Lexicology. What is lexicology? The section of science leaking the story of words is studied in lexicology or etymology
[History of lexicology]
The lexicology has been separated as a separate section of linguistics later than some other, for example, grammar. Even in the 20th century. Some early directions of structuralism denied the need to allocate lexicology or on the grounds that the vocabulary is allegedly structured, or because the linguistics should not be engaged in semantics at all, which is the kernel of lexicology (School L. Bloomfield).
A number of problems of lexicology have been discussed long before its formation as a special branch of linguistics. In the ancient times and the Middle Ages were considered issues of semantics and structure of the word. Antique rhetoric paid attention to the artistic function of the word. Development of lexicography in Europe in 16-18 centuries. Stimulated the development of lexicology. In the prefaces to sensible dictionaries (for example, the Dictionary of the French Academy, 1694, English Dictionary S. Johnson, 1755) a number of lexicological categories were noted (synonymy, phrases, primary and derivative words, etc.). For the first time, the term "lexicology" was introduced by the French encyclopedia D. Didro and J. L. D'Alembert in 1765, where lexicology is defined as one of the two (along with the syntax) of the sections of the language of tongue. The task of lexicology The authors saw in the study of words outside of their specific use in speech, in the study of the general principles of the organization of language vocabulary. They allocated in lexicology to study the external form, values \u200b\u200band etymology of words (under which the word formation was also understood). In the Treatises on Stylistics 18 V. The ways of forming portable words of words were described in more detail. The first work on the comparative historical linguistics (R. K. Solv, F. Bopp) laid the foundations of comparative lexicology. At 19 in. The main sphere of lexicological spokes in Europe was semantics: the inner form of the word was studied (Von Humboldt), the general patterns of the formation and evolution of the meanings of words (A. Darmsteter, Powl), historical lexicology received great development. The achievements of semyasiology were summarized and developed in the work of M. Breal (1897), where Semaxiology appeared as a special section of the science of language. Lasted in the 20th century. The development of semyasiology was directed, on the one hand, to identify the general semantic laws of the evolution of words of words with the involvement of data logic or psychology (E. Cassirer, H. Kronasser, S. Ulman, Stern and others), which led to the development of semantic universals On the other hand, to study the history of words in connection with the history of objects (the School "Words and Things", characteristic, in particular for dialectology). The onomasiological direction in lexicology, which contributed to the study of groups of words, was described in B. Kuadri book (1952).
The idea of \u200b\u200bsystemic language phenomena, increasingly penetrating into lexicology, was reflected primarily in the theory of lexic fields built on paradigmatic (y. Trier) and syntagmatic (V. Porcig) principles. The completion of the field theory is the theusausuri presentation of the dictionary organization (S. Balli, R. Hallig, V. von Vartburg). The problem of the general theory of the word as a unit of language was developed, discussions continued on the election of the word and its criteria (Balli, A. Martine, J. H. Greenberg and others), its semantics (Ch. K. Ogden, A. Richards, K. Baldinger) . The study of vocabulary with the extrastinguistic world, the history of words in the history of society (P. Lafarg; French Sociological School is obtained (P. Lafarg; French Sociological School: A. Meye, E. Benvest, J. Mator, M. Cohen), vocabulary and structures of speaking consciousness (E. Sepir , B. Wharf, L. Weisgerber). Linguists of the Prague school revealed functional differentiation of vocabulary.
[Basic information]
The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word (Greek. Leksis, Leksicos - the word, expression; Logos - doctrine). Thus, lexicology considers the vocabulary (lexical) composition of the language in different aspects. It is accepted generaland privatelexicology. The first, in English General Lexicology, is a section of general linguistics learning the vocabulary composition of any language, what refers to lexical universals. Private lexicology (Special Lexicology) is engaged in the study of issues related to the vocabular one, in our case English, language. Thus, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in the language, while the vocabulary of the private will deal with the peculiarities of English synonyms or antonyms.
Both general, and private vocabulary problems can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached with synchronicalor diachronicpoints of view. A synchronous approach suggests that the characteristics of the word are considered within a certain period or some kind of historical stage of their development. Such a study of the vocabulary is also described as descriptive, or descriptive (eng. Descriptive Lexicology). Diaphronical, or historical, lexicology (Historical Lexicology) is engaged in the study of the historical development of the values \u200b\u200band structure structure.
Comparing the lexical phenomena of one language with the facts of another or other languages \u200b\u200bis busy lexicology comparableor contrast(Contrastive Lexicology). The purpose of such research is to trace the paths of intersection or discrepancy of lexical phenomena inherent in favorites to compare the languages.
The choice of approach to the study of the lexic composition of the language is due to the tasks that the researcher sets itself. At the same time, the data obtained in the sections related to the lexicology sections are often attracted. So, the meaning of the word or determination of its boundaries is influenced by its phonetic characteristics, such as the quality of the background, emphasis, order by the background, etc. For example, it is enough to compare the pairs of Sorce / Sore, Hut / Heart or recall that at the beginning of English words are impossible , [ŋ], or [θl], and at the end - sounds [h] or [w]. Phonetic changes in the diachrony and the reduction of endings often led to the coincidence of the basics, as happened, for example, with the ancient English verb of Carian and a noun CURA, known in the modern form of Saga. Ultimately, such changes contributed to the change of the flexive structure of the language on the analytical, the emergence of new word formation methods, for example, conversion.
The grammatical form may be senseless, for example, ARM - ARMS (Arms and Hands; Coat of Arms); Genius - Genii, Geniuses; Open (Open The Door; The Open Door). On the other hand, grammatical significance can be expressed by a lexical way (We are Going There Tomorrow, instead of We Shall Go there, Gone Today, Forgotten Tomorrow), while the form of a future time transfer is the same as in We Are Going There Now, i.e. . When using this continued time. The lexication of grammatical form affects the nature of the function of the word, while the lexical importance is often weakened. This is clearly visible on the example of the modal verb of Sculan (modern shall-shall form), the predominant function of which is auxiliary.
The need to selection of lexical agents, depending on the circumstances of the speech, determines the relationship of lexicology with the style, although vocabulary studies the causes and methods of developing new shades of values \u200b\u200bthat give speech expressiveness, and the style is mainly engaged in the nature of these funds in the text. For example, from the point of view of the lexicology of the word Father and Dad are synonyms that differ in the value of the value, but for stylistic analysis, it is important that this shade makes these words function in different spheres of speech (conversational style involves the use of the word DAD, and the official is the words Father).
In any case, the focus of researchers remains the word or equivalent of words.
