The secrets of the Etruscans that haunt scientists and the predecessors of Ancient Rome. The Etruscans and their influence on Roman civilization The influence of the Etruscans on the Romans

From the very beginning of their existence, the Etruscan people appeared in the eyes of the Ancient World rich and powerful nation. The self-name of the Etruscans is “Rasena”, their name inspired great fear, constantly appearing in "Annals" which notes: "Even the Alpine tribes, especially the Rhaetians, are of the same origin as the Etruscans"; and Virgil, in his epic about the emergence of Rome, tells in detail about ancient Etruria.

The Etruscan civilization was primarily an urban civilization, in ancient times, which played an important role in the fate of Rome and the entire Western civilization. Etruria fell to the Roman legions by the middle of the 3rd century BC. e., but it has not lost its cultural role. Etruscan priests spoke the Etruscan language both in Tuscany and Rome until the fall of the Roman Empire, that is, until the end of the 5th century AD. e. Beginning, Greek sailors began to settle on the southern coasts of Italy and Sicily and traded with the inhabitants of Etruscan cities.

The inhabitants of Etruria were known to the Greeks as "Tyrrhenians" or "Tyrsenians", and the Romans called them Tusci, hence the current name of Tuscany. According to Tacitus(“Annals”, IV, 55), during the Roman Empire retained the memory of his distant Etruscan origin; The Lydians even then considered themselves brothers of the Etruscans.

"Tyrrhenians" is an adjective, most likely formed from the word "tirrha" or "tirra"in Lydia there is a place called Tyrrha - turris - “tower”, that is, “Tyrrhenians” are “people of the citadel”. Root very common in Etruscan. King Tarchon, brother or son of Tyrrhenus, founded Tarquinia and the dodecapolis -. Names with the root tarch were given to the gods or, the Black Sea region and Asia Minor.

The Etruscans are one of the peoples of ancient civilization, survivor of the Indo-European invasion from the north in the period from 2000 to 1000 BC. e., and the catastrophe of the destruction of almost all tribes. The relationship of the Etruscan language with some pre-Hellenic idioms of Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean Sea has been discovered - proves connection Etruscans and the Middle Eastern world. The entire history of the Etruscans unfolded in the Aegean Sea basin, which is where the Etruscans come from religious presentations and rituals, their unique art and crafts that were previously unknown on Tuscan soil.

On the island Lemnos in the 7th century BC. e. spoke a language similar to Etruscan. The Etruscans apparently originated from a mixture of ethnic elements of different origins. There is no doubt the diversity of the roots of the Etruscan people, born through the fusion of various ethnic elements.

The Etruscans have Indo-European roots and appeared on the land of the Apennine Peninsula in the first years of the 7th century BC. e. Etruscan haplogroup G2a3a and G2a3b discovered in Europe; haplogroup G2a3b went to Europe through Starchevo and further through the archaeological culture of Linear Band Pottery, was discovered by archaeologists in the center of Germany.

Etruscan culture had a significant influence on Roman culture : the inhabitants of Rome adopted their writing and the so-called Roman numerals that were originally Etruscan .The Romans adopted the skills of Etruscan city planning, ancient Etruscan customs and religious beliefs and the entire pantheon of Etruscan gods were adopted by the Romans.

Under the Etruscan king Tarquin the Ancient (VI century BC) in Rome drainage of the swampy areas of the city began through irrigation canals, a sewage system was built in Rome sewerage system and built Cloaca maxima, cloaca in Rome is still in effect today.

stood on a high foundation – podium and had only one entrance facing south. The Etruscans built the podium and foundations of temples from stone, and the buildings themselves, arches, vaults ceilings, complex rafter system they were building made of wood. This speaks of an ancient Etruscan tradition masters of wooden architecture A. The Romans are still amazed that The Etruscans built their houses from wood (log houses), and did not build houses from marble.

Rome borrowed their foundations from the Etruscans, the monumental character of Roman architecture was inherited from the Etruscans and embodied in marble and stone. Architectural layout of interior spaces , atriums are the central rooms in Etruscan houses, borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans. "Signor Piranesi states that,When the Romans first wanted to build massive buildings, the solidity of which amazes us, they were forced to turn to their neighbors for help- Etruscan architects." The Romans built the Capitoline Temple with a southern entrance in all the occupied lands - a copy of the legendary building Etruscan architects Tarquinii and observed the rituals of all Etruscan religious holidays.

The Etruscans were skilled in geodesy and measuring technology, and Roman surveyors learned from them. The division of Italian lands and the territories of all provinces into squares with a side 710 meters - this is the merit of the Etruscans.

In essence, the Etruscan civilization settled on the seven hills of Rome. By the end of the 4th century BC. e. Etruscan letters. Initially, there was a monarchy in Etruscan cities.

Etruscan kings The Tarquins in Rome wore a gold crown, a gold ring and a scepter. Their ceremonial the clothing was a red toga-palmata, and the royal procession was led lictors carried on shoulders Fascia is a sign of the unlimited power of the ruler. The fasces consisted of rods and a hatchet- a ceremonial weapon and symbol of the political and religious power of the Tarquins.

In the 6th century BC. e. the monarchy in Rome was replaced by a republic; the king was replaced, regularly re-elected, officials. The new state was essentially oligarchic, with constant and strong Senate and replaced annually magistrates. All power was in the hands oligarchies, consisting of principes - leading citizens. Aristocratic class– ordo principum – controlled the interests of the community.

Etruscan families had different names – nomen gentilicum, Etruscan “gens” - “gens” - family group and cognomen- family branches, and Each Etruscan had a personal name. The onomastic system of the Etruscans was exactly adopted by the Romans. Onomastics(from ancient Greek ὀνομαστική) - the art of giving names, was adopted by the Romans from the Etruscans.

The Etruscans influenced the history of Rome and the fate of the entire West. Latin peoples were part of the Etruscan confederation, created by religious grounds.

In the 6th century BC. e. The Etruscan League arose, which was a religious association of Etruscan lands. Political meeting Etruscan League was held during the general Etruscan annual religious holidays, a large fair was held, the supreme leader of the Etruscan League was elected, wearing title rex (king), later - sacerdos (high priest), and in Rome - was elected praetor or aedile of the fifteen nations of Etruria.

The symbol of sovereignty survived in Rome after the expulsion Etruscan dynasty Tarquini from Rome to 510 BC e., when the Roman Republic arose, which existed for 500 years.

The loss of Rome was a serious blow for Etruria; difficult battles lay ahead on land and sea with the Roman Republic and with the period 450-350. BC e.

Throughout Roman history, the Romans repeated all religious rituals, performed by the Etruscan kings. During the celebration of triumph, victory over the enemy, a solemn procession went to the Capitol, for a sacrifice to Jupiter, and the commander stood in his war chariot, at the head of a cortege of prisoners and soldiers, and was temporarily likened to the supreme deity.

The city of Rome was founded according to the plan and ritual of the Etruscans. The founding of the city was accompanied by Etruscans sacred rituals. The site of the future city was outlined in a circle by the city line, and along it plowed the ritual furrow with a plow, protecting the future city from the hostile outside world. The plowed circle around the city corresponded to the Etruscan ideas about the Heavenly World - Templum (lat. templum) - “Temple.” The sacred walls of the city were called in Etruscan TULAR Spular (lat. tular spular) became known to the Romans as pomerium.

In the Etruscan city, they necessarily built three main streets, three gates, three temples - dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The rituals of building Etruscan cities - Etrusco ritu - were adopted by the Romans.

