Plan: 1. The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Christian world 2. The countries of Western Europe in the early Middle Ages 3. The Islamic world

The Byzantine Empire and Eastern Christendom Byzantium, as the direct successor to the Roman Empire, existed for 1,000 years. The name appeared only in the 15th century (it comes from the Greek colony of Byzantium, on the site of which in 330 Emperor Constantine I founded a new capital - Constantinople) Constantine I brings the city as a gift to the Mother of God

Culture Byzantium was located at the crossroads of the most important trade routes ("The Great Silk Road" (China), "The Way of Incense" (India), Ceylon, SE Asia, Arabia, ports of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf) The culture of Byzantium combined the heritage of ancient civilization (theater , hippodrome, literature) and Western Asia. The influence of antiquity was traced here much longer than in Zap. Europe The growth of the dominance of Christianity led to a decline in interest in ancient culture. Byzantine Icon of the Mother of God Blacherma, Defender of the Empire (Tretyakov Gallery)

With the growing influence of Christianity, new literary genres began to develop: the lives of the saints and the writings of the Church Fathers. Numerous temples are erected, a cross-domed type of church appears. In the 6th century, the main temple of the Orthodox world, the Cathedral of St. Sophia, was built.

State power and the church God gave the emperor the highest authority over Christian subjects and is responsible before the Lord for the fate of these people The emperor has almost absolute power (appointed officials, controlled the collection of taxes, commanded the army) The clan nobility did not have the influence that it had in Z. Europe. The secular power completely subordinated the church to itself. In the Eastern Christian Church there was no single church center (independent patriarchies: Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria).

Byzantium between the West and Junistinian I East Junistinian I (527 -565) belonged to an attempt to strengthen the state and return the lost lands Reforms: ● limiting the arbitrariness of the nobles ● strengthening the army ● strengthening the borders Syria, Palestine

In the 7th century, Byzantium suffered from wars with the Arabs, lost almost all Asian and African provinces, and Constantinople was besieged. Only in the middle of the 9th century did Byzantium manage to stop the onslaught of the Arabs and win back some of its territories.

Byzantium and the Slavs Slavic tribes raided the Eastern Roman Empire during the VPN. In the V-VI centuries, the first mention of the Slavs. In the 7th century, Slavic tribes began to settle within the Eastern Roman Empire (they took possession of three-quarters of the Balkan Peninsula) In 681, the Bulgarian kingdom was formed on the Danube territory, founded by the Turkic nomads Bulgarians from the northern Black Sea region, merged together with the Slavs living in this territory into one people . In 865, the Bulgarian Tsar Boris converted to Christianity according to the Orthodox rite, but this did not stop the war between states. In the second half of the 10th century, Byzantium began a struggle for the subjugation of Bulgaria → the inclusion of Bulgaria in the empire.

2. Countries of Western Europe in the early Middle Ages Barbarian states: SE part of Gaul and Spain - Visigoths NW Gaul - Franks N. Africa - Vandals Italy - Ostrogoths British Isles - Angles and Saxons

Frankish Kingdom The most powerful barbarian state. It was founded by the leader of the Salic (coastal) Franks from the Merovingian clan - Clovis (486-511). In 486 he conquered the lands of S-V Gaul. Clovis compiled a set of laws "Salic Truth". Christianity was adopted from the Roman Church. After the death of Clovis, internecine wars began between his descendants. In the second half of the 7th century, the majordon of one of the parts of the Frankish state, Pepin of Geristal, managed to defeat his rivals and subjugate all the Frankish lands. . He handed out the Earth to the soldiers for life possession on the terms of permanent service.

Feudal property and vassal relations In the era of political fragmentation that followed the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne, a feudal society was formed in Western Europe. A feud is a hereditary land ownership granted by a lord (master) to a vassal (servant) on condition that he performs military service or pays established contributions. The land in the feudal estate is divided into lordly plowing and peasant allotments. For the use of the allotment, the peasants performed corvée and paid dues.

Estates of the feudal society: Higher - the clergy: no private property, family, renunciation of worldly pleasures, exempted from taxes, subject only to the church court. Three times - Feudal lords: warriors and farmers, knights had a free right to carry weapons. Peasants: → personally free: duty only in favor of the state; → dependent: subordinate to feudal lords.

The principle "the vassal of my vassal is not my vassal" → kings could only really manage their own domain. Germany: Relative unity. King Otto I tried to revive the empire of Charlemagne. He made several trips to Italy, occupied Rome in 962 - becomes emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. → “onslaught to the east” under the banner of the spread of Christianity, the Pomeranian and Polabian Slavs are captured. In the 10th century, the strongest Z. Slavic state, the Czech Republic, became a vassal of the empire.

