddy, his work "The Conduit Metaphor", in which Reddy notes that the metaphor lies in the language itself, in everyday speech, and not only in poetry or prose. Reddy also states that "the speaker puts ideas (objects) into words and sends them to the hearer, who extracts the ideas/objects from the words." This idea is also reflected in the study of J. Lakoff and M. Johnson "Metaphors by which we live." Metaphorical concepts are systemic, “metaphor is not limited to the sphere of language alone, that is, the sphere of words: the very processes of human thinking are largely metaphorical. Metaphors as linguistic expressions become possible precisely because there are metaphors in the human conceptual system.

Metaphor is often considered as one of the ways to accurately reflect reality in artistic terms. However, I. R. Galperin says that “this concept of accuracy is very relative. It is a metaphor that creates a specific image of an abstract concept that makes it possible to interpret real messages in different ways.

INTRODUCTION

Metaphor is the most commonly used trope to create imagery and expressiveness of a phenomenon. It is precisely because of the love of prose writers and, especially, poets, for the use of metaphorization that a huge variety of its types can be observed in the language. Metaphor helps to enhance the writer's sensual impact on the reader through his work, since thanks to the hidden comparison that is given in the text, one can indicate the attitude to a particular phenomenon.

Object of study: metaphors that are found in Mikhail Sholokhov's novel "Quiet Flows the Don".

Subject of study: ways of expression and options for using one or another type of metaphor in the text.

The relevance of the topic raised in this study lies in the fact that, thanks to a detailed analysis of the text, it is possible to identify specific features of metaphor in the novel, and this can help to avoid mistakes when using and writing these metaphors in any context other than the original one.

The purpose of this study was to identify the features of metaphors in the novel by M. Sholokhov "The Quiet Flows the Don" and to determine their types, after which, through this, to derive common features.

The following tasks were set:

Select and classify metaphors in M. Sholokhov's novel "Quiet Flows the Don";

Determine the features of the use of metaphors by M. Sholokhov in this novel.

The following methods were used:

Observation of language material;

Comparison of theoretical facts with linguistic phenomena.

The structure of the work: introduction, two chapters, conclusion, list of references.

CONCEPT Metaphors. ITS Types

Metaphors in the Language of Fiction

The Russian language is interesting by its nature. It has many facets, various directions, and it is impossible to list all of them at once. By studying our native speech, one can get acquainted with the history of the development of the human soul, its rise and fall. The language speaks of its history vividly, colorfully, and, above all, this is displayed in fiction, since it is from it that we learn how people spoke, thought, felt in a different time than ours.

Our Russian works are decorated with many turns. Most often, writers use a metaphor, as it is simpler in appearance and makes it possible to convey their thoughts more colorfully. It can be found almost everywhere, in a wide variety of forms and interpretations. The study of this trope will help in the future to understand how the metaphors of an individual writer differ from language ones, but for now I would like to designate for a general understanding what a “metaphor” is.

“Metaphor (from the Greek. metaphora - I transfer) is a type of path in which individual words or expressions come together in the similarity of their meanings or in contrast” Introduction to literary criticism: textbook / L.N. Vershinina, V.E. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin et al. 2005, pp. 68-69.

Almost all parts of speech can act as a metaphor in the text: it can be a verb, an adjective, a noun, a participle, a participle, etc. Its stylistic coloring lies in the fact that there is a transfer of signs from one object to another, thereby creating an image of something alive, colorful or even spiritualized, sublime from the simple, familiar to our understanding.

Transfer by similarity can occur on the basis of:

Appearances;

Locations;

Shapes of objects;

Taste, smell;

Functions performed;

Feelings evoked (disgust, admiration, tenderness), etc.

Four components are involved in the creation of a metaphor: two separate objects-phenomena and the properties of each of them. The property of one class, selected for the formation of a metaphor, is attributed to the subject-phenomenon of another class, thereby forming an integral unity. Thus, when a person is called a "rat" or "fox", the properties of these creatures - greed and cunning, respectively - turn out to be his general characteristic, a new image is created and a new meaning is generated.

Duality is also one of the signs of metaphor. Its semantic structure includes two components - the meaning as such (a property of the actual subject of the metaphor) and the image of a secondary, auxiliary subject from which this or that attribute was written off.