Mundus, a hole in the ground where the souls of ancestors lived, was located on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Throwing a handful of earth brought from the homeland into a common pit (Mundus) is the most important rite when founding a city, since the Etruscans and Italics believed that The souls of ancestors are contained in the native land. That's why, a city founded according to such a ritual became their true homeland, where the souls of their ancestors moved.

Other Etruscan cities were founded and built in Etruria (on the Apennine Peninsula) in compliance with all Etruscan city planning rules and according to religious canons. This is how the Etruscan city was built Volterra, in Etruscan – Velatri, Lucumonius and others were surrounded by high city walls, and the city gate Velatri Porta del Arco, decorated with sculptures - the heads of deities have survived to this day. In Southern Italy, the Etruscans founded the cities of Nola, Acerra, Nocerra and the fortress city of Capua (Italian: Capua), the Etruscan city of Manthua, later Mantua.

The famous ancient Roman roads that still exist today, for example, Via Appia, were built with the participation of the Etruscans.

The Etruscans built the largest hippodrome Ancient Rome - Circus Maximus, or Great Circus. According to legend, the first chariot racing competitions were held at the hippodrome in the 6th century BC. Etruscan king of Rome Tarquinius Priscus, who was originally from the Etruscan city of Tarquinia.

The ancient tradition of gladiator fights originates from the Etruscan culture of sacrifice, when captured warriors were given a chance to survive, and if the prisoner happened to survive, they believed that it was the will of the gods.

In Etruria, tombs were located outside the city walls - this Etruscan rule was invariably observed throughout the ancient Mediterranean: the settlements of the dead must be separated from the settlements of the living.

The Romans took as a model the design of Etruscan tombs, the interior decoration of tombs, sarcophagi, urns with ashes, as well as the funeral rituals of the Etruscans, who believed in an afterlife similar to earthly life.

The Romans believed in the power of ancient Etruscan oaths that had magical powers, if they are addressed to the Etruscan deities of the Earth. The Etruscans built their houses from wood, a short-lived material, but The Etruscans built their tombs for centuries for eternal life, stone tombs were carved out of rocks, hidden in mounds, decorated with wall with images of feasts, dances and games, and filling the tombs with jewelry, weapons, vases and other valuable items. “Life is a moment, death is forever”

Roman temples were built of stone and marble, but decorated according to the Etruscan style wooden temples that existed in ancient times Kose, Veii, Tarquinia, Volsinia, capital of the Etruscan Confederation.

Found in the Etruscan city of Veii temple (of Apollo), with many life-size terracotta statues of gods, executed with amazing skill, the work of an Etruscan sculptor Vulka.

The Romans introduced almost all the Etruscan gods into their pantheon. The Etruscan gods became Hades, (Aritimi) - Artemis, - Earth, (Etrus. Cel) — Geo (earth). In Etruscan “Cels clan” - Celsclan - “son of the Earth”, “tribe of the Earth”. (Satre) — Saturn; (Turnu), Turan, Turanshna (Etrus.Turansna) - epithet of the goddess Turan - Swan, Swan; - Menerva. Etruscan god of vegetation and fertility, death and rebirth (Etruscan. Pupluna or Fufluna) originated in the city of Populonia. Etruscan Fufluns reigns at symposiums and funeral meals - corresponds to the Roman Bacchus, or Bacchus, the Greek Dionysus.

The supreme gods of the Etruscans were a trinity, which was worshiped in the triple temples - this . The Greek goddess Hecate became the visible embodiment of the triune Etruscan deity. Trinity cult which was worshiped in Etruscan sanctuaries with three walls - each dedicated to one of the three gods - is also present in Cretan-Mycenaean civilization.

Just like the Etruscans, the Romans showed great interest in divination, fortune-telling, and haruspices. Etruscan tombs are often surrounded egg-shaped Etruscan columns cippi - low stone pillars (like the Scythians' stone women) with decorations that are a symbol of the divine presence.

In Etruria, games and dances had a ritual origin and character. Etruscan warriors since ancient times learned military dances in gymnasiums, dancing was not just a variety military training, but also for conquest disposition of the gods of war.

On the frescoes of Etruria we see armed men in helmets, dancing and banging their spears on their shields to the beat - , dedicated god Pyrrhus

The Roman salii - warrior priests - performed a pyrrhic dance in honor of Mars, brutal gladiator fights (lat. Munera gladiatoria) the Romans also borrowed from Etruscan Tuscany in 264 BC. e.

The Etruscans were great lovers of music - to the sounds of a double flute, they fought, went hunting, cooked, and even punished slaves, as the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle writes with some indignation.

Rome invited Etruscan dancers and mimes to its celebrations, whom the Romans called "histriones" - "histriones" – the Romans used this term too taken from the Etruscans. According to Titus Livy, Etruscan dancers and mimes, with the rhythm of their movements, pacified the evil gods who sent a terrible scourge to the city of Rome - the plague in 364 BC. e.

The Etruscans owned specific methods of processing gold and silver. Found in 1836 in the Cerveteri mound gold jewelry and the finest engraving of silver and bronze mirrors represent the pinnacle of craftsmanship of the 7th century BC. — at this time Roman jewelry did not exist!

The treasures from the Regolini-Galassi tomb amaze with the perfection and technical ingenuity of amber and bronze jewelry and products chryselephantine, boxes for cosmetics, brooches, combs, necklaces, tiaras, rings, bracelets and archaic earrings testify to the high skill of Etruscan jewelers.

D achievements lead the Etruscans to 7th century BC to a leading position among artists of the Western Mediterranean. In the visual arts one can feel the connection with the Phoenician, Cretan-Mycenaean and , the same ones are depicted fantastic beasts– chimeras, sphinxes and winged horses. Fantastic Etruscan chimera actually represents animal image of the triune deity -, commanding Birth - this is the image of the Goat-nurse, commanding Life - the image of Leo, commanding Death - the image of the Snake.

In the middle of the 3rd century BC. e. Rome subjugated Etruria (Tascana), the military and political role of Etruria was eliminated, but Etruria did not lose its originality. Religious traditions and crafts flourished in Etruria before the Christian era, and Romanization proceeded very slowly. The Romans sent delegates to universal annual religious meeting twelve tribes Etruscans of 12 Etruscan cities in the main Sanctuary of Voltumna – Fanum Voltumnae; it was called "concilium Etruriae".

The cities of southern Etruria near Rome soon fell into decay, and northern Etruria was a mining region- Chiusi, Perugia, Cortona, have preserved the famous production workshops that produced objects made of malleable steel and bronze, Volterra and Arezzo - a large industrial center, Populonia - a metallurgical center ore mining and metal smelting, even under the rule of Rome retained its industrial and commercial power.

Italian archaeologists have announced a sensational discovery: a perfectly preserved Etruscan villa has been found. It was so perfectly preserved that scientists called this find the first of its kind in the entire study of Etruscan civilization. In all respects - dating, location, richness of historical information - archaeologists received a unique object for research.

The villa was discovered on the territory of the Etruscan city of Vetulonia (Vatluna, Vatl), the ruins of which are located near the modern town of Grosseto in Tuscany. Excavations here resumed in 2009. Vetulonia is often called the last Etruscan city: of the 12 communities of the Etruscan League (the famous Twelve Cities), which disappeared one after another as Rome expanded, Vetulonia lasted a couple of centuries longer than the others. By comparison, Etruscans, captured by the Romans, had not been heard of since 280 BC, while Vetulonia perished after 80 BC.

It is known that the Romans adopted a lot from the Etruscans, from construction and engineering knowledge to traditions and insignia. Such “inheritance of intellectual property” became possible, among other things, thanks to the islands of Etruscan civilization that were not immediately destroyed by Rome - such as Vetulonia.