England: Relatively strong royal power. After her submission to the Duke of Normandy William the Conqueror in XI, all barons and knights became direct vassals of the crown. France: X-XI centuries - the king - "first among equals". The king could not collect taxes from the population of the country, did not have the right to judge subjects who did not live in his domain, could not issue laws common to the whole country.

3. The Islamic world The emergence of Islam The emergence of the Islamic world dates back to the end of the 7th century (Arabian Peninsula). Most Arabs are pagans. Arabs are well acquainted with the holy books of Christianity and Judaism. The majority of the population are Bedouin nomads. Major cities are Mecca and Yathrib. The main sanctuary of all Arab tribes is the Kaaba (Mecca). The Hira Cave tribe, who lived in Mecca, held the keys to the Kaaba.

Mohammed - the founder of a new religion (610) Koran ("Reading") - the main source of Islamic dogma. "The Uncreated, Eternal Word of God", a revelation that Allah dictated to Muhammad, who acted as an intermediary between God and people. Muslim - "surrendered to God", Islam - "obedience to God". Muhammad spoke of himself as the last prophet "the seal of the prophets". Image of Muhammad receiving the first revelation from the angel Jibril

The victory of Islam in Arabia and the beginning of the Arab conquests 622 - "Hijar" - Muhammad and his followers flee from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina - "the city of the prophet") - the beginning of the Muslim calendar. Residents of Yathrib convert to Islam → fight against Mecca 630 AD Muhammad defeated Mecca and entered the city. Mecca and Medina become holy cities. Over time, all the Arab tribes converted to Islam → a single state arose in Arabia

The Arab state was theocratic, i.e. secular and spiritual were not separated to the full extent. Muhammad died in 632. After his death, elected caliphs became the heads of the Muslims. The main rivals of the Arabs are Byzantium and Iran. The Arabs captured Iran, Syria, Plate, Egypt, which belonged to Byzantium. Jerusalem voluntarily surrendered. The accumulation of captured wealth in the hands of military leaders leads to the formation of the nobility. Caliph Osman's attempts to keep the social. Equality leads to the beginning of a conspiracy, the caliph is killed, and caliph Ali (cousin of Muhammad) takes his place. Ali is accused of killing Osman, which leads to a commotion that results in Ali's death. The community is splitting. Ali's followers are Shiites (Iran). The followers of the new caliph - Muawiyah - are Sunnis (the majority). Sunnu - St. Tradition, a story about the formation of Islam and the first caliphs.

Arab caliphate in the second half of the 7th - 10th centuries Caliph Muawiyah I was the founder of the Umayyadin dynasty (661-750). The capital city of Syria is Damascus. After the turmoil, the conquests continued - a campaign in India, Cf. Asia, Z. Sev. Africa, captured most of Spain, more than once besieged Constantinople. 8th century - the highest point of power. - Conquered peoples paid land tax; - It was allowed to live according to the laws of their religion; - Non-Muslims paid a poll tax.

In the middle of the 7th century, the opponents of the Umayyadins united around the Abbasids, descendants of Abbas, uncles of Muhammad and Ali → seized power in the caliphate. Representatives of the Umayyadin dynasty managed to maintain power only in Spain. They founded a new capital - Baghdad - one of the largest cities in the world - a population of approx. 500 thousand people. , the largest number of scientists. There are 4 million books in the "House of Wisdom". IX century - there is a weakening of the power of the caliphs, governors - Emirs - seize power in the regions. The caliph loses secular power - only the spiritual head of the Sunni Arabs. The caliphate broke up into independent states.

Muslim culture At the courts of caliphs and emirs rich libraries were created. The works of philosophers of antiquity were translated into Arabic. Arab scientists achieved success in medicine, astronomy, and mathematics. The Indians borrowed mathematical knowledge and a decimal counting system, al-jabr. Works on geography give a description of the entire Arab world. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) 980 -1037

The direct successor of the Roman Empire was the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, which lasted more than 1000 years. She managed to repulse the barbarian invasions in the 5th-7th centuries. and for several centuries to remain the most powerful Christian power, which contemporaries called the state of the Romans (Romans). The name Byzantium accepted today appeared only at the end of the 15th century. It comes from the name of the Greek colony of Byzantium, on the site of which in 330 the Roman Emperor Constantine I founded his new capital - Constantinople.