In linguistic literature, you can meet various definitions of the word. It is concisely determined the word definition in Ei: "The most important structural-semantic unit of a language that serves for the name of objects, processes, properties." The linguistic encyclopedic dictionary gives the following definition: "The word is the main structural-semantic unit of a language that serves for naming objects and their properties, phenomena, relationship of reality, which has a combination of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific for each language." Much more unfolding definition found from E. S. Kubryakova, where, referring to Y. Trkku, she describes the word as
"The formal sequence whose parts are combined to perform common communicative functions; All sequences of this kind can be moved in the text or separated from each other without losing them of identity themselves "(Kuborakova, 1986). Historically, you can also count more than 70 criteria for determining the word on graphic, phonetic, structural, grammatical, semantic and other principles. The most important consideration is that any of these criteria refers the object of study to any system, specifying its relations within the structure, its borders and relationships with other objects. Another A. I. Smirnitsky highlighted the two main problems associated with the definition of the word, the problem of its separateness, on the one hand, and the problem of his identity on the other. One separately, the word is understood to be the difference between it from the morpheme as a unit of lower level and from phrase as a higher level unit. The identity is implied by the system of typing and the invariance of the basic characteristics of the unit. Any word can be viewed from different sides, looking for an answer to one or more key issues. In search of answers, various aspects of the study of the word were formed, sections of lexicology were formed. We highlight the main of these issues.
1. What indicates this word? This issue seems to be the most difficult and requires usually detailed data to respond to it. The section of lexicology engaged in problems related to the meaning of the word is called semaxiology.
2. What is this word and where is its borders? Strictly speaking, the composition of the word is engaged in an independent section of linguistics - morphology,but this section is inextricably linked to lexicological problems, so some problems associated with morphology are solved within lexicological studies, for example, the question of the meaning of affixes and their relationships with the basics.
3. What way is the word formed? The answer to this question is found accordingly in the section word formationclosely bound to morphology.
4. In which area this word is used? These are already tasks stylisticswhich was mentioned above. As part of lexicological studies, the issue is important from the point of view of the total value of the word; Here we come back to the semisiology section.
5. Often, one concept can be described not in a word, but a regular group of words (Casual - Free and Easy; To Begin (SMTH) - to Get (SMTH) under Way; etc.). As a rule, such phrases are resistant and more emotional than the corresponding word. Their features are engaged in the section of lexicology, referred to phraseology.
6. What is the origin of the word? Because the answer to this question often requires data to attract multiple languages, its searches go beyond the framework of the actual lexicology. The corresponding section of the Linguistics is called etymologybut its data is especially necessary in the lexicological studies of the dictionary of the dictionary of English by the virtue of its specificity - the English vocabular of 70% consists of borrowed elements.
7. How to describe the word? How to streamline all answers to previous questions? What systems the word enters? These are already tasks lexicographyscience on compiling dictionaries whose data is also used by lexicogors.
As you can see, the vocabulary of the language is a multidimensional phenomenon. Elements of the dictionary, cochambular are interconnected by ordered, system relationships. First of all, all units of vocabulary can be divided into three large groups - morphemes, words and phrases. Morphem mention here is appropriately so far, since a huge number of words of the English language are one-morphemes and can function as a word; Thus, the unit of a lower tier tier goes to a higher tier. The combination of words in groups with a single meaning leads to the appearance of phrases, both free and stable, including phraseological. From what was said, it is clear that the central unit remains the word, or a lexeme, that is, the invariant of all possible words. The word form, according to Yu. S. Maslov, is a certain abstract unit, the "abstraction of the first degree", expressed in the text (speech) of a specific copy of the word (Maslov, 1987, p. 13). According to the observation of V. Ya. Plotkin, in the paradigms of English verbs and nouns, 3 types of word forms are found: analytical (Will Work, An EGG), synthetic (worked, eggs) and non-marked, i.e. not containing grammatical indicators (Work, EGG) (Plotkin, 1989, p. 32).
As you know, the Word is a bilateral language sign that has a plan for expression and a plan of content. In the consciousness of a person, the word, i.e. the unity of these plans is connected not only with the subject or phenomenon himself, designated by this word, but also with the concepts constituting the surrounding reality. In this regard, it is customary to talk about internal speakers (linguistic)and non-language (extrallinguistic)factors affecting the word and its functioning in language and speech. Both the language and non-language connections of the Words are particularly clearly traced in diachrony, since it is in historical development that it seems that changes in any element lead to the correction of the word relationships with other elements and its position in the system.
Internal-speaking ties of words can contribute to the rearrangement of the values \u200b\u200band, accordingly, change the microsystem, into which the word includes, or affect the scope of concept reflected by this word.
Rearrangements of values \u200b\u200busually affects synonymic rows and is often associated with the appearance of so-called etymological doublets. Thus, the ancient English word Haerfest, who meant the time of year, was supplanted by Romanesque borrowing Autumn with the same meaning. In the original word on the forefront, the derived value (Season for) Reaping and Gathering In of Grain or Other Products.
An example of a change in the scope of the concept can be the story of the word KNAVE. In the Old Antigital period, the word CNAFA had a neutral value of BOY, SERVANT (CP. Knabe). Gradually developing, the word acquired a different meaning - unprincipled man, Rogue. The capacity of the concept includes an additional element of the evaluation. Another example is the Layer verb and the derived from it Layered. According to the observation of W. Sepair, starting from the 60s. XX century The meaning of this word is associated with fashionable directions first in the hairdresser (Layered Hair Styles Introduced by Vidal Sassoon), and then in the clothes (The Layered Look - Big Skirts with Tight Pants, Tiers of Fabric, One Color On Top of theother). Changing the thematic group, to which originally belonged to the word (paint, staining), continues. A new element is introduced into the value of the value - a fashion trend in administrative policies: "They Never Fired Anyone Either. THEY JUST PUT A SUPER-WHATER ON TOP. WHEN THEY PUT SOMEBODY ELSE IN BELOW, THE CALL IT SANDWICHING »(Safire, 1993, p. 181).
Out--language ties of the word also affect its meaning, but here it is not about changing the language microsystem, but about the addition or change in the structure of the word value under the influence of external factors. Such external factors include changes in the set of concepts in society and the processes that occurred in the language-source of borrowing to the coming of the word in English.
Changing the set of concepts in the language team causes the need to designate the new item or phenomenon that has appeared. Often, already existing in the language of words are used for this purpose, or rather portable values. For example, the appearance of camouflage fabric and military form from it influenced the value of the SMO word (cut from Camouflage): A Color Combination and Pattern Reseling The Camouflage Garments of Soldiers and Their Equipment. Due to the advent of computer equipment, an additional figurative value of the Mouse has acquired an additional figurative value. The effect of external factors can lead to the fallout of the value of the value, as, for example, happened in the word Address, where the Behaviour component (Pleasing Address) is outdated together with the Code of Conduct adopted in society.