There are a number of patterns of metaphorization of the meaning of words-signs:

The transfer of a physical attribute of an object to a person (sharp, blunt, deep, hard) to indicate mental properties;

The principle of atropomorphism and zoomorphism: the actions/signs of animals or humans are transferred to nature, after which the object becomes an abstract concept (deep thought), and vice versa - signs of nature are transferred to animals and people.

Based on this, we can conclude that the processes of metaphorization can proceed in opposite directions.

The very term "metaphor" was introduced by Aristotle, and above all it has a connection with the understanding of art as an imitation of life. In fact, Aristotle did not distinguish between metaphor and synecdoche, personification, likening or hyperbole, because in all cases there is a transfer of meaning from one concept / object to another. Since the time of the great thinker, metaphor has been considered as an abbreviated comparison, in other words, such a comparison, where there were no similarity predicates and comparative conjunctions (similar, reminds; as, as if, as if, etc.). The difference between comparison and metaphor is observed in several ways:

Conciseness: a metaphor, unlike comparison, shortens speech, makes it more aesthetic and elegant, while comparison spreads it, trying to add color to the description of a sign of similarity;

Revealing the type of similarity: while comparison favors both permanent and transitory similarity, metaphor relies on permanent, deep similarity.

If we consider metaphor in more detail as a type of trope, we get the following definition: a metaphor is a type of trope, the basis of which is association by analogy or similarity. Like many other tropes, metaphor is not only a device of the poetic genre. It is a general language trope that can be used both in high literature and in the simple speech of people.

It also happens that some words or phrases, formed metaphorically and used only in a metaphorical form, soon lose their original meaning and are used only in a figurative sense, which is now accepted as direct. Most often, this kind of metaphorical origin is revealed in phrases. However, if we are talking about a metaphor as a stylistic phenomenon, then we should not forget that in a phrase or word, not only figurative, but also direct meaning should be felt.

In a metaphor, it is most often possible to restore the method of opposition, which, as it were, is cut out of it. “What are these people? Flies! (not people)" (Gogol). The opposition gives us at least an approximate understanding of how the author characterizes the subject of his description.

In addition to words-metaphors, metaphorical images, or extended metaphors, have become widespread in the literature. They can be a phrase, part of a sentence, the sentence itself, or the whole text - it all depends on what the author wants to say and how he wants to say it.

“Metaphor is a dream, a dream of language,” says D. Davidson. - The interpretation of dreams needs the cooperation of the dreamer and the interpreter, even if they converge in one person. In the same way, the interpretation of metaphors bears the imprint of both the creator and the interpreter ”Davidson D. What do metaphors mean. M., 1990. S. 173-193. .

If there is a place to be polysemy, then it is due to the fact that in a simple context the word has one meaning, but in a metaphorical one it is completely different. Metaphor has two different meanings - literal and figurative. The literal meaning may well be represented as something that we feel, something hidden, something that affects us without appearing openly in the context, while carrying the main load in the figurative meaning.

In its appearance, the metaphor is more like an unusual language that is not understandable to everyone, but this does not make it less common in literature, not only Russian, but also foreign. Metaphor - is a single whole, the members of which are interdependent in their meaning from each other. That which has been compared is displaced and replaced by that with which it has been compared.

Metaphor can perform the following functions Metaphor function [Electronic resource]. Access Mode: http://helpiks.org/1-22443.html.:

1. Characterization - gives someone or something a positive or negative characteristic, using the transfer of the properties of one object to another; most often, the predicate acts as a metaphor (“He is a real bull” - either the ferocious nature of a person or his unrealistic dimensions are implied);

2. Nomination - nomination of the objects of action, that is, the one who performs is called on the basis of association with what he does; most often, a phrase like “subject + object” acts as a metaphor;

3. Informative function - transmission of integrity, panorama of the image: connection of a huge amount of the unconscious to the mental holistic display; any metaphor carries aesthetically colored information;

4. Style formation - the participation of metaphor in the creation of the style of fiction; the degree of metaphorical character of a literary text depends on the author's attitudes;

5. Text formation - as mentioned above, a metaphor can be expanded, and it is this property that is the basis of this function;

6. Genre formation - the participation of metaphors in creating the atmosphere of a certain genre; for example, for riddles, proverbs, odes, aphoristic miniatures, etc., a metaphor is almost mandatory;

7. Emotional-evaluative function is a way of a metaphor to influence the reader by awakening any emotions in him (“Stupid boy” is a stupid, uncouth boy who is treated with disdain).