The Byzantine Empire was located in the eastern part of the Mediterranean and during the period of maximum expansion of its borders in the VI century. included lands on three continents - in Europe, Asia and Africa.

The Mediterranean climate favored the development of agriculture and cattle breeding. Iron, copper, tin, silver, gold and other minerals were mined on the territory of the empire. The empire for a long time could provide itself with everything necessary. Byzantium was located at the crossroads of the most important trade routes, the most famous of which was the Great Silk Road, stretching from Constantinople to mysterious China for 11 thousand km. The path of incense ran through Arabia and the ports of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to India, Ceylon and the islands of Southeast Asia. From Scandinavia through Eastern Europe to Byzantium led the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

Constantinople. Medieval miniature

The Byzantine Empire surpassed the rest of the Christian countries in terms of population, reaching 35 million people in the early Middle Ages. The bulk of the emperor's subjects were Greeks and those who spoke the Greek language and adopted the Hellenic culture. In addition, Slavs, Syrians, Egyptians, Armenians, Georgians, Arabs, Jews lived on a vast territory.

Ancient and Christian traditions in the life of the Byzantines

The Byzantine Empire absorbed the heritage of both the Greco-Roman world and the civilizations of Western Asia and North Africa (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria, etc.), which affected its state structure and culture. The heritage of Antiquity was preserved in Byzantium much longer than in Western Europe. Constantinople was adorned with statues of ancient gods and heroes, the favorite shows of the Romans were equestrian competitions at the hippodromes and theatrical performances. The works of famous historians of antiquity were a model for the Byzantines. Scientists studied and copied these works, many of which have survived to this day thanks to this. Their example was followed by Procopius of Caesarea (6th century), who wrote "The History of Justinian's Wars with the Persians, Vandals and Goths."

By the 8th century Christian culture became dominant: Byzantine architecture, painting and literature glorified the deeds of God and the holy ascetics of the faith. The lives of the saints and the writings of the Fathers of the Church became his favorite literary genre. The most revered Fathers of the Church were the Christian thinkers John Chrysostom, Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian. Their writings and religious activities had a great influence on the development of Christian theology and church worship. In addition, the Byzantines bowed to the spiritual exploits of hermits and monks.

Christ Pantocrator. 1146–1151. Mosaic of the dome of the Martorana church. Palermo, Italy

Majestic temples were erected in the cities of the Byzantine Empire. It was here that the cross-domed type of church arose, which became widespread in many Orthodox countries, including Rus'. The cross-domed temple was divided into three parts. The first part from the entrance is called the vestibule. The second part is the middle of the temple. It is divided by pillars into naves and is intended for the prayer of the faithful. The third branch of the temple - the most important thing - is the altar, a holy place, so the uninitiated are not allowed to enter it. The middle part of the temple is separated from the altar by an iconostasis - a partition with many icons.

A characteristic feature of Byzantine art was the use of mosaics to decorate the interiors and facades of churches. The floors of palaces and temples were laid out with mosaics of precious woods. The main temple of the Orthodox world - built in the VI century. in Constantinople, the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia (Divine Wisdom) - decorated with magnificent mosaics and frescoes.

Education was developed in Byzantium. The children of wealthy people received primary education at home - teachers and mentors were invited to them. Byzantines with average incomes sent their children to paid schools in cities, churches and monasteries. Noble and wealthy people had the opportunity to study at the higher schools of Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople. Education included the study of theology, philosophy, astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, medicine, music, history, law and other sciences. Higher schools prepared high-ranking officials. Such schools were patronized by emperors.

Books played an important role in spreading knowledge and establishing Christianity. The Romans loved to read the lives (biography) of the saints and the writings of the Fathers of the Church, who in their works clarified complex theological issues: what is the Trinity, what is the divine nature of Jesus Christ, etc.

State power, society and church

State power in the Byzantine Empire combined features characteristic of both ancient and ancient Eastern society. The Byzantines believed that God himself gave the emperor supreme power over his subjects, and that is why the ruler is responsible before the Lord for their fate. The divine origin of power was emphasized by the magnificent and solemn ceremony of crowning the kingdom.

Emperor Vasily II Bulgar Slayer. Medieval miniature

The emperor had almost unlimited power: he appointed officials and military leaders, controlled the collection of taxes, and personally commanded the army. Imperial power often passed not by inheritance, but was seized by a successful military leader or nobleman. The highest state posts and even the imperial crown could be achieved by an ordinary person, but energetic, strong-willed, intelligent and talented. The promotion of a nobleman or an official in the service depended on the favor of the emperor, from whom he received titles, positions, monetary and land grants. The tribal nobility did not have such influence in Byzantium as noble people in Western Europe had and never took shape in an independent estate.