A set of values \u200b\u200benshrined for any sounding complex can be formed outside the English language system in the language (languages) of the borrowing-sources. In these cases, Omonimia is frequent, that is, the coincidence of the formal side when discrepancies in meaningful. An example is possible atomic nouns Box: 1) Kinds of Small Evergreen Shrub, ESP. One With Small Leathery Leaves, Much Used in Garden Borders (L. Buxus); 2) Receptacle of Wood, Cardboard, Metal, etc. (L. Buxum - Boxwood); 3) Slap with Hand (Origin Unknown). Here, as we see, a derivative value has already arisen in the Latin period of the story of the word, finally pissed off from direct already in English.
Thus, we see that lexicology as a linguistic discipline exists in close contact with other aspects of linguistics, solving various problems associated with the word - the main unit of the language system
A look in the tongue as a holistic system is divided by all researchers. As an example, two polar opposite points of view can be given. One of them is proposed by V. P. Berkov in the Tutorial "Norwegian lexicology": "... the vocabulary of any language is not a system ... said, of course, does not exclude the fact that groups of lexical units can be in different characteristics In system relationship with each other ... "(Berkov, 1994, p. 8). V. A. Karpov, the author of an interesting study of the patterns of the structure and functioning of natural languages \u200b\u200bbased on the general theory of systems (Karpov, 1992)
[Lexicology in Russia and the USSR]
In Russia, the foundations of lexicology are laid out by the works of M. V. Lomonosov, who appealing on the stylistic differentiation of vocabulary ("theory of three styles"), as well as on the nature of historical changes in vocabulary (conclusions about the sustainability of the main dictionary of language).
In the 19th - early 20th centuries. In connection with the lexicographic work and the study of the history of Russian and Slavic languages, historical lexicology and etymology (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. I. Szrenevsky, Ya. K. Grota and others) were actively developed, the territorial and social differentiation of vocabulary was investigated (V. and . Dal, A. I. Sobolevsky, I. A. Boduen de Courtee), vocabulary of writers and other problems.
A large contribution to the development of world lexicology was the works of A. A. Pothebni and M. M. Pokrovsky. Pottnya deeply developed the general theory of the word both in the aspect of the form and in particular in terms of the content (deepening of the teachings on the inner form of the word, the doctrine of the nearest - language and the future - non-language values \u200b\u200bof the word, the provisions on the semantic relationships of words, meaningfulness, the variability of words of words ). In the works of Pokrovsky (90s. 19th century), the foundations of general semisiology are laid, the general patterns of the development of words of words are identified.
Continuing the best traditions of Russian linguistic science, lexicological studies in the USSR have acquired a wide scope, they are conducted on the material of different languages. This was facilitated by an in-depth study of the Russian language, the scientific study of the languages \u200b\u200bof the peoples of the USSR, active lexicographic activities, and the fact that lexicology entered as a compulsory theoretical course to the system of higher philological education. It was in the USSR that lexicology was formed as a special university linguistic discipline.
In the post-revolutionary years, the sociolinguistic study of vocabulary has been expanded primarily (the study of vocabulary of different groups of the population, the study of changes in the vocabulary caused by the October Revolution 1917). Works of this period made in the framework of the problem language and society, laid the foundations of the Soviet and world sociolinguisticswho received its substantiation and development in the works of E. D. Polivanova, B. A. Larina, D. S. Likhacheva, V. M. Zhirmunsky, N. Ya. Marra, V. V. Vinogradova, F. P. Filina, R. A. Budagova and others. Of great importance were also research words in artistic work. Numerous works were published on the language of writers (A. S. Pushkin. M. Yu. Lermontova, N. V. Gogol, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. Gorky, T. G. Shevchenko, I. Franco and others) . Soviet scientists deeply study the stratification of vocabulary, as well as the peculiarities of vocabulary and the usual consumption in folk dialects.
Soviet lunels, based on the situation that the Word is the main unit of the language, made a great contribution to the general theory of the word, into the definition of its borders, its relationship with the concept (A. M. Peshkovsky, L. V. Scherba, Vinogradov, A. I. Smirnitsky, R. O. Shor, S. D. Katsnelson, O. S. Akhmanova, Yu. V. Christmas); Special attention is paid to the semantic aspect of the word (L. A. Bulakhovsky, V. A. Zveginsev, D. N. Shmelev, B. Yu. Gorodetsky, A. E. Suprun and others). The achievement of Soviet lexicology is the development of the typology of the words (grapes), the teachings on the lexical and semantic versions of the word (Smirnitsky), about the intermediate link in the development of the words (Budagov). Thanks to these studies, the problem of Pollopmia received a reliable theoretical base,
Exploring the Word as a unit of language and vocabulary in its synchronies, Soviet lingules conduct research in the field of etymology (O. N. Trubachyov), historical lexicology (Filin), the history of vocabulary of the literary language (Yu. S. Sorokin). There are numerous monographic studies in many categories of lexicology: synonymia, antonym, internationalism, terminology, phraseologism, etc. Exploring all the layers and aspects of vocabulary of different languages, Soviet lingules in the 70-80s. Special attention is paid to the problems of the systemism of vocabulary, including lexical paradigmatic (Shmelev, A. A. Ufimseva, Yu. N. Karaulov), lexical semantics in connection with the general theory nomination and references, interaction of vocabulary with other levels of language, primarily with the syntax (Yu. D. Apresyan), the psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary (study of lexical associations, etc.), comparable study of the vocabulary of different languages \u200b\u200b(Budagov, V. G. GAK). Large practical and theoretical importance is the study of interaction in the field of language of the peoples of the Peoples of the USSR (Yu. D. Diacy, I. F. Protchenko). The methodology of lexicological studies is actively developed (M. Stepanova, N. I. Tolstoy, E. M. Mednikov and others).
Uzus and grammar
Foreign words sometimes attract, and sometimes they scare, because it is not always clear that they are hidden - exotic or boring routine. I hope that the word "Unce does not harruit" horror, "because it means simply" Language Custom. " However, this word fastened as a term along with the word "grammar", which is associated very often from many listeners with a vault of boring rules with a bunch of examples on different perfects there and subjunctivends.
You can call similar phenomena, for example, "speech samples" can be called "grammatical models" or "interactive schemes", but you always need to justify why you are so called them and what is the principal difference between such names.
If you restrict ourselves to the decoding of "Uzusa" through a short definition of the "speech custom", then it will be not clear why the term "Uzus" is needed (from the English word "Usual" \u003d "Normal").
If you show the meaningful role of "Uzusa" and its influence on grammar, speech samples and phraseological turnover, the use of such a term will be justified.
If, when learning a foreign language, you will understand what role "Uzus" (speech custom) is played, then the grammar will cease to be a dogma and a joint of boring rules that resemble mathematical formulas with an explanation that claims universality - they say, only substitute this formula Any verbs and get the desired result when communicating in a foreign language. You will simply understand that in many grammar a lot of information "garbage", which can be discarded and choose for yourself what you need for practical purposes.