The famous attributes of official power, many of which are strongly associated with Ancient Rome, are in fact of Etruscan origin - ancient authors wrote about this, this is confirmed by modern archaeological finds. The lictorial fasces (a bundle of tied rods with a fixed axe, stylized images of which still appear on many state coats of arms and emblems), the curule chair, the toga praetexta (a white toga with a purple border on the side) are only part of the culture of power that the Romans adopted from defeated Etruscans. In the process of “appropriation” Vetulonia played an important role.

A rich villa found by archaeologists tells the story of the coexistence of the Etruscans and Romans in the same city. The mansion quickly received the nickname Domus dei dolia, “house of the dolias,” from the very first find: researchers first came across a room densely filled with dolias - large vessels for storing olive oil.

Excavations of the southern part of the Domus dei dolia. Photo: Marco Merola

“This is a huge villa with an area of ​​at least 400 square meters. meters. We counted ten residential premises and several utility rooms. Judging by the interior decoration and location on a hill overlooking the surrounding area, the house belonged to a wealthy member of the Etruscan nobility,” archaeologist Simona Rafanelli, who has been working on excavations in Vetulonia since 2015, told the Italian edition of National Geographic.

It is noteworthy that on the city plan the villa was located in the middle of the central street connecting the Roman and Etruscan regions of Vetulonia. Rafanelli explained the proximity of sworn enemies as follows: “From the 3rd century BC, a period of peaceful coexistence with Rome began in Vetulonia. For the city, it was a time of economic growth and prosperity, which was reflected in the renovation of religious buildings, the construction of new mansions and an increase in the urban population.”

Domus dei dolia is further proof of the well-being of the city and its inhabitants. The earth has preserved all the details of the structure, from the foundation to the roof.

Fragments of terracotta tiles and palmettes that decorated the roof of the building. Photo: Marco Merola

Stone walls, magnificent finishes (one of the living rooms was originally decorated with frescoes in the early Pompeian style, also known as “inlay” or “structural” - it gave the house a strict, noble appearance), terracotta tiles and tiles, opus signinum floors (another technology adopted by the Romans from the Etruscans - in Italy it is still known under the name cocciopesto, in Russian - tsemyanka: lime mortar with the addition of ceramic chips) ... Archaeologists even found iron nails that fastened wooden floor beams, and decoration - palmette crowning the roof of the building.

Iron nails that fastened the wooden floors of an Etruscan villa. Photo: Marco Merola

In a recess under the floor of the same room with frescoes, archaeologists discovered several extremely valuable bronze figurines. One of them is in the title photo: judging by the remains of a hand, the figurine once depicted a rider on a horse and served as a decorative top for a lamp. The figurine was dated to the 4th century BC.

Among the artifacts found during the excavations, Etruscan and Roman coins are of particular interest. Etruscan independence ended in the 3rd century BC, but two cities, Vetulonia and Volterra, still tried to maintain their Etruscan identity - including by minting their own coins with the highest permission of the winner, Rome.

According to numismatists, this curious phenomenon did not last long, perhaps several decades - all previously found coins date back to the same 3rd century BC. Etruscan money circulated in parallel with Roman money, but not on an equal basis: only “ethnic Etruscans” could pay with it and only in the territory of the city that issued the coins.

The situation seems humiliating, but the Etruscans of Vetulonia used coins as a kind of manifesto or ethnic declaration: silver and bronze coins with low denominations did not represent much value, but were full of symbols and meanings. The inscription on the obverse of all coins (Vatl or Vatluna, the Etruscan name of Vetulonia) clearly stated that the ancient city existed and prospered since it had the opportunity to mint its own money.

Numismatists know four types of coins from Vetulonia, but the most common (almost 300 of these were found before the Domus dei dolia excavations) is with the image of a male head on the obverse, possibly the water deity Nethuns, the Etruscan predecessor of Neptune. The reverse features an image of a trident surrounded by two dolphins - a possible hint at the connection of the Etruscan Vatluna with the sea and maritime trade, since the city is located only 20 km from the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. These symbols were clear to contemporaries, as was the meaning of the message: the city had not lost its Etruscan identity and had not forgotten its glorious past, despite the growing power of Rome.

At the Domus dei Dolia excavations, archaeologists discovered many coins, but it was this bronze sestertius, with a trident and dolphins, that scientists called the most valuable specimen.

It is symbolic that another coin, a Roman one, found by archaeologists near the villa, tells its own story - the story of the death of Vetulonia and the bloody end of the “peaceful coexistence” of two great cultures.

We are talking about the silver denarius of Lucius Thorius Balbus - that is, a coin issued under the monetarium (triumvir for minting coins), whose name is well known to historians and allows us to definitely date the coin to 105 BC.

Silver denarius of Lucius Thorius Balbus (105 BC), found during excavations of an Etruscan villa. Photo: Marco Merola

Once upon a time, about 3000 years ago, a mysterious civilization flourished in ancient Italy. These people were rich, elegant and sophisticated. They feasted and drank expensive wines, entertained themselves with games and sports, and spent money on magnificent jewelry and objects of art. They were called Etruscans, their world seemed like paradise, but it was doomed. The Etruscan priests predicted that their civilization would last a thousand years, and so it happened. One hundred years before the birth of Christ, this incredible world disappeared. What happened to this great civilization that paved the way for the mighty Roman Empire? Where are the Etruscans now?

Comments: 2 comments

Where are the Etruscans? In the same place where they were - in Italy, mixed with the Latins, who came there like savages and then became the princes of this world. The same as everywhere else. For scientists, the search for the Etruscans is endless, although you just need to read what they themselves wrote. Many have tried to do this since the time of Volansky, but it turned out. that everything is simpler - they wrote in Russian and in Russian runes. So who are they then? A stupid question that only academics ask. Following the “scientific” method - if it is written on the fence “Vasya was here”, it should be read - “Heinrich was here”. Maybe it's time to just hear the language we all speak? It, despite all the efforts of the “civilizers” (ce-lization, that is, licked savages), contains in its roots the fundamental principles, the images from which all secondary languages ​​originate. And the language in Russian is also the people. Interesting material on the topic of Russian roots of many languages ​​here:
http://publikashka.com/blog/igra_slovami/2013-01-02-132
And
http://publikashka.com/blog/igra_slovami_2/2013-02-08-135

Once upon a time, about 3000 years ago, a mysterious civilization flourished in ancient Italy. These people were rich, elegant and sophisticated. They feasted and drank expensive wines, entertained themselves with games and sports, and spent money on magnificent jewelry and objects of art. They were called Etruscans, their world seemed like paradise, but it was doomed. The Etruscan priests predicted that their civilization would last a thousand years, and so it happened. One hundred years before the birth of Christ, this incredible world disappeared. What happened to this great civilization that paved the way for the mighty Roman Empire? Where are the Etruscans now?

Etruscans - the mysterious predecessors of Rome

Mysterious, mysterious, unknown - such epithets are usually awarded to the Etruscans - the people who inhabited the territory of the modern Apennine Peninsula in ancient times. To some extent, this is true, since, despite the fairly large number of material remains of their culture that have survived to this day - cities, tombs, household and religious items, this people largely remains an unsolved mystery. Even the civilizations of Egypt and the Ancient East seem to modern science to be more understandable and studied than the Etruscans. We can say that the Etruscans continue to be a blank spot on the map of History along with the civilizations of Minoan Crete, the Mayans, the Incas or the builders of Stonehenge in prehistoric England. In many ways, this position of this ancient European people is due to the lack of modern researchers the key to deciphering their writing, as well as a clear idea of ​​where the Etruscans came from. This led to the emergence of a large number of more or less plausible theories, which often contradict each other, and sometimes are completely fantastic, attributing almost alien origin to the Etruscans. The eminent ancient Roman historian Polybius said: “The historian should not amaze his readers with stories of extraordinary events.” Therefore, we will try, following his advice, to understand the intricate issues of Etruscan studies, avoiding speculation as much as possible and using only verified facts. But since, in general, there are not many verified facts, it probably won’t work out completely without speculation...