A feature of Byzantium was the long-term preservation of small, including peasant, land property, the viability of the peasant community. However, despite the attempts of the imperial government to slow down the process of dispossession of the community members (who paid taxes to the state and served in the army), the decomposition of the peasant community and the formation of large land holdings, during the period of the late empire, the peasants increasingly turned into people dependent on large landowners. The community remained only on the outskirts of the state.

Merchants and artisans were under the vigilant control of the state, which patronized their activities, but at the same time put their activities in a strict framework, imposing high duties and exercising petty supervision. The urban population has not been able to achieve recognition by the state of their rights and defend their privileges like the townspeople of Western Europe.

Unlike the Western Christian Church, headed by the Pope, there was no single center in the Eastern Christian Church. The Patriarchates of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria were considered independent, but the Patriarch of Constantinople was the actual head of the Eastern Church. Since the 7th century, after the loss of the eastern provinces by the Byzantines as a result of the Arab conquests, he remained the only patriarch on the territory of the empire.

The head of the Western Church successfully claimed not only spiritual power over all Christians, but also supremacy over secular rulers - kings, dukes and princes. In the East, the relationship between secular and spiritual authorities was complex. The emperor and the patriarch were mutually dependent on each other. The emperor appointed the patriarch, thereby recognizing the role of the emperor as an instrument of God. But the emperor was crowned king by the patriarch - in Byzantium it was believed that it was the act of wedding that elevated to imperial dignity.

Gradually, more and more contradictions accumulated between the Christian churches in the West and East, as a result of which they led to the separation of Western Christianity (Catholicism) from Eastern (Orthodoxy). This process, which began as early as the 8th century, ended in 1054 with a split. The Byzantine Patriarch and the Pope cursed each other. Thus, in the Middle Ages, two Christian worlds arose - Orthodox and Catholic.

Byzantium between West and East

The death of the Western Roman Empire and the formation of barbarian kingdoms in its place were perceived in Byzantium as tragic, but temporary phenomena. Even the common people retained the idea of ​​the need to restore a unified Roman Empire, covering the entire Christian world.

The Byzantines storm the Arab fortress. Medieval miniature

An attempt to strengthen the state and return the lost lands was made by Emperor Justinian I (527-565). Having carried out administrative and military reforms, Justinian strengthened the internal position of the state. He managed to annex Italy, North Africa, part of the Iberian Peninsula to the possessions of the empire. It seemed that the former Roman Empire was reborn as a powerful power, controlling almost the entire Mediterranean.

For a long time, Iran was a formidable enemy of Byzantium in the east. Long and bloody wars exhausted both sides. In the 7th century the Byzantines still managed to restore their borders in the east - Syria and Palestine were recaptured.

In the same period, Byzantium had a new, even more dangerous enemy - the Arabs. Under their blows, the empire lost almost all Asian (except Asia Minor) and African provinces. The Arabs even laid siege to Constantinople, but could not capture it. Only in the middle of the IX century. the Romans managed to stop their onslaught and win back some territories.

By the 11th century Byzantium revived its power. Despite the fact that its territory was reduced compared to the VI century. (the empire controlled Asia Minor, the Balkans and southern Italy), it was the largest and most powerful Christian state of that time. About 1.5 million people lived in more than 400 cities of the empire. Byzantine agriculture produced enough products to feed a large population.

At the beginning of the XIII century. The Byzantine Empire was in ruins. In 1204, the Western European knights - participants in the IV Crusade, who were heading to Palestine to liberate the Holy Sepulcher from the Muslims, were seduced by the untold riches of the Romans. The Christian crusaders plundered and ravaged Constantinople, the center of the Orthodox empire. On the site of Byzantium, they created the Latin Empire, which did not last long - already in 1261, the Greeks regained Constantinople. However, the restored Byzantine Empire was never able to achieve its former greatness.

Byzantium and Slavs

For the first time, the Romans clashed with the Slavs during the Great Migration of Nations. The first mentions of Slavic tribes in Byzantine sources date back to the 5th-6th centuries. Emperor Justinian I created a system of fortresses on the Danube border to defend against Slavic invasions. However, this did not stop the warlike neighbors, who often attacked the Balkan provinces of the empire, plundered cities and villages, sometimes reaching the outskirts of Constantinople and taking thousands of local residents into captivity. In the 7th century Slavic tribes began to settle within the empire. For 100 years, they captured 3/4 of the territory of the Balkan Peninsula.