For practical purposes, you need your speech intention that is formed from you first in your native language, you could express adequately and equivalent in another language. I highlight exactly speech The intention, since communication is also possible at the level of gestures and interjections - winking, the head of the head, shrug, swinging with their hands, shaking with your fingers, uttering all sorts of "oh", "ah", "yep", "hm", "brr" and so on .
By the way, even at the level of such communication with gestures and interjections, the "Unce" begins to act with gestures, since the value of some gestures may be the same for many nations (for example, the shrugs often mean bewilderment or "I don't know"), but many other gestures can perceive perfectly ambiguously. The same thing with interjections - when it hurts, we exclaim "oh!", And in the English-speaking countries "OUCH!", When we are surprised or admire, then "Wow!", And the American will say "WoW!" etc.
If you go from gestures and interjections to full-fledged speech samples, even at the level of individual short words, the influence of "uzus" on the form of expression in one language or another will be traced.
For example, the Russian word "okay" can mean approval or agreement with something that is equivalent to the English "OK". But the Russian word "okay" can be used in this combination, like "how okay you!" In the meaning "Yes, enough for you to bear nonsense" or something like that. The English "OK" in this sense cannot be used not because it prohibits grammar, the grammar just gives the opportunity for some formula to make any insightivity of the type "OK WITH!", But it will be nonsense, since English "Unce" Does not recognize such a phrase meaningful, and even more so it will not be an equivalent Russian combination "Come on."
English Uzus allows us to use the "OK" combination in this phrase: "Are you OK?" In the meaning "you are fine?", But the Russian word "okay" is not customary to use in a Russian phrase: "Do you all okay?", More often, how are you? Everything is fine?
Uzus just works on the type "accepted" - "not accepted". It is customary to say so, or, on the contrary, not accepted so to speak.
Some English verbs, such as do, have and a number of others, along with their main values \u200b\u200b(have, to do) are used sometimes in various combinations, for example, "That Wil Ldo", that Won't Do, I Can Do Without You, which In fact, they are phraseologists, but are used in everyday speech not for decoration, but at the simplest uzus level. Completing some kind of work, we say: "Now enough," the Englishman will say this: "That Will Do For Today." The listeners often expect the word "enough" in this meaning, because we learned exactly this word, they are also strange to hear "That Won'tdo" in the meaning "so it will not go, it is not suitable" or "I CAN Do Without You" in the meaning " I can do without you, "although this is the most simple and daily phrases used for the British.
For the Englishman studying Russian, it is also not easy to understand Russian phraseologisms like "in no matter what it happens," "suddenly he does not take", "no with this with this" and others that we use not to decorate speech, but Just in a daily conversation at the uzus level.
As soon as the listener of foreign language courses begins to communicate at the level of "Uzusa", not "grammar", it begins to approach the full proficiency in the studied language, the speech custom of which dictates the use of original speech forms that do not coincide with the forms of the native language.
As soon as he ceases to perceive the greeting of the "HowDoyOUDO" type as a question about how he is doing and as his affairs, but reacts automatically the same "howdoyoudo", it means that he left the blind copying of grammatical forms and the "Uzus" comprehensive copy Type phrases.
As soon as a foreign listener, studying the Russian language ceases to perceive the phrases of the type "Yeah, right now," as a promise, now run someone's request, then, he understood "Uzus" such phrases in Russian and does not perceive everything "Pure" coin.
At the initial stage of study, it is very difficult to immediately join the "Unce", so it is quite natural to the desire for the right "grammar" and to the literal copying of the native language phrases. The support in the native language, of course, is needed, but not as a "blind" copying translation, but as an opportunity to select various equivalents for that or other foreign speech, especially verb.
Similar information.
| Name of parameter | Value |
| Theme of article: | Lecture number 2. |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Lexicology |
Communication of lexicology with other sections of linguistics.
The subject of lexicology.
The subject of lexicology. Word as a unit of lexicology.
Lecture number 1.
1. Subject of lexicology.
2. Communication of lexicology with other sections of linguistics.
3. Word as the main unit of the Russian language.
The section of the language science learning the lexical system is customary lexicology(from Greek. Lexikos - Vocabulary and Logos - doctrine). Studying the lexical system as a form of organization of the interaction of words descriptive, or synchronic (from Greek. SYN - together and Chronos - time), and historical, or dichronical (from Greek. Dia - through and Chronos - time), lexicology. The subject of descriptive lexicology is the vocabulary composition in its current state. Historical lexicology considers lexics in its occurrence and development. Both of these aspects of the study of the lexical system are closely related to each other, since information on the history of its formation is necessary for the correct understanding of the modern language, and the current state of vocabulary is one of the important sources of studying its history.
Tasks of lexicology. The subject of lexicology is the word with which all other few languages \u200b\u200bare associated with anyway: phonemes, morphemes, phrases, suggestions. For this reason, the word is studied not only in lexicology, but also in other sections of linguistics (in phonetics, word formation, morphology, syntax), but it is considered in these sections in different ways.
Phonetics explores the sound side of words and its meaning. Word formation studies the patterns of creating words. The object of morphology is grammatical values, grammatical forms and grammatical categories. In the syntax, the word is considered by its participation in building phrases and suggestions.
Lexicology explores the word as a language element of the lexical system. From here it includes: a) the clarification of the semantic structure of the word (ambiguity - homonymy); b) identifying relations of various semantic rows of words (synonymy and antonym); c) Decommodation of the word place in the lexical system of language in terms of functional and stylistic (stylistically neutral, book and spoken vocabulary), spheres of use (nationwide, dialective, special, spaticral and frying vocabulary), origin (invariably, Russian Slavonic and foreign language vocabulary), active and passive reserve (archaisms, historons and neologisms).
Lexicology is closely related to other language disciplines: semicology, etymology, dialectology of stylistics and lexicography.
Semasiology (Greek. Semasia - Value and Logos - doctrine) studies the meaning of words, and also change these values. In the first case, semaxiology is included in the descriptive lexicology, and in the second - in historical lexicology. Etymology (Greek. ETUMO1OGIA - Truth, initial meaning) is engaged in the study of the origin of words and their meaningful parts and., Therefore, is a branch of historical lexicology. Dialectology (Greek. Dialectos - talk and 1OGOS - doctrine) analyzes local dialects, incl. And their vocabulary. These dialectology are used by lexicology when clarifying the fields of the functioning of vocabulary. Stylistics (Franz Greek. Stylas - Wandbook for the Scripture of the Ancient Greeks) is studying ways to use language tools for the accurate expression of thoughts and achieve a whole communication in the definition, under certain conditions. This section of linguistics is directly related to lexicology, since it is studied in the language of the means of expression, incl. and vocabulary. Lexicography (Greek. Lexilcon - Dictionary and Grapho - I write) is engaged in the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, which contain a description of vocabulary. Consequently, there is a link between lexicology and lexicography.