So, having considered the concept of metaphor, its properties and functions, we can proceed to the study of its types.

The concept of metaphor

Our Russian language, called mighty and great, is diverse and, at first glance, incomprehensible to any foreigner. We can invent new words, use them in different word forms, which is hardly available to people for whom this language is not native. They are especially incomprehensible to our tropes, that is, figurative and expressive means, which include metaphors. What is a metaphor? For a person who studies the Russian language quite closely, the answer to this question is obvious. Metaphor is a figurative use of words based on the transfer of signs from one phenomenon to another. Such a transfer is possible due to the comparison of two objects. For example, "golden ring" and "golden hair". Comparison is based on color. In other words, the answer to the question, what is a metaphor, may sound as follows - this is a hidden comparison.

There are three elements of comparison:

The subject of comparison (here it is considered what is being compared).

The image of comparison (the object is taken as the basis, with which they are compared).

Sign of comparison (on the basis of which the comparison is made).

Main Functions of Metaphor

1. Estimated.
Usually the use of metaphors is aimed at evoking certain feelings and ideas in a person. Take, for example, such an expression as "bronze of muscles." It is clear that strong, pumped up muscles are meant here.
2. Emotive- (emotionally)-evaluative.
Another function that emphasizes the importance of metaphor in giving speech a certain imagery. Here we are talking not only about strengthening some feature, but about creating a new image. For example, "talk of the waves." The waves are likened to a living being, a picture arises in the imagination of a person depicting the unhurried muttering of the waves.
3. Nominative (naming).
With this function, a new object is introduced into the language context. For example, "pull the rubber", that is, slow down.
4. Cognitive.

Metaphors allow you to see the essential and obvious in the subject. Knowing what a metaphor is, you can diversify your speech, make it more figurative.

Varieties of metaphors

Metaphors, like any tropes, have their own varieties:

Sharp. Such a metaphor connects concepts that are far standing in meaning.
- Erased. Absolutely opposite to a sharp metaphor, connects concepts that are similar to each other. For example, "door handle".
- Metaphor in the form of a formula. Close to an erased metaphor, but is a frozen expression. It is sometimes impossible to decompose it into components. For example, "the cup of life".
- Expanded. Such a metaphor is quite voluminous and unfolds throughout the entire fragment of speech.

Implemented. This metaphor is sometimes used literally. Most often to create a comic situation. For example, "before losing your temper, think about the way back."

There are many types of metaphor, such as synecdoche or metonymy. But this is a deeper level of language learning. Thus, knowing what a metaphor is, you can easily use it in your speech, making it more beautiful, diverse and understandable.

Metaphor is a word or combination of words used to describe an object in a figurative sense, based on similar features with another object. Metaphor serves to emotionally embellish colloquial speech. Often it replaces the original meaning of the word. Metaphor is used not only in colloquial speech, but also performs certain functions in literature. It allows you to give an object, an event a certain artistic image. This is necessary not only to strengthen a certain feature, but also to create a new image in the imagination, with the participation of emotions and logic.

Examples of metaphors from literature.

We bring to your attention examples of metaphors:
“A Christmas tree was born in the forest, it grew in the forest” - it is clear that a Christmas tree cannot be born, it can only grow from a spruce seed.

One more example:
"Scented bird cherry
Bloomed with spring
And golden branches
What curls, curled.

It is also obvious that bird cherry cannot curl curls, it is compared with a girl in order to clearly show how beautiful she is.

Metaphors can be sharp, this type connects completely different semantic concepts, for example, “the filling of a phrase”, it is clear that the phrase is not a pie and it cannot have a filling. Also, metaphors are deployed - they are visible, but rather listened to throughout the entire statement, such an excerpt from A.S. Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin" can serve as an example:

“The night has many lovely stars,
There are many beauties in Moscow.
But brighter than all the girlfriends of heaven
Moon in the air blue.

Along with expanded and sharp metaphors, there is an erased metaphor and a metaphor-formula, which are similar in their features - giving the subject a figurative character, for example, “a sofa leg”.