On the Danubian lands, mastered by the Slavs, in 681 the First Bulgarian Kingdom arose, founded by the Turkic nomads-Bulgarians, headed by Khan Asparuh, who came from the Northern Black Sea region. Soon the Turks and the Slavs who lived here already constituted a single people. In the person of the strong Bulgarian state, Byzantium received its main rival in the Balkans.

Battle of the Byzantines and Bulgarians. Medieval miniature

But relations between the two states were not limited to wars. The Byzantines hoped that the adoption of Christianity by the Slavs would reconcile them with the empire, which would have leverage over its restless neighbors. In 865, the Bulgarian Tsar Boris I (852–889) converted to Christianity according to the Orthodox rite.

Among the Byzantine missionaries who preached Christianity among the Slavs, the brothers Cyril and Methodius left a deep mark on history. To facilitate the understanding of the Holy Scriptures, they created the Slavic alphabet - the Cyrillic alphabet, which we still use today. The adoption of Christianity from Byzantium, the creation of Slavic writing led to the flourishing of the culture of the Slavic peoples, who were among the culturally advanced peoples of the Middle Ages.

Close political, trade and economic relations with the Byzantine Empire were maintained by the Old Russian state. A direct consequence of intensive contacts was the penetration of Christianity into Rus' from Byzantium. Byzantine merchants, Slavic mercenaries who served in the Byzantine guard and converted to Orthodoxy contributed to its spread. In 988, Prince Vladimir I himself received baptism from Byzantine priests and baptized Rus'.

Despite the fact that the Slavs and the Byzantines became fellow believers, the cruel wars did not stop. In the second half of the X century. Byzantium began a struggle for the subjugation of the Bulgarian kingdom, which ended with the inclusion of Bulgaria in the empire. The independence of the first Slavic state in the Balkans was restored only at the end of the 12th century. as a result of a popular uprising.

The cultural and religious influence of Byzantium, along with the southern Slavs, was experienced by many countries and peoples of Eastern Europe, Transcaucasia and Northeast Africa. The Roman Empire acted as the head of the entire Eastern Christian world. There were significant differences in the state system, culture and church structure of Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe.

Questions and tasks

1. What was the influence of Antiquity on the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire?

2. What role did the power of the emperor and the Orthodox Church play in the life of the Romans?

3. What is the difference between Eastern and Western Christendom?

4. What external threats did the Byzantine Empire resist? How did its international position change in the middle of the 13th century? compared to the 6th century?

5. How did relations develop between Byzantium and the Slavs?

6. What is the importance of the cultural heritage of Byzantium for the present?

7. In the work of the Byzantine historian of the 7th century. Theophylact Simokatta says this about the importance of the human mind: “A person should adorn himself not only with what is good given to him by nature, but also with what he himself found and invented for himself in his life. He has a mind - a property in some respects divine and amazing. Thanks to him, he learned to fear and honor God, how to see manifestations of his own nature in a mirror and clearly imagine the structure and order of his life. Thanks to the mind, people turn their eyes to themselves, from the contemplation of external phenomena they direct their observations to themselves and thereby reveal the secrets of their creation. A lot of good, as I think, has been given by the mind to people, and it is the best helper of their nature. What was not finished or not done by it, the mind perfectly created and completed: for sight it gave decoration, for taste - pleasure, he stretched one, making it hard, he made the other soft; songs appealed to the ear, bewitching the soul with the spell of sounds and involuntarily forcing them to listen to them. And isn’t this completely proved to us by someone who is an expert in all kinds of crafts, who knows how to weave a thin tunic from wool, who from wood will make a handle for a plow for a farmer, an oar for a sailor, and for a warrior a spear and a shield that guards in the dangers of battle? »

Why does he call the mind divine and wonderful?

How do, according to Theophylact, nature and the human mind interact?

Think about what is common and what is the difference between the views of Western and Eastern Christianity on the role of the human mind.

General history from ancient times to the end of the 19th century. Grade 10. Basic level Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich

§ 9. Byzantine Empire and Eastern Christendom

Territory and population

The direct successor of the Roman Empire was the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, which lasted more than 1000 years. She managed to repulse the barbarian invasions in the 5th-7th centuries. and for several centuries to remain the most powerful Christian power, which contemporaries called the state of the Romans (Romans). The name Byzantium accepted today appeared only at the end of the 15th century. It comes from the name of the Greek colony of Byzantium, on the site of which in 330 the Roman Emperor Constantine I founded his new capital - Constantinople.