So, today it is known that the people whom the Romans called Etruscans or “Tusci”, and the Greeks called “Tyrrenians” or “Tersenians”, called themselves “Rasna” or “Rasena”. It is believed that it appeared in Italy in the 11th century BC. e. This is followed by a break of several centuries, when nothing was heard about the Etruscans. And suddenly, by the end of the 8th century BC. e. it turns out that the Etruscans are a people with developed agriculture and crafts; their cities conduct extensive overseas trade, exporting grain, metal, wine, ceramics, and tanned leather. The Etruscan nobility - the Lucumoni - builds fortified cities, seeks glory and wealth in continuous campaigns, raids and battles. Two peoples fought at this time for supremacy at sea - the Greeks and the Carthaginians. The Etruscans took the side of the Carthaginians in this struggle, their pirates dominated the Mediterranean, so much so that the Greeks were afraid to even go into the Tyrrhenian Sea. In the 7th–6th centuries BC. e. Large city-states arise in Etruria: Veii, Caere, Tarquinia, Clusium, Arretius, Populonia. Etruscan influence spread from the Alps to Campania. In the north they founded Mantua and Felsini (present-day Bologna), and twelve other cities in Campania. The Etruscan city of Adria in the northeast of the Apennine Peninsula gave its name to the Adriatic Sea. By the 6th century BC. e. The Etruscans controlled an area of ​​70 thousand square kilometers, their number exceeded two million. Thus, we can say that in the Mediterranean part of the ancient world, the Etruscan civilization occupied a dominant position. Much of what we consider primordially Roman was born not on the hills of Latium, but on the plains of Etruria. Rome itself was created according to the Etruscan rite and built according to the Etruscan model. The ancient temple on the Capitol and a number of other sanctuaries in Rome were built by Etruscan craftsmen. The ancient Roman kings from the Tarquin family were of Etruscan origin; many Latin names have Etruscan roots, and some historians believe that it was through the Etruscans that the Romans borrowed the Greek alphabet. The most ancient state institutions, laws, positions, circus games, theatrical performances, gladiator fights, the art of fortune telling and even many gods - all this came to the Romans from the Etruscans. Symbols of power - fasces (bundles of rods with axes embedded in them), which were carried in front of the king, a senatorial toga trimmed with a purple border, the custom of triumph after victory over the enemy - and this is the inheritance of the Etruscans. The Romans themselves admitted: triumphal and consular decorations were transferred to Rome from Tarquinia. Even the word “Rome” itself is of Etruscan origin, as are other words considered purely Latin - tavern, cistern, ceremony, persona, litera.

How did it happen that the more developed Etruria was defeated by almost barbaric Italian tribes? What is the mystery of such a rapid rise and no less rapid decline of this mysterious civilization? As many modern scholars believe, the reason for the decline of the Etruscans was that they, like the Greeks of the era preceding the great Alexander the Great, were unable to create a unified state. Only a federation (union) of self-governing cities arose. The heads of the Etruscan cities who gathered in Volsinia in the sanctuary of the deity Volumna (Voltcumna) alternately chose from their midst the chief Lucumon, who could only conditionally be considered a king, and the priest-high priest. For the Etruscan, the concept of “Motherland” was limited to the city walls, and his patriotism did not extend beyond them. The capture and destruction of one Etruscan city by the growing Roman state did not at all worry the inhabitants of another, and often the fall of a competitor even caused undisguised joy. But as it usually happens: “He who laughs last laughs best,” the joy was short-lived. And now this city became the prey of a young predator. As a rule, Rome laughed.

The power and influence of the Etruscans reached their zenith in 535 BC. e. Then, at the Battle of Alalia in Corsica, the combined Carthaginian-Etruscan fleet inflicted a crushing defeat on the Greeks, and Corsica came into the possession of the Etruscans. But just a few years later, the Etruscans began to suffer defeats from the Greeks and previously conquered Italian tribes. Around this time, Rome was also liberated from Etruscan rule. In the 5th century BC. e. The territory of Etruria is greatly reduced, the connection between the cities, already fragile, is collapsing. As already mentioned, cities do not come to each other's aid. Experienced farmers and builders, skilled metallurgists, cunning inventors of anchors and sea rams, fearless and fierce warriors were powerless before young Rome and its united allies. Having subjugated all of Etruria, the Romans continued to remain under the influence of Etruscan culture, which slowly faded as Roman civilization flourished. By the middle of the 1st century BC. e. The Etruscans lost all significance in the culture of Rome. Only a few amateurs remembered the Etruscan language. One such lover was the Emperor Claudius (10 BC – 54 AD). He wrote an Etruscan history in Greek in twenty volumes and ordered that every year on set days, readers should publicly read it from beginning to end in a building specially built for this purpose. “Tirrenica” - “The History of the Tyrrhenians”, or, as we would say now, “The History of the Etruscans”, Claudius considered his greatest achievement, along with another multi-volume opus “Carphadonica” - “The History of Carthage”. What made Claudius study the history of these two ancient peoples? Was his interest in the Carthaginians and Etruscans accidental, or did it reflect a desire to look deeper into that historical period when Rome stood modestly at the very beginning of its journey and was forced to gain ground in the struggle against the Etruscans and Greeks, and, outside Italy, against the Carthaginians? Unfortunately, we can only guess about this, since Claudius’s books have not reached us.

In all likelihood, Claudius' twenty books about the Etruscans were a kind of encyclopedia of knowledge about this people. Judging by the impressive volume of work, the emperor had no reason to complain about the lack of sources. In the 1st century AD e. There is still a lot of evidence that has not survived to this day. Claudius could still see monuments of Etruscan culture, which were subsequently destroyed. He heard the speech of the Etruscans. True, in his time it sounded less and less, but was still heard in Etruscan cities. He could meet with the Etruscans, not only in Etruria, but also directly in the imperial palace. Few non-specialists know that his first wife, Plautia Urgulanilla, belonged to this mysterious people. Claudius met her relatives and thanks to this was relatively closely connected with the Etruscan world. Or rather, with what was left of him. The works of Claudius were already an exceptional phenomenon at that time. The emperor systematized information that had not been summarized in any independent study before. It may also seem strange that they belonged to the pen of a Roman, and not an Etruscan. This is all the more surprising since during the era of the Empire there were many educated Etruscans who often occupied a high position and could, if they wished, themselves write a work similar to the treatise of Claudius, if not better.

An example is Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, an outstanding politician and confidant of Emperor Augustus. His name became a household name: using his influence, Maecenas supported gifted poets and artists with money. The famous Roman lyricist Horace was one of them. From his poems it became known that Maecenas had aristocratic ancestors in one of the Etruscan cities. Despite the fact that Maecenas, an Etruscan by birth, was close to art, no information has been preserved that he was interested in the past of his people. The same can be said about another highly educated Etruscan - the satirist and fabulist Aulus of Persia Flaccus, a native of the Etruscan city of Volaterra, who lived in the 1st century AD. e. And he showed much more interest in the problems of Rome than in the history of the Etruscans. His satires were aimed at ridiculing Roman morals. Some interest in the history of his people was shown by a friend of Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero - an outstanding Roman orator and politician of the 1st century BC), the Romanized Etruscan Aulus Caecina, who carefully studied the Etruscan science of interpreting lightning. It was probably from him that Cicero learned information about the Etruscan predictions of the future, which he refers to in his work “On Fortune-Telling.” Marcus Tullius, a very pragmatic man who received an excellent education, treated the studies of his Etruscan friend with the greatest respect. Even at the beginning of Cicero's career, Caecina predicted that, despite the glory achieved by the young orator, the people would one day turn away from him and sentence him to exile. And so it happened. When in 58 BC. e. Cicero was expelled, Caecina again predicted that he would soon return. The prediction came true.