Saying the links of lexicology with other sections of the science of language illustrate a specific example. So in the word turnsemyasiology will determine the following values: a) to stay, be: And here the air is twisted in the air, insect swarms (kept.);b) live, dwell somewhere : In the wilderness of the dense forests, fluffy animals are treated (car.);c) be in a dreamy, without noticing the surrounding: To turn in the clouds, in empires, between the sky u u land.Etymology will find out that this word came to Russian from the Old Slavonic language, where it sounded vitatiand associated with the words great, - Abode, Vitalitsa -hotel. Stylistics will indicate that this word is outdated in the first value, and in the second - stylistically painted (book); The characteristic of this word is fixed in the dictionaries: all the values \u200b\u200band stylistic litters are indicated in sensible and phraseological dictionaries, origin - in these etymological dictionaries. Lexicology will consider the listed above the signs of this word: its meaning, stylistic functions, spheres of use, origin. A comprehensive description of the word helps to determine the literary norms of its use.
Consequently, in the lexicology of the Words are studied from the point of view of their semantic value, places in the general system of vocabulary, origin, consumption, scope of use in the process of communication and their stylistic painting.
3. Word as the main unit of the Russian language.
Like any other language, Russian as a means of communication is the language of words. Of the words protruding separately or as components of phraseological revolutions, are formed with the help of grammatical rules and laws of the proposal. Specific items and abstract concepts are designated in the language, human emotions, will, are called '-general, abstract categories of existent relationships''', etc. Thus, the word acts as the main unit of the language.
Despite the undoubted reality of the word as a separate language phenomenon, despite the bright signs, it is inherent in it, it is difficult to determine. This is primarily due to the variety of words from structural-grammatical and semantic points of view (Wed: table, goodwill, writing, black; sofa bed, five hundred; with, since, only probably; Thick! Oh!; Say, won, lightsetc.).
It is possible to give the right definition of the word only if there are organically reflected in the basic differential signs of words sufficient to deliberately from other linguistic units.
From the background the word is different two dimension Because it is in operation and acts as an organic unity of sound and meanings. From phrases (including from stable phrases, t. E. Phraseologism) words are definitely differentiated accentology : They are either unboundless, or have only one basic emphasis.
From morpheme (significant parts of the word) the word is rewarded before all of its lexico-grammatical settlement , t. e. affiliation to the definition of speech. From the proposed-case-case combinations of the Word, first of all, differ from their impenetrabity.
One of the basic properties of existing in the word language is their reproducibility This is that they are not created in the communication process, and are extracted from memory or any speech context in the form of a single structural-semantic whole. At the same time, this character itself cannot be considered sufficient to differentiate words from other linguistic units: 1) reproducibility is also characteristic of morph and phraseological revolutions and, moreover, even for proposals, since they will soon coincide with the word or phraseological turnover, 2) In the process of speech, words may arise that are not reproducible, and creative morphemes.
It is important to notice that for the word is characteristic phonetic design (And also, naturally, graphic, if this language has, in addition to orally, written). The word is an entirely defined sound, consisting of at least one phoneme.
Single-component words in Russian are very few, except for the names of the existing background and six letters in it (A, U, O, U, E,s) come here: unions a, u,particles a, U,pretext y,interdomitia a, u, o, u, e,a also prepositions o, in, k,c (in definitions that can act as two-component about, in, ko, co).Can act as single-component particles b, particle wellsoyuz wellparticle, in its main form used as two-components. All other words are those or other sound complexes.
The only case of the lack of phonetic decoration in Russian is observed in the designation of one of the forms of ligament, in other forms serving as financially pronounced (Wed: Father - teacher; Father was teacher; Father will be teacher.In this case, the election of materially not pronounced (it is called zero) bundles as a significant unit of language, the reality of its existence as a linguistic fact is realized against the background of homogeneous for its function and the use of financially pronounced formations.
The phonetic decrease characteristic of the word is that any lexical unit (if it does not constitute a finally not digestible foreign language word or an uncommon-erected non-socialism) of the whole, and actually acts as a sound structural unity corresponding to the phonological standards of this language system' '. A characteristic feature of the phonetic decoration of the Russian word - inadvertence Since it is this property that allows you to clearly distinguish between the adjacent phenomena of vocabulary and phraseology. The word in contrast to the phraseological turnover of the sun - or as unstressed, or as having one basic impaired. In the event that we are before us (even if we even semantically and grammatically disretened and unified), having two basic strokes, then this is not a word, and a more complex education: a phraseological turnover or a free combination of words.
No less important is another property of the word - its semantic valence . There is no word in the language that does not matter. Any word - ϶ᴛᴏ not only determined sound, but also of this or that value. It is this word that is different from the phoneme - sound capable of distinguishing the sound shell of words and morpheme, but not possessing a value.
The property of the word is absent in the morpheme, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is its distinctive feature - lexico-grammatical settlement . Morphemes, existing in the further incense meaningful integer in the word, do not have vocabulary-grammatical standards. ʜᴎʜᴎ act as significant parts deprived of not only the properties of any morphological design, but any attachment to a certain lexico-grammatical discharge. As part of the word morphemes are absolutely not capable of syntactic use and, being used in the proposal, immediately turn into words, acquiring bright and undoubted morphological features of the noun. The closest to the morphemes service words; The meanings of their very''formal''''''m, they do not have grammatical decoration. At the same time, official words (including pretends) appear to us as undoubted words.
Indirectly and reflected (but very effective) in grading from the morph of servicewords (especially just offered) helps the researcher non-perfume Words, which is one of the most striking signs of the word, in contrast to proproping combinations, free combinations of words and individual discharges of phraseological revolutions, semantically equivalent words. After all, if the word as a morpheme integer is impenetrable, then significant units, between which free verbal''vesteks are possible, are words, and only words, but in no case are not morphems. Conversely, significant units, between which are impossible free verbal inserts, individual words are not, representing or parts of the word, t, e. Morphem, or parts of the phraseological turnover.
The property of impermeability is characteristic of absolutely for all words: inward words to insert words (and even more so combinations of words) in Russian is impossible.
To clarify the essence of the word as a determined linguistic unit, no less important, rather than the solution of the problem of the word, also has to solve the issue of its identity. It is important to establish not only what a word is in relation to other units of the language, but and where we have the same word before us, and where are different words. Here, first of all, a clear line should be conducted between such concepts, which are: 1) the words and forms of the word and 2) the words and the word options.