The Byzantine Empire was located in the eastern part of the Mediterranean and during the period of maximum expansion of its borders in the VI century. included lands on three continents - in Europe, Asia and Africa.

The Mediterranean climate favored the development of agriculture and cattle breeding. Iron, copper, tin, silver, gold and other minerals were mined on the territory of the empire. The empire for a long time could provide itself with everything necessary. Byzantium was located at the crossroads of the most important trade routes, the most famous of which was the Great Silk Road, stretching from Constantinople to mysterious China for 11 thousand km. The path of incense ran through Arabia and the ports of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to India, Ceylon and the islands of Southeast Asia. From Scandinavia through Eastern Europe to Byzantium led the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

Constantinople. Medieval miniature

The Byzantine Empire surpassed the rest of the Christian countries in terms of population, reaching 35 million people in the early Middle Ages. The bulk of the emperor's subjects were Greeks and those who spoke the Greek language and adopted the Hellenic culture. In addition, Slavs, Syrians, Egyptians, Armenians, Georgians, Arabs, Jews lived on a vast territory.

Ancient and Christian traditions in the life of the Byzantines

The Byzantine Empire absorbed the heritage of both the Greco-Roman world and the civilizations of Western Asia and North Africa (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria, etc.), which affected its state structure and culture. The heritage of Antiquity was preserved in Byzantium much longer than in Western Europe. Constantinople was adorned with statues of ancient gods and heroes, the favorite shows of the Romans were equestrian competitions at the hippodromes and theatrical performances. The works of famous historians of antiquity were a model for the Byzantines. Scientists studied and copied these works, many of which have survived to this day thanks to this. Their example was followed by Procopius of Caesarea (6th century), who wrote "The History of Justinian's Wars with the Persians, Vandals and Goths."

By the 8th century Christian culture became dominant: Byzantine architecture, painting and literature glorified the deeds of God and the holy ascetics of the faith. The lives of the saints and the writings of the Fathers of the Church became his favorite literary genre. The most revered Fathers of the Church were the Christian thinkers John Chrysostom, Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian. Their writings and religious activities had a great influence on the development of Christian theology and church worship. In addition, the Byzantines bowed to the spiritual exploits of hermits and monks.

Christ Pantocrator. 1146–1151. Mosaic of the dome of the Martorana church. Palermo, Italy

Majestic temples were erected in the cities of the Byzantine Empire. It was here that the cross-domed type of church arose, which became widespread in many Orthodox countries, including Rus'. The cross-domed temple was divided into three parts. The first part from the entrance is called the vestibule. The second part is the middle of the temple. It is divided by pillars into naves and is intended for the prayer of the faithful. The third branch of the temple - the most important thing - is the altar, a holy place, so the uninitiated are not allowed to enter it. The middle part of the temple is separated from the altar by an iconostasis - a partition with many icons.

A characteristic feature of Byzantine art was the use of mosaics to decorate the interiors and facades of churches. The floors of palaces and temples were laid out with mosaics of precious woods. The main temple of the Orthodox world - built in the VI century. in Constantinople, the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia (Divine Wisdom) - decorated with magnificent mosaics and frescoes.

Education was developed in Byzantium. The children of wealthy people received primary education at home - teachers and mentors were invited to them. Byzantines with average incomes sent their children to paid schools in cities, churches and monasteries. Noble and wealthy people had the opportunity to study at the higher schools of Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople. Education included the study of theology, philosophy, astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, medicine, music, history, law and other sciences. Higher schools prepared high-ranking officials. Such schools were patronized by emperors.

Books played an important role in spreading knowledge and establishing Christianity. The Romans loved to read the lives (biography) of the saints and the writings of the Fathers of the Church, who in their works clarified complex theological issues: what is the Trinity, what is the divine nature of Jesus Christ, etc.

State power, society and church

State power in the Byzantine Empire combined features characteristic of both ancient and ancient Eastern society. The Byzantines believed that God himself gave the emperor supreme power over his subjects, and that is why the ruler is responsible before the Lord for their fate. The divine origin of power was emphasized by the magnificent and solemn ceremony of crowning the kingdom.