Other historical figures known to us, Etruscans by origin, did not look back and, unfortunately, did not consider themselves among the people who had already left the historical scene of ancient Italy. This is an undeniable sign of the decline of the Etruscans. Due to the lack of interest among the Etruscans themselves in their past, it fell to the lot of the Greeks and Romans to summarize everything that was known about their history. But the history of the Etruscans interested them only insofar as it was connected with the history of their own peoples.

The most complete description of the Etruscans belongs to Diodorus Siculus, a Roman historian of the 1st century BC. e., who wrote in Greek. However, the information about the Etruscans presented in his work is not the fruit of his own research. He borrowed them from the works of the Greek historian Posidonius, who lived a century earlier. This is what he says about the Etruscans:

“They were distinguished by their courage, captured vast territory and founded many glorious cities. They also stood out for their naval forces and ruled the sea for a long time, so thanks to them the sea adjacent to Italy received the name Tyrrhenian. To improve their ground forces, they invented a forge, which was very helpful in waging war and was named Tyrrhenian in their honor. They awarded the highest military commanders the title of lictors, giving them the right to sit in ivory chairs and wear a toga with a red stripe. They built very convenient colonnades in their houses to muffle the sounds made by their servants. The Romans adopted most of this, introduced it into their settlements and improved it. They eagerly studied, first of all, writing, the science of nature and the gods; They were more involved in the science of lightning than any other people. Therefore, they are still admired by the rulers of almost the entire world and used as interpreters of omens sent by the gods with the help of lightning. And since they live on the land, which, when cultivated, gives them everything, the harvest of their fruits is sufficient not only for food, but also brings a rich income, allowing them to live with excesses. Twice a day they force them to prepare rich dishes and other things common to a luxurious life. They acquire sheets embroidered with flowers, and many silver bowls, and slaves to serve them; Some slaves are distinguished by beauty, others are dressed in clothes more expensive than befits a slave. And not only their servants, but also the majority of free citizens have spacious homes. They completely squandered their strength, which had long been the envy of others.

It is clear that they have lost the fighting prowess of their fathers if they spend their time in orgies and in entertainment unworthy of men. Their extravagance was facilitated, not least, by the rich land. For they live on a very rich land, on which everything can be cultivated, and they reap a rich harvest of all fruits.

There is always a good harvest in Etruria, and there are vast fields spread across it. It is divided by steep hills, also suitable for cultivation. There is a sufficient amount of moisture not only in winter, but also in summer.”

In the work of Diodorus there are other references to the Etruscans, but mainly when describing any events (the approach of many other ancient authors is similar). Most often, such events were wars in which the Etruscans constantly clashed with Rome. Given the patriotism of Roman authors, the Etruscans are often shown in black. The only exception may be the description of their religious rituals. Believing in the mysterious abilities of the Etruscans, the Romans were in awe of their knowledge in the field of fortune telling and predictions.

An even more sparse description of the Etruscans was given by the Roman historian Titus Livius, who lived during the reign of Emperor Augustus, in his extensive work “History of Rome from the Founding of the City.” Here's what he reported:

“The Tusci, even before the founding of Rome, owned vast areas on land and sea. The names of the lower and upper seas, washing Italy like an island, indicate the past power of the Tusks, because the Italian peoples called one sea Tuscus, after the name of this people, and the other Atriatic Sea, after the name of Atria, a colony of the Tusks; The Greeks call these very seas one Tyrrhenian and the other Adriatic. And, stretching from one sea to the other, the Tusks populated both regions, founding twelve cities there, formerly on this side of the Apennines to the lower sea, and over time, sending colonies on the other side of the Apennines, in the same number as the metropolises , and occupying with these colonies all the areas beyond the river Padom up to the Alps, with the exception of the land of the returnees, who inhabit the corner of the sea bay.”

At the same time as Livy lived two famous scientists who wrote in Greek - the geographer Strabo and the historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Both of them mention the Etruscans in their writings. Strabo wrote:

“As long as the Etruscans had one ruler, they were very strong. But over time, their organization probably disintegrated, and they split into separate cities, yielding to pressure from the neighboring population. For otherwise they would not have left the rich land and would not have embarked on robbery at sea, some on these waters, others on those waters. After all, they were capable, united, not only of repelling an attack, but also of attacking themselves and undertaking long-distance expeditions.”

Dionysius of Halicarnassus created an extensive work dedicated to the history of Rome. Naturally, the Etruscans could not help but appear in his work. The description of Etruscan customs proposed by Dionysius is interesting in that it directly indicates where the Romans got many of their seemingly primordial traditions from. For example, Dionysius describes the emergence in Rome of a tradition according to which the chief official was entitled to an honorary escort in the form of twelve lictors:

“As some say, they brought Tarquin (meaning Tarquin the Ancient - the Etruscan king who ruled in Rome) twelve axes, one from each Etruscan city. It seems to be an Etruscan custom that each ruler is preceded by a lictor, who, in addition to a bundle of rods, also carries an axe. And every time these twelve cities undertook a joint action, they handed over these twelve axes to one ruler, who was entrusted with the overall command.”

Information about the Etruscans, their history and life, given by Greek and Roman authors, sometimes coincide, sometimes complement each other, and sometimes are in contradiction. These contradictions further thickened the shroud of mystery enveloping the Etruscans. Let us try to solve the mysteries of this mysterious people.

So, riddle number one is “Who are the Etruscans, and where did they come from to Italy?”

Even the ancient authors did not have a clear answer to this question. In the 5th century BC. BC, when the Etruscan civilization was still flourishing, the Greek historian Herodotus, who is called the “father of history,” recorded interesting evidence. In his famous “History,” dedicated mainly to the Greco-Persian Wars, he reported a lot of valuable information about the life of other peoples. Among the tribes drawn into the cycle of events around the Greco-Persian Wars, Herodotus also mentions the inhabitants of Asia Minor - the Lydians. “During the reign of Atis, son of Maneus, there was a great need for bread throughout Lydia. At first the Lydians patiently endured the famine; Then, when the hunger did not stop, they began to invent means against it, and each came up with his own special one. It was then, they say, that games of cubes, dice, ball and others, besides the game of chess, were invented; The Lydians do not take credit for the invention of chess. These inventions served as a remedy for them against hunger: one day they played continuously so as not to think about food, the next day they ate and left the game. They lived in this way for eighteen years. However, the hunger not only did not abate, but intensified; then the king divided the entire people into two parts and cast lots so that one of them would remain in their homeland, and the other would move out; He appointed himself king of the part that remained in place by lot, and appointed his son, named Tyrrhenus, over those who evicted. Those of them who were destined to move out went to Smyrna (an ancient city on the coast of Asia Minor), built ships there, put the items they needed on them, and set off to find food and a place to live. Having passed through many nations, they finally arrived at the Ombrics (tribes who in ancient times inhabited the region of Italy called Umbria), where they founded cities and live to this day. Instead of Lydians, they began to call themselves by the name of the son of the king who forced them to move out; They took his name for themselves and were called Tyrrhenians.”