Under the shapes of the word, it is purpose for it to understand such types of its varieties that differ among themselves only with grammatical signs and relate both dependent, secondary to the same as the main, source. All other varieties of the word is better (and, it seems, or rather), it is characterized as various options for words.
Naturally, only such education are species of words, the basis of which necessarily consists of the same morpheme. It is impossible to relate to the varieties of the same word such education as palamatiable - palatalized, seminar - seminaria, idiomatical - idiomatic, fox - fox, hoocotunya - Hooker, Sunflower-Waterflower, cleansing - Cleaning, Devichy - Devicious, Loosen - Loosen, Nemeless - Nepheetc. All of this kind of education is in relation to each other with single-darkened synonyms, that is, although relatives, but different words.
In all cases, if the word has several forms, one of the widespread acts as the main, initial, and the rest - as dependent on it. Such basic, source forms are the forms of the very student case in the names, infinitives in the verb, etc. Their 'Ageral'''''''I in relation to the other, compact with them is manifested in the fact that they act, firstly, as nominative forms, which are The name of any phenomenon of reality, and secondly, as producing forms, on the basis of which, with rare exceptions, the production of new lexical units is carried out using a morphological method of word formation. In addition,'Gueneral''''''A's basic, initial form of a word (and this is especially important to understand the essence of the word and the wording of its definition) also affects the fact that in Russian there is no word, the main one, the original form of which would be analytical, T, e. It would consist of two. It is this circumstance that allows you to clearly define the accentological differences of the word from phrase and phraseological turnover. Since in its original form, the word never has two basic stress.
Accounting''General''''s character of the original, the main form in a number of other forms of the word makes it easy to solve, in particular, the problem of such entities in Russian, which are i will know, the most goodetc., brightly demonstrating (as well as words like sofa bed)insolvency of the criterion of all-forming and for Russian words in the whole structural-grammatical manifold. Indeed, in such cases, the peppers are not the words consisting of a structural-grammatically unformed morphem, but from two separately decorated words.
The above-mentioned word as a linguistic unit allows you to give a working determination of a word in this wording: word - ϶ᴛᴏ Linguistic unit having (if it is not unpaved) in its original form one basic emphasis and possessing the value, lexico-grammatical attribability and impermeability.
Lecture number 2. - Concept and species. Classification and features of the category "Lecture №2." 2017, 2018.
Lexicology (Greek LEXIS - "Word", "Speech Turnover" and Logos - "Teaching") - section Linguistics learning vocabulary, language vocabulary. In lexicology are considered: 1) the word and its meaning; 2) the system relationship system; 3) the history of the formation of modern vocabulary; 4) the functioning of words in various spheres of speech; 5) the word as a special language unit, its difference from other language units; 6) the structure of the vocabulary.
In lexicology there are several sections:
1. General lexicology Deals with the identification of general patterns in lexical systems of different languages. The general theory of the word is developing criteria for determining the word and its borders in relation to all languages. General Semaxiology reveals the general semantic laws of the evolution of words values, develops semantic universals.
2. Private lexicology Explores the vocabulary of one language, refuses in it patterns inherent in all languages, and describes specific features.
3. Historical, diachronic lexicology He examines the vocabulary in the process of its formation and historical development. It studies the story of words in connection with the history of the objects and concepts of them. It describes the dynamics of the vocabulary or historical slice of the language. The subject of the study may be the history of a separate word and the history of the conceptual group of words, the history of the development of the form and the meaning of words.
4. Descriptive, synchronous lexicology Learn the vocabulary of a certain historical period, most often of the modern language.
5. Comparative lexicology Explores the vocabulary in order to identify the genetic kinship of languages, determines the similarities and differences in the form and significance of the words of different languages. Comparison may concern any aspects of vocabulary. Separate words, groups of words, for example, verbs of motion, kinship terms, synonymy, polemia, antonymy, can be compared. These comparative lexicology are used in lexicography, when translating, in ethnography.
6. Theoretical lexicology Gives scientific linguistic lighting of concepts, units and categories of vocabulary, develops its classification. Special attention is paid to the problem of systemic vocabulary, the development of methodology of lexicological studies.
7. Practical lexicology It contains a description of the vocabulary needed for practical mastering by language in the training of foreigners.
The following research methods are used in lexicology:
a) method distributional analysis (Lat. Distribuere - "Distribute") applies when determining the boundaries of the word in the text, delimit the values \u200b\u200bof the meaningful words;
b) method of the Substitution It is used when studying the words, synonymies. This is a replacement of one element to others, for example, evening - Twilight;
in) component analysis method Used in determining the structure of the lexical value;
d) transformation method when the semantic load of the word is detected in the context by coagulation or deploy the syntactic structures;
e) the quantitative statistical method is used in determining the frequency of the lexical unit, its syntagmatic ties.
These lexicology are used in many adjacent disciplines. In psycholinguistics - when studying verbal associations. In neurolinguistics - in identifying species of disorders of the brain functions. In sociolinguistics - when studying the language behavior of the collective. The lexicology has been separated as a separate section of the 20 V. However, many problems of lexicology were viewed within other scientific disciplines. In ancient philosophy, the language has been studied as a way of expressing thinking. Aristotle in the treatises of "rhetoric" and "poetics" described the artistic functions of the word. Stoics, representatives of the stories, the philosophical school of the Greek scientist Zenon, were the founders of the sign theory of the language. They studied etymology of words. In the Middle Ages (17-18 centuries) in Europe in the prefaces to intelligent dictionaries, lexicological categories of synonyms, phrases were allocated.
In the development of lexicology 4 stages are allocated:
I. 18-19 centuries. For the first time, the term "lexicology" was introduced. He appeared in the French encyclopedia of Daniel Didro and Jean D "Alamber in 1765. Lexicology is defined as one of the two (along with the syntax) of the sections of the science of language. The task of lexicology was seen in the study of the general principles of the organization of vocabulary. They allocated the study of the external form, values and etymology words.
In the Treatises on Stylistics 18 V. Ways to form the formation of portable words of words. More than 200 types of paths were allocated.
At 19 in. Comparative historical linguistics develops. In the first works on the comparative historical linguistics, the Danish scientist Rasmus scum laid the foundations of comparative lexicology. At 19 in. The main sphere of lexicological studies in Europe was semantics. V. von Humboldt studied the inner form of the word. French Linguist Arsen Darmsteter and German German Paul discovered general patterns of formation and evolution of words. In 1897, a generalizing work of the French scientist Michel Brehal was published, where Semaxiology appeared as a special section of linguistics.
In Russia, the foundations of lexicology were laid in the works of M.V. Lomonosov, which developed the doctrine on the stylistic differentiation of vocabulary in the "theory of three styles".