Emperor Vasily II Bulgar Slayer. Medieval miniature

The emperor had almost unlimited power: he appointed officials and military leaders, controlled the collection of taxes, and personally commanded the army. Imperial power often passed not by inheritance, but was seized by a successful military leader or nobleman. The highest state posts and even the imperial crown could be achieved by an ordinary person, but energetic, strong-willed, intelligent and talented. The promotion of a nobleman or an official in the service depended on the favor of the emperor, from whom he received titles, positions, monetary and land grants. The tribal nobility did not have such influence in Byzantium as noble people in Western Europe had and never took shape in an independent estate.

A feature of Byzantium was the long-term preservation of small, including peasant, land property, the viability of the peasant community. However, despite the attempts of the imperial government to slow down the process of dispossession of the community members (who paid taxes to the state and served in the army), the decomposition of the peasant community and the formation of large land holdings, during the period of the late empire, the peasants increasingly turned into people dependent on large landowners. The community remained only on the outskirts of the state.

Merchants and artisans were under the vigilant control of the state, which patronized their activities, but at the same time put their activities in a strict framework, imposing high duties and exercising petty supervision. The urban population has not been able to achieve recognition by the state of their rights and defend their privileges like the townspeople of Western Europe.

Unlike the Western Christian Church, headed by the Pope, there was no single center in the Eastern Christian Church. The Patriarchates of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria were considered independent, but the Patriarch of Constantinople was the actual head of the Eastern Church. Since the 7th century, after the loss of the eastern provinces by the Byzantines as a result of the Arab conquests, he remained the only patriarch on the territory of the empire.

The head of the Western Church successfully claimed not only spiritual power over all Christians, but also supremacy over secular rulers - kings, dukes and princes. In the East, the relationship between secular and spiritual authorities was complex. The emperor and the patriarch were mutually dependent on each other. The emperor appointed the patriarch, thereby recognizing the role of the emperor as an instrument of God. But the emperor was crowned king by the patriarch - in Byzantium it was believed that it was the act of wedding that elevated to imperial dignity.

Gradually, more and more contradictions accumulated between the Christian churches in the West and East, as a result of which they led to the separation of Western Christianity (Catholicism) from Eastern (Orthodoxy). This process, which began as early as the 8th century, ended in 1054 with a split. The Byzantine Patriarch and the Pope cursed each other. Thus, in the Middle Ages, two Christian worlds arose - Orthodox and Catholic.

Byzantium between West and East

The death of the Western Roman Empire and the formation of barbarian kingdoms in its place were perceived in Byzantium as tragic, but temporary phenomena. Even the common people retained the idea of ​​the need to restore a unified Roman Empire, covering the entire Christian world.

The Byzantines storm the Arab fortress. Medieval miniature

An attempt to strengthen the state and return the lost lands was made by Emperor Justinian I (527-565). Having carried out administrative and military reforms, Justinian strengthened the internal position of the state. He managed to annex Italy, North Africa, part of the Iberian Peninsula to the possessions of the empire. It seemed that the former Roman Empire was reborn as a powerful power, controlling almost the entire Mediterranean.

For a long time, Iran was a formidable enemy of Byzantium in the east. Long and bloody wars exhausted both sides. In the 7th century the Byzantines still managed to restore their borders in the east - Syria and Palestine were recaptured.

In the same period, Byzantium had a new, even more dangerous enemy - the Arabs. Under their blows, the empire lost almost all Asian (except Asia Minor) and African provinces. The Arabs even laid siege to Constantinople, but could not capture it. Only in the middle of the IX century. the Romans managed to stop their onslaught and win back some territories.

By the 11th century Byzantium revived its power. Despite the fact that its territory was reduced compared to the VI century. (the empire controlled Asia Minor, the Balkans and southern Italy), it was the largest and most powerful Christian state of that time. About 1.5 million people lived in more than 400 cities of the empire. Byzantine agriculture produced enough products to feed a large population.

At the beginning of the XIII century. The Byzantine Empire was in ruins. In 1204, the Western European knights - participants in the IV Crusade, who were heading to Palestine to liberate the Holy Sepulcher from the Muslims, were seduced by the untold riches of the Romans. The Christian crusaders plundered and ravaged Constantinople, the center of the Orthodox empire. On the site of Byzantium, they created the Latin Empire, which did not last long - already in 1261, the Greeks regained Constantinople. However, the restored Byzantine Empire was never able to achieve its former greatness.

Byzantium and Slavs

For the first time, the Romans clashed with the Slavs during the Great Migration of Nations. The first mentions of Slavic tribes in Byzantine sources date back to the 5th-6th centuries. Emperor Justinian I created a system of fortresses on the Danube border to defend against Slavic invasions. However, this did not stop the warlike neighbors, who often attacked the Balkan provinces of the empire, plundered cities and villages, sometimes reaching the outskirts of Constantinople and taking thousands of local residents into captivity. In the 7th century Slavic tribes began to settle within the empire. For 100 years, they captured 3/4 of the territory of the Balkan Peninsula.