This is the very first and most coherent story that has come down to us about the origin of the Etruscans, whom the Greeks called Tyrrhenians. Herodotus, like many ancient scientists who followed him, believed that the Etruscans were an alien people and did not belong to the indigenous population of Italy. The version of the eastern origin of the Etruscans seems even more convincing, since over the centuries, Greek and Roman, and after them Byzantine authors, retold Herodotus' story with various variations. During the Roman Empire, according to the ancient Roman historian Tacitus, the ambassadors of two Lydian cities - Sardis and Smyrna - argued about who would have the honor of erecting a temple in honor of Emperor Tiberius. Sardis won because they were able to prove to the Senate of Rome that it was from their city that King Tyrrhenus went in search of a new homeland and that they were closer in blood to the Romans. This story is interesting in that instead of Smyrna, the city of Sardis is named as the place of departure of the Tyrrhenians. The version of the origin of the Etruscans expressed by Herodotus has not lost its relevance today.

Another version of the origin of the Etruscans, which has existed since antiquity, is autochthonous. This means that the Etruscans did not come from anywhere and did not go anywhere, but lived in Italy from ancient times. It was first expressed by the already mentioned outstanding Roman historian of the 1st century BC. e., Greek by origin, Dionysius of Halicarnassus. He argued that the Etruscans had nothing in common with either the Lydians or the Greeks. In his work “Roman Antiquities,” dedicated to the history of Rome from the founding of the city to its first clash with Carthage, Dionysius wrote: “Closer to the truth are those who believe that the Etruscans did not come from anywhere, but that they are a native people in Italy, since this the people are very ancient and are unlike any other either in language or customs.” The testimony of Dionysius is of particular interest because he knew the Etruscans and could hear their speech. Some modern scholars call Dionysius of Halicarnassus the creator of the “Etruscan problem.” But even if the quoted passage from the work of this author had not survived to this day, the Etruscan problem would still have arisen, one way or another. The originality of the Etruscan language, Etruscan art and the entire Etruscan civilization itself raises the question of the sources of its origin.

There was also a third version of the origin of the Etruscans. We first meet her in Titus Livius:

“And the Alpine tribes, undoubtedly, are also Etruscan in origin, especially the Raetians, who, however, under the influence of the surrounding nature became wild to such an extent that they did not retain anything from the old customs except the language, but they were not even able to preserve the language without distortion.” . Livy was referring to the population of ancient Rhenia, an area stretching from Lake Constance to the Danube and including what is now Tyrol (Austria) and part of Switzerland. As for the origin of the Etruscans, this passage is still not fully understood and allows for different interpretations. For example, it can be assumed that some Romans considered the Etruscans to come from somewhere in the north, and Retia served them as a kind of transit base. From there the Etruscans moved to the Apennine Peninsula. This theory was developed in later times.

So, in the Ancient world there were at least three points of view on the origin of the Etruscans. They have reached our time practically unchanged. Moreover, during certain periods of the development of Etruscology, one version became the most popular. In addition to these three, the most famous, many new, sometimes convincing, and sometimes even fantastic assumptions about the ancestral homeland of the Etruscans have appeared recently. But we'll talk about them later.

Let's start with the theory of the origin of the Etruscans, proposed by the “father of history” Herodotus. In modern historical science it has been dubbed the “Asia Minor theory”, or “Herodotus theory”. Many outstanding Etruscan historians adhered to the Asia Minor theory, complementing and expanding it, in which archeology greatly helped them. For example, the Englishman Conway defends Herodotus’ version. He suggested that at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e.

gangs of Lydian pirates began to land on the western coast of Italy, north of the Tiber. Here they displaced the Umbrians, and then settled further along the peninsula. A similar opinion was expressed by the Italian Ducati. He believed that the Tyrrhenians-Etruscans came from Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean Sea. In search of fertile lands, small groups of conquerors landed in the Tuscany region, where they subjugated the local Umbrian tribes, and over time merged with them into one people - the Etruscans. The first city they founded in Italy was Tarquinia (late 8th - early 7th century BC). The settlers gave the local population their own language, alphabet, utensils and weapons, religion, etc.

An interesting version of the Eastern theory is proposed by the Bulgarian scientist V. Georgiev. He claims that the Etruscans are none other than the inhabitants of Troy known from the poems of Homer and Virgil - the Trojans. Based on the legend of the resettlement of the Trojans led by Aeneas to Italy, which is found in both Roman and Greek epics, he supports his theory with linguistic data, proving the similarity of the names “Etruria” and “Troy”. This theory is also supported by the fact that in the Iliad and Odyssey there is no mention of the Etruscans, who played one of the leading political roles in the Aegean world. According to V. Georgiev, they are presented in these works under the name “Trojans”. An inscription discovered in 1885 on the island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea speaks in favor of Herodotus’ theory of the Asia Minor origin of the Etruscans. Two French archaeologists, Cousin and Durrbach, found a tombstone near the village of Caminia - a stele on which a warrior with a spear and a round shield was depicted in strokes. Next to the drawing on the stele was an inscription made in Greek letters, but not in the Greek language, although the main population of the island were Greeks. By comparing the text with Etruscan writings, it was proven that the language in which it was written has common features with Etruscan, if not entirely Etruscan. The Lemnos stele, like the Etruscan inscriptions themselves, still cannot be deciphered, but the conclusion suggests itself that the stele is related to the Etruscans, and, therefore, the Etruscans lived on the island for some time. The island of Lemnos could have been an ideal transit point for people crossing the Aegean Sea and heading from Asia Minor to Italy. If we talk about the theory of the origin of the Etruscans from the pirates of Asia Minor, then a more convenient place for establishing pirate bases cannot be found throughout the Mediterranean. There are a lot of other facts that would seem to support Herodotus' theory. The tombs in Asia Minor are very similar to those of the Etruscans; Asia Minor roots can be traced in the Etruscan language and proper names; the similarity of Etruscan religious rites and fortune-telling with those carried out in the Ancient East (for example, fortune-telling by the liver of a sacrificial animal was practiced in ancient Babylon). Ancient Egyptian texts mention the “Turshu” people (isn’t it very similar to the word “Tuski” - the Roman name for the Etruscans), who were part of the hordes of the “Sea Peoples” who plundered Egypt in the 14th–12th centuries BC. e. But the Asia Minor theory still leaves a number of unresolved questions. If the Etruscans were pirates, then how were they able to capture and subjugate such a powerful tribe of the ancient inhabitants of Italy - the Umbrians, about whom almost all ancient authors speak with respect? Moreover, how were wild and half-starved settlers from Asia Minor able to create such a high culture? And if we assume that it was a whole people, then how could they move to Italy by sea? It is known that all the great migrations of peoples in ancient times took place exclusively by land, because you had to carry all your belongings on yourself, and you couldn’t load much on the ships of that time. And even if we assume that numerous Asia Minor settlers arrived by ship, then why did they choose places north of the Tiber for their settlement, ignoring the much more convenient, fertile and less populated areas of Sicily and Campania, because the Greeks and Phoenicians who occupied these areas appeared there at the same time , if not later than the Etruscans? And if we talk about the elements of eastern culture, then they can be fully explained by borrowings that were found everywhere from peoples living next to the developed civilizations of Egypt and the Ancient East: the Greeks, Minoans, Hittites, etc. So it is too early to talk about the exclusively Asia Minor origin of the Etruscans. At the very least, other theories are worth considering.