At the end of 19-th. The historical lexicology and etymology in the works of Alexander Xristophorovich Eastovich, Ivanovich Szrevnevsky, Yakov Karlovich Grota, Ivanovich Szrevnovsky, is actively developing. Actively studied dialects in the works of Al. Ivanovich Sobolevsky and I. A. Bodouen de Courtae). A great contribution to the development of world lexicology was the works of Alexander Afanasyevich Pothebni and Mikhail Mikhailovich Pokrovsky. Flebenza developed the general theory of the word,
i deepened the doctrine of the inner form of the word, created the doctrine of the nearest, language and on the future, out-of-voice words. In the works of Pokrovsky, the foundations of general semisiology are laid, the general patterns of the development of words values \u200b\u200bare identified.
II. First floor. 20 V. Swiss scientist F. de Sosurur and I.A. Boduen de Courta set 20 V Linguistics. The goal is not to explore dead languages, but a modern language. Study not separate language facts, but the language as a sign system having a specific structure. The ideas of systemic and structures caused the rapid development of semyasiology. They reflected in the creation of the theory of lexic fields of it. Yost Trier and Walter Porciga.
Total lexicology has developed actively. The problem of the word as a unit of language was developed. Linguists tried to give the lexicological category philosophical justification. There was a philosophical to be comprehended by the essence of lexical meaning. Vladimir Vinogradov proposed a classification of lexical values.
In parallel with semaxiology, a sociolinguistic study of vocabulary developed. Representatives of the French Sociological School, representatives of the French Sociological School: Antoine Meye, Emil BenVenist, M. Cohen, Paul Lafarg were engaged in the study of the correlation of vocabulary with the extra-dependence world. Linguists revealed a functional differentiation of vocabulary.
In Russia, in the post-revolutionary years, the foundations of sociolinguistics were laid in the writings of Evgenia Dmitrievich Polyvanov, Nikolai Yakovlevich Mappa, Fedot Petrovich Filina, Ruben Alexandrovich Budagova. Exploring the problem "Language and society", they revealed the stratification of vocabulary (Lat. Stratum - the "layer") on the sphere of use, by frequency of use, by origin, according to stylistic affiliation.
III. The second floor. 20 V. During this period, the growth of research in the field of general and theoretical lexicology increases. Alexander Ivanovich Smirnitsky, Olga Sergeevna Akhmanova, Dmitry Nikolayevich Shmelev, Vladimir Andreevich Zvegintsev are developing a common, universal word theory for all languages \u200b\u200bas a sign, problem value, the question of the ratio of the word and the concept.
Three aspects were released in the semantics: epidigmatics, paradigmatic and syntagmatics. A.I.Smirnitsky created the doctrine of the lexic and semantic versions of a multi-valued word. Monographs were issued in categories of lexicology: synonyms, antonym, polisia. D.N.Shelev, A. A. Ufimseva, Yuri Nikolaevich Karaulov in the 70-80s. Special attention was paid to the problems of systemic vocabulary, including lexical paradigmatic. Yu.N. Karaulov, Vladimir Grigorievich Gak, O.Sakhmanova, using the methods of American structuralism, developed a method of component analysis of the structure of lexical significance.
Sociolinguistic study of vocabulary of 2 seats.20 V. somewhat slowed down. Hybrid scientific disciplines appear on the verge of several sciences: sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics.
Significant achievements in the field of these etymology are celebrated by Oleg Nikolayevich Trubachev, who studied the story of the Slavic words and published a dictionary of Praslani language. He translated into Russian etymological dictionary of him. Linguist Max Fasmer. In dialectology, the dialectological satin of the Russian language, the Atlas of Slavic and European languages \u200b\u200bwas drawn up.
IV. 21 c. The beginning of the century is characterized by changing scientific directions. Linguists turn to the analysis of the functioning of the word in speech. Computer linguistics arise, cognitive linguistics, functional linguistics, linguocultureology. In these disciplines, new concepts and categories are developing: concept, language painting in the world, conceptual picture of the world.
Object and subject of lexicology
Units of the lexico-semantic system
Specificity of the lexico-semantic system
The main problems of lexicology
Sections of lexicology
Literature
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Object and subject of lexicology
Lexicology (Greek. lexis 'word', lexikos. 'vocabulary', logos. 'Teaching, Science') - section of linguistics learning vocabulary language (vocabulary) in his modern condition and historical development.
Sections of linguistics studying different tiers of the language system actually have two objects:
unit relevant level, its nature and properties,
system unitsRelationship between these units.
Objects of lexicology - this is
word as a lexical unit (le),
vocabulary (vocabulary) as a totality of words, in a certain way organized, structured.
The word is the object of different linguistic disciplines. Each of them considers the word at a certain angle of view, i.e. With the overall object has its own thing:
in phonetics studied side the words,
in the morofemics - structure the words,
word formation - methods of education words,
in morphology - grammatical forms and Grammatical meanings the words,
in syntax - connection methods words and forms of words in phrases and suggestions [Sere, p. 165].
Word as grammatical unit - this is the system of all its forms with their grammatical values; Word as lexical A unit, or a dictionary unit, is a formally pronounced system of all its lexical values \u200b\u200b[Russian grammar, p. 453].
In lexicology, the word is considered
in the aspect of its subject-conceptual content
and as a unit of dictionary composition of the language.
Word wing For example, presents interest
but as name:
flying organ in birds, insects, as well as some mammals;
carrier plane of a flying or other moving machine;
rotating blades of a windmill wheel;
tires over the wheel of the crew, car, etc.;
side extension, fligel;
extreme (right or left) part of combat construction;
extreme (right or left) grouping of some organization.
b) as unit of lexical systemwhich is in certain relations with other lexical units, for example, as part of class Names of body parts of the bird along with the words tail, beak etc.
Contrast grammatical forms of words (wordform) in the same meaning ( wing, wing, wing ...) is an irrelevant for lexicology. This is the subject to study grammar.
On the contrary, the study of the similarities and differences in the semantic options of the same word in the entire system of their forms ( wing, wing, wing ... 'Flight Orig wing, wing, wing ... 'The carrier plane', etc.) is one of the most important tasks of lexicology [Swaying, with. 165].
However, when studying the word in lexicology it is impossible to completely ignore the grammar, as the vocabulary and grammar are closely connected.
Units of the lexico-semantic system
Word - sound or complex of sounds meaning and employee name Objects and phenomena of reality [Sryash, p. 165].
The definition is fixed sign Nature Words and His function.
The word, unlike the phone, is sign:
it has a material side - sound or writing (phonographic shell),
and the perfect side - value.
Basic function the words - nominative(Lat. nominatio. 'Writing, name'). Most words call Items, their signs, quantity, action, processes and are imperative, independent.
Words call not only specific subjects, but also concepts On these subjects arising in the consciousness of speaking.
With word relate all few languages:
phoneeons and morphemes make up the structure of the word
phrases and offers consist of words.