On the Danubian lands, mastered by the Slavs, in 681 the First Bulgarian Kingdom arose, founded by the Turkic nomads-Bulgarians, headed by Khan Asparuh, who came from the Northern Black Sea region. Soon the Turks and the Slavs who lived here already constituted a single people. In the person of the strong Bulgarian state, Byzantium received its main rival in the Balkans.

Battle of the Byzantines and Bulgarians. Medieval miniature

But relations between the two states were not limited to wars. The Byzantines hoped that the adoption of Christianity by the Slavs would reconcile them with the empire, which would have leverage over its restless neighbors. In 865, the Bulgarian Tsar Boris I (852–889) converted to Christianity according to the Orthodox rite.

Among the Byzantine missionaries who preached Christianity among the Slavs, the brothers Cyril and Methodius left a deep mark on history. To facilitate the understanding of the Holy Scriptures, they created the Slavic alphabet - the Cyrillic alphabet, which we still use today. The adoption of Christianity from Byzantium, the creation of Slavic writing led to the flourishing of the culture of the Slavic peoples, who were among the culturally advanced peoples of the Middle Ages.

Close political, trade and economic relations with the Byzantine Empire were maintained by the Old Russian state. A direct consequence of intensive contacts was the penetration of Christianity into Rus' from Byzantium. Byzantine merchants, Slavic mercenaries who served in the Byzantine guard and converted to Orthodoxy contributed to its spread. In 988, Prince Vladimir I himself received baptism from Byzantine priests and baptized Rus'.

Despite the fact that the Slavs and the Byzantines became fellow believers, the cruel wars did not stop. In the second half of the X century. Byzantium began a struggle for the subjugation of the Bulgarian kingdom, which ended with the inclusion of Bulgaria in the empire. The independence of the first Slavic state in the Balkans was restored only at the end of the 12th century. as a result of a popular uprising.

The cultural and religious influence of Byzantium, along with the southern Slavs, was experienced by many countries and peoples of Eastern Europe, Transcaucasia and Northeast Africa. The Roman Empire acted as the head of the entire Eastern Christian world. There were significant differences in the state system, culture and church structure of Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe.

Questions and tasks

1. What was the influence of Antiquity on the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire?

2. What role did the power of the emperor and the Orthodox Church play in the life of the Romans?

3. What is the difference between Eastern and Western Christendom?

4. What external threats did the Byzantine Empire resist? How did its international position change in the middle of the 13th century? compared to the 6th century?

5. How did relations develop between Byzantium and the Slavs?

6. What is the importance of the cultural heritage of Byzantium for the present?

7. In the work of the Byzantine historian of the 7th century. Theophylact Simokatta says this about the importance of the human mind: “A person should adorn himself not only with what is good given to him by nature, but also with what he himself found and invented for himself in his life. He has a mind - a property in some respects divine and amazing. Thanks to him, he learned to fear and honor God, how to see manifestations of his own nature in a mirror and clearly imagine the structure and order of his life. Thanks to the mind, people turn their eyes to themselves, from the contemplation of external phenomena they direct their observations to themselves and thereby reveal the secrets of their creation. A lot of good, as I think, has been given by the mind to people, and it is the best helper of their nature. What was not finished or not done by it, the mind perfectly created and completed: for sight it gave decoration, for taste - pleasure, he stretched one, making it hard, he made the other soft; songs appealed to the ear, bewitching the soul with the spell of sounds and involuntarily forcing them to listen to them. And isn’t this completely proved to us by someone who is an expert in all kinds of crafts, who knows how to weave a thin tunic from wool, who from wood will make a handle for a plow for a farmer, an oar for a sailor, and for a warrior a spear and a shield that guards in the dangers of battle? »

Why does he call the mind divine and wonderful?

How do, according to Theophylact, nature and the human mind interact?

Think about what is common and what is the difference between the views of Western and Eastern Christianity on the role of the human mind.

2. The Byzantine Empire of the 10th-13th centuries 2. 1. Transfer of the capital to New Rome on the Bosphorus In the 10th-11th centuries, the capital of the kingdom was transferred to the western shore of the Bosphorus, and New Rome arose here. We will conditionally call it Rome II, that is, the Second Rome. He is Jerusalem, he is Troy, he is