The theory of the northern origin of the Etruscans, put forward by Titus Livy, found its supporters in the 18th–19th centuries. They emphasized two things. The first is the similarity in the sound of the words “Retia” and “rasena” - that’s what the Etruscans called themselves. The second is the fact that in the Danube Rhaetian region inscriptions were discovered made in Etruscan letters in a language not only similar to the Etruscan language, but, according to some scientists, identical to it. The authority of Livy thus increased even more, and the theory of the northern origin of the Etruscans seemed to be proven. But it “seemed” that way only initially. In fact, the problem was far from completely resolved, and Livy’s point of view did not triumph for long. As a matter of fact, from the very beginning it was refuted by the data of another ancient historian - Pliny the Elder. He writes that the Etruscans were called reta, who in the 4th century BC. e. driven out of the Po River valley by the invasion of the Celts. This explains the origin of Etruscan finds in the Danube region.

The outstanding German historian B. G. Niebuhr (1776–1831), the first major expert on Ancient Rome, did not agree with Pliny’s opinion. He rejected Pliny's opinion as unsubstantiated. Niebuhr argued that the areas from which the Etruscans were supposedly driven out under the pressure of the Celts were not yet inhabited at that time and, therefore, the Etruscans did not come from Italy to Raetia, but rather from Raetia to Italy.

Niebuhr's point of view on the northern origin of the Etruscans was supported by the famous Italian scientists de Sanctis and Pareti. De Sanctis considered the tribes that came to Italy from the north around 1800 BC to be Etruscan. e., who built their houses on stilts. In 1926, Pareti published a work in which he argued that the Etruscans were newcomers from the north, who at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. penetrated Italy and created the Villanovan culture. However, such identification of the Etruscans with the bearers of ancient cultures is not supported by convincing evidence. Therefore, the theory of the northern origin of the Etruscans remains unproven and even somewhat outdated.

The theory of the local origin of the Etruscans is not in a good position either. Its supporters, who include the famous Italian Etruscologists Alfredo Trombetti and Giacomo Devoto, draw their main evidence from the field of linguistics. They emphasize that the Etruscan language does not belong to the Indo-European languages ​​spoken by the settlers who entered Greece and Italy in the 2nd millennium BC. e. The population who lived in Italy before their arrival spoke a different language, which should be considered the ancestor of the Etruscan language. But if the Etruscans really represent an autochthonous (local) population of Italy, then how can we explain the fact that the finds associated with them date back to a relatively late period - more precisely, to the 8th century BC? e.? How can we explain that the language of the ancient Italic population turned out to be so resilient that it became the basis for the Etruscan language, while no other reliable information about the Italic tribes has survived?

Thus, the theory about the local origin of the Etruscans has its shortcomings, and its arguments are not entirely convincing.

An interesting approach to the problem of the origin of the Etruscans was proposed by the most famous and erudite Italian historian-Etruscologist Massimo Pallotino. He insists that the main thing is not whether the Etruscans came to Italy and, if they came, then from where, but how the Etruscan people formed on the territory of Italy and thanks to which they achieved such successes. Pallotino proceeds from the fact that the Etruscans undoubtedly existed in Italy from the 8th century BC. e. and that from this moment it is possible to trace and describe the process of development of the Etruscans and the creation of their culture. The scientist correctly notes that the development of the Etruscans did not occur in “airless space.” This process was influenced not only by the Italian environment of that time - primarily the carriers of the Villanovan culture - but also by the surrounding world, especially Greece and the eastern regions of the Mediterranean. Thanks to the maritime connections of Etruria with other countries and the resettlement of foreigners in the Etruscan colonies, their civilization developed under the strong influence of Greek and Oriental cultures.

This circumstance creates the impression that Etruscan culture is an integral part of Eastern civilization. The German F. Altheim also agrees with Pallotino’s opinion. He thoroughly studied the early history of ancient Italy and also considers the Etruscans a purely Italian phenomenon. Based on information obtained from ancient sources, he concluded that the urban population was not purely Etruscan, that the Etruscan people in the form in which we imagine them arose through the merger of several peoples.

But there are counterarguments for this theory too. Can the originality of the Etruscan civilization be explained only by the fact that the nation, in the process of its development, accepted one thing from one people, and another from another? Shouldn’t this people have brought a lot of their own in order to create from a mixture of heterogeneous elements a culture that not only delighted contemporaries, but also amazes people of our time? Pallotino attaches great importance to the influence on the Etruscans of the East, Altheim - Greece. Both points of view are valid. But the main question remains: why exactly were the Etruscans so susceptible to Greek and Eastern influences? Were there not connections between the East and Etruria (or between Greece and Etruria) that were closer than the simple borrowing of cultural elements?

If we are already talking about theories of the origin of the Etruscans, we cannot ignore one more theory. Namely, about the Slavic roots of this ancient people. This theory, although widespread among researchers from exclusively Slavic countries, is nevertheless interesting and original. According to scientists who adhere to the Proto-Slavic theory of the origin of the Etruscans: Slavic pagan rituals, the holidays of Christmas (December 25), New Year (Generous Evening), Kupala and others, preserved on the Dnieper to this day, were invariably performed in Troy, Phrygia, and among the Etruscans of Italy , and many were inherited by Rome.

For more than five thousand years, proverbs, sayings and national features of Etruscan life have been preserved in Rus'. There are a lot of these relics. For example, researcher Snegirev attributes such well-known traditions as “sprinkling salt means a quarrel”, if a person sneezed, you need to say “bless you” - to those preserved from the Etruscans. Even the food: borscht, sausage, fried beans were both Roman and Russian national dishes, borrowed from their common predecessors with Russia - the Etruscans. The main pagan gods of Rus' and the Slavs: Svarog, Perun, Stribog, Month, Lada, Kupala, etc. were also the main gods of the Etruscans. The rites and rituals were the same. The Etruscan holiday of the god of the lunar sky - Janus, which is identical to the holiday of the birth of the Month on the Dnieper (the holiday of the Generous Evening), became under Julius Caesar in 46 BC. e. the beginning of the new year according to the new calendar (January 1). The people in Rome, as in Rus' to this day, have maintained the tradition that any work begun on the feast of the birth of the Month (Generous Evening) will be successfully completed.

This outraged some conservative researchers, for example A. M. Kondratov, who wrote that such a formulation of the question looks “completely humorous, parody.”

However, supporters of the Slavic theory are not appeased. They prove that the main god of Rus' and the Slavs, Perun, was also the god of the Etruscans. The Etruscan god of thunder and lightning was called Stri, and in Rus' he was revered under the name Stribog. Another argument in favor of the Slavic origin of the Etruscans is that the name of the Slavic peoples (until the 6th century) - the Wends (Veneti) connects the Slavs with Troy: according to the World History of Pompey Trogus in the processing of Justin: “... the Wends were expelled by Atenor from Troy.”

Thus, modern Russian Etruscan scientists conclude that the Trojans were Etruscans, and ancient authors report that the Wends were Trojans. The Etruscans, brought out of Lydia by Tyrrhenus (according to Herodotus), were close to the Trojans, and the Wends, according to Scandinavian chroniclers and Slavic ethnography, were associated with Phrygia and Troy. The Carpathians were called the Venedian Mountains, and it was in Rus' that the homeland of the goddesses was located: Tana, Lada, Artemis. The Etruscans called themselves Rasen; According to Herodotus, the territory of future Rus' was occupied by the Tirsaget tribe, but Tirsa is the Greek name for the Etruscans. Herodotus wrote about the Getae (Thracians) tribe - Etruscans by origin. All of the above allowed scientists who take the position of the “Slavic theory” to even conclude that some tribes of the descendants of the Etruscans survived until the 19th century: Rasen - Rusyns, Wends - Slovenes - Rets (Eastern Antes), Tirsagetae, etc. Of course, The theory is very interesting, but at the same time very controversial. We will return to this theory once again when we move on to the problem of unraveling the Etruscan language.