This gives reason to some scientists to say that the word is central Unit of Language.
Since the word is a compound phenomenon and multidimensional, term word Multivissal and undefined: they are denoted
and words as units of vocabulary (Language units);
and words as speech units, text(words in specific values \u200b\u200band specific grammatical forms).
For example, in the proposal Man man friend
three words in concrete grammatical forms
and two words as a dictionary units: human and friend [Codhov, p. 184].
In short, I. unambiguous words and individual values multivalued words.
To denote these different facilities in lexicology, clearer terms are used.
The most common is the term lexical unit(Le.)
Lexical unit - this is a lexical level of a language having bilateral nature, grammar design and performing nominative function.
Term lexical unit is an rodovin relation to the terms lexeme and lexico-semantic:
┌─────────┴─────────┐
lexeme lexico-semantic
Lexeme(Greek. l.é xIS. 'Word, expression') - a unit of lexical level of language, which is a totality all forms and values \u200b\u200bof one word [≈ LES, p. 257; Eiry, s. 207].
Those. Lexeme is bilateral unit:
lexeme = –––––––––––––––––––––––
plan of expression
Less often meet narrowing Understanding the term lexeme - just as units of the Expression Planwhich represents a combination of all grammatical forms of the word. In this case, the lexical unit is unity lexemesand Semen[Eye, p. 207]:
sememe \u003d Content plan
Le \u003d -----------------------
lexeme \u003d Expression Plan
Term lexeme usually used only in relation to the words of significant parts of speech.
Lexico-semantic(LSV.) - one of the lexeme lexemes, expressed by the phonographic shell.
Otherwise: LSV. - Lexeme in one of its values. Those. LSV is also bilateral unit. LSV one lexemes
differ in their lexical values \u200b\u200b(LZ)
and coincide in shape (sound and graphic expression).
Eg sleeve –
piece of clothes covering ( short sleeves);
branch from the main line of the river ( right sleeve Volga);
hose for supplying liquids, bulk or viscous substances, gases ( firehose).
All these values \u200b\u200bare related relationships. semantic production(Native speakers are aware of the connection between these values), so the identity of the word is not disturbed.
Lexemeis a system of interrelated LSV.:
lexeme \u003d LSV 1 + LSV 2 + LSV 3
If a word definite, it is represented one LSV.:
topot 'Noise, sounds from foot blows when walking'.
Term "Lexical unit" consumed and applied to lexeme, and applied to LSV.If there is no need to differentiate them.
Le, lexeme and lsv is language units, because represent a combination of values \u200b\u200band forms.
IN speech These abstract units are implemented in concrete units, because Each time you choose one Meaning I. one the form:
Dress with shortsleeves .
Specific implementationlexemes or LSV in speech (text) called:
lex(but) (The term is not very used),
foodform - a word in a certain grammatical form (the term came from grammar),
collective - relatively new term.
Etymology- section of lexicology, studying the origin and history of individual words and morpheme.
Etymology- Actually the origin of words and morpheme.
Etymology is based on natural sound and morphological changes in words in the process of the evolution of the language, takes into account the regular transitions of some types of lexical value of the word to others. Finding out the origin of the words, their story in a particular language, etymology takes into account the data of other sciences - stories, archeology, ethnography. The complex itself of linguistic information about the word, historical and cultural information about the thing called them allows you to build more or less plausible hypothesis about the origin of the word. At the same time, these etymologists seek to exclude accidental ties and associations of this word with others.
There is in the etymology such a thing as "False" or "folk" etymology. She arises mainly in oral speech when talking, getting acquainted with a new word, voluntarily or involuntarily compares him with his famous vocabulary. In such cases, the sound exchange of the word changes. National etymology arises on the basis of the "alterations" of the native or borrowed word on the sample of the word native language, the establishment of semantic ties between them on the basis of random sound, external coincidence, without taking into account the real facts of their origin.
Most often, false etymology occurs in cases where a person wants to test the writing of a difficult word, the origin of which he is unknown. The word "cutlet" (Cutlet), who came to English from the French (Côtelette), mistakenly tied with the verb "cut" (cut), the hint of it remained in writing the word.
Etymological analysis of the word faced into the past language. With the help of such an analysis, the origin of the word is established, its structure, value, former word-formation links is established, phonetic changes are established.
Etymological analysis establishes the analysis of the word, its initial structure, value, former word-forming links.
The vocabulary article is based as follows: after the title word, they follow the words related to him, then comply with him in other Slavic languages; Then its ancient basis and the version of the semantic and structural connections of its scientists are indicated.
English word: Stalls translates as a "stable" and "parquet", a strange neighborhood of values. Here we have to look at the time when the English Theater has originated. The fact is that at first in the theater simply there were no seating. Yes, there were good places for the wealthy public in the center of the scene, but they were standing. But the horse is held all their lives standing, and at home (in the stable) too. So, the word "stalls", thanks to this "similarity", acquired a new additional value, keeping the old (such a structure, as the stable still exists)
In the study of the etymology of the words of modern English, it is easier to conduct an analogy with a vocabulary of other languages, for the most part of those that we know from history have a great influence on the development of English. For example, the Scandinavian borrowings have changed little over the centuries: "Call", "Take", "Cast", "Die", "Law", "Husband", "Window", "ILL", "Loose", "Low", and "weak". Some of them are easily distinguishes even now by the presence of sounding "SK": "SKY", "Skill", "Ski", "Skirt". A lot of examples of French origin reached us almost unchanged: "Table", "Plate", "Saucer", "Diner", "Supper", "River", "Autumn", "Uncle".
Question 27. Words of Indo-European origin and the words of generallymantic origin as the historical basis of the vocabulary composition of the English language. The main signs of the original English words.
The study of the vocabulary composition of modern English is of great interest in terms of these etymology, since it includes a huge number of words from many languages \u200b\u200brelating to different groups (Latin, Greek, French, German, etc.). Approximately 70% of the vocabulary of English are borrowed words and only 30% are original words. However, it should be noted that not all the original vocabulary refers to the number of the most frequently used words, as well as the most frequency words do not always belong to the original English. Roman conquest, the introduction of Christianity, the Danish and Norman conquest, the British colonial system has played a big role in the development of the dictionary of the English language.
In English, as one of the languages \u200b\u200bof the West German Group, the following layers of vocabulary are allocated:
1. Obsento-European Word Layerwhich is the basis of the lexical composition of Germanic languages. These include the following:
a) all pronouns and numeral;
b) the name of family members (eg, eng. Mother, Dr. Ind. Mātar, Greek. Mātēr, lat. māter);
c) the names of the body parts and the biological properties of a person (eg., Eng. Nose, Dr. ind. nāsā, lat. Nasus, it. NASE);
d) the names of