Thus, even well-thought-out and seemingly convincing theories of the origin of the Etruscans are not free from aspects that raise doubts. This is especially noticeable in cases where the arguments are not very well founded, and the connection between them is not sufficiently proven.

The heavy gates guarding the Etruscan secret are still closed. Etruscan sculptures, staring numbly into space or plunged into introspection with a dreamy smile, show with their entire appearance that they have nothing to say to researchers. The Etruscan inscriptions still remain silent, as if asserting that they are not intended for anyone except those who created them, and will never speak again.

But even if the inscriptions gave up their secret, would they shed light on the history of the Etruscans?

Perhaps the deciphering of the Etruscan inscriptions would be of great historical significance, since they could perhaps reveal the relationship of the Etruscans with the rest of the ancient world and would bring new data about their origins. It is possible, however, that these inscriptions would not have given us anything new, but only confirmed one of the existing theories of the origin of the Etruscans. But the Etruscan language tightly holds its secrets, and more than one generation of scientists around the world has been struggling to decipher it. Sometimes it seems that success is close and ancient Etruria is about to reveal its secrets. But, alas, there is no grand opening. And this is especially striking considering that all Etruscan texts are very easy to read, since they are all written in Greek letters. That’s it – we know the letters, we know the phonetics, but we can’t read it! Hence the next big (and probably the most significant) mystery of the Etruscans is their language.

As Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote: “Their language is not similar to any other people.” And indeed it is. Among the languages ​​that were once spoken in Italy, the Etruscan language occupied a special place. It is known that it was widespread not only in Etruria itself, but also in the areas that the Etruscans owned in the north, as well as in the provinces of Latium and Campania. The speech of Etruscan sailors was heard in the port cities of Greece, and in Iberian Spain, on Crete, in Asia Minor and in Carthage. Based on this, it can be assumed that many people knew the Etruscan language. However, their language is the most difficult problem facing Etruscologists.

Some scientists believe that back in the 1st century BC. e. The Etruscan language was a living language, that is, one that was widely used in everyday life. However, already in the previous century it was significantly supplanted by Latin, which spread uncontrollably along with the political power of Rome. And by the 1st century AD. e. There are almost no people left who speak Etruscan. Soon the Etruscan language was generally consigned to oblivion, so complete that several generations of scientists have been making truly titanic efforts to at least partially understand the meaning of Etruscan words. As we noted above, reading Etruscan inscriptions is relatively easy, because the Etruscan alphabet is based on ancient Greek. But although Etruscologists can read Etruscan texts, they are nevertheless in the position of a person who, not knowing, for example, the Hungarian language, holds a Hungarian book in his hands. He knows the letters, so he can read words and entire phrases, but their meaning remains a mystery to him.

The only consolation is that etruscologists, unlike specialists in other dead languages ​​(for example, the Mayan language or ancient Crete), do not have to solve the problem of reading the text. Etruscologists could even trace the development of the Etruscan alphabet, since among the archaeological finds there are several objects with a list of letters - the alphabet. They date from different eras, and some of the letters are slightly different from each other. The Italian scientist A. Minto discovered in one of the Etruscan burials near the city of Marsiliana de Albegna, next to three human skeletons, a large cauldron filled with items made of gold and ivory. The most valuable was an ivory plate measuring 5 by 9 centimeters. There are remains of wax on it, in which letters were squeezed out with a special stick - a stylus. On one edge of the plate were written 26 letters of the Etruscan alphabet of the 8th century BC. e. Scientists have different opinions about the purpose of the tablet. Some believe that it was an ABC book for those who learned to write and read, while others believe that this is a kind of evidence that its owner was a literate person. Literacy in those days was a rare phenomenon, and such a person was highly respected among his fellow tribesmen, who considered it necessary to emphasize the importance of the deceased even after his death by burying a similar tablet with him. Another discovery of the alphabet was made in the Etruscan city of Caere (present-day Cerveteri) in the famous “Tomb of Regolini-Glassi”. Here the alphabet was applied to the lower rim of the vessel, which, apparently, was an inkwell. This alphabet is a hundred years “younger” than that found in Marsilian. Scientists date it to the 7th century BC. e. The characters of both alphabets are very similar.

It remains unclear why all the alphabets were discovered in burials and even on the walls of crypts. The French scientist J. Ergon suggested that these alphabets could serve completely different purposes. He proceeded from the fact that ancient peoples endowed writing with magical powers. It is likely that the Etruscans also placed tablets with alphabets in their graves precisely because they attributed to letters the power that could free a person from the power of time, and that for them writing was inextricably linked with the concept of immortality and eternity.

In addition to primers, a huge number of Etruscan inscriptions found on tombstones, urns, sculptures, tiles, vessels and mirrors have survived to this day. The largest number of inscriptions was found in Etruria itself. In the areas located to the south and north of it, there are already fewer of them. Some finds have also been made outside Italy. Similar finds include a small ivory tablet with an Etruscan inscription found in Carthage.

It is often difficult to determine which century the products and the inscriptions on them belong to. When determining the chronology of an inscription, an experienced etruscologist can tell a lot about the shape of the letters and even the sound of the written word. So, for example, the Greek name Clytimnestra in ancient Etruscan sounds like Klutumustha, and in later Etruscan it sounds like Klutumsta. The earliest Etruscan inscriptions known to us date back to the 8th century BC. e., the latest - by the 1st century BC. e. Then they disappear completely, and their place is taken by inscriptions in Latin. The number of Etruscan inscriptions that have reached us is quite large - more than ten thousand. However, they cannot significantly make life easier for researchers, since ninety percent of them are short gravestone inscriptions containing only the name of the deceased, his age, and only occasionally scanty information about the positions he held during his lifetime. For example: Alethnas Arnth (name of the deceased Arnt Aletna), Larisal (father's name - son Larisa), Zilath (position - was a zilator), Tarchnalthi (city - in Tarquinia), Amce (was).

Due to the similarity of the inscriptions and their meager vocabulary, most of them do not provide anything in deciphering Etruscan texts. And although Etruscologists have analyzed many inscriptions, their knowledge is nevertheless limited to a very small number of expressions. The situation did not change after the discovery of the largest handwritten Etruscan monument, which experts called Liber Linteus - “Linen Book”. Linen - because it is written on linen fabric. It is a rare stroke of luck that of the ancient books written on textiles, it is the Etruscan text that has survived, for, judging by the mentions of ancient authors, books of this kind were most widespread in Rome. From them we learn that such books were either of an official or religious nature.

This unique literary monument was found under very mysterious circumstances.

In the mid-19th century, a Croatian tourist traveled through Egypt. Being a passionate collector, he bought a mummy of a woman there and brought it to Vienna, where it became an adornment of his collection of rarities. After the collector's death, his brother, not knowing what to do with the mummy, donated it to the Zagreb museum. They noticed that on the strips of fabric in which the mummy was wrapped, traces of inscriptions were visible, and only then did they finally pay attention to the “packaging” of the mummy. True, at that time no one knew that we were talking about an Etruscan text, and they believed at first that the inscription was made in Arabic, then in Ethiopian, and only the Austrian Egyptologist J. Krall established that these were Etruscan inscriptions. He was the first to publish the text of the “Linen Book” in 1892.

Liber Linteus, or, as it is also called, “the book of the Mummy,” originally took the form of a scroll about 35–40 centimeters wide and several meters long. The text on the scroll was written in columns, of which less than twelve have survived on several strips ranging in length from 30 centimeters to 3 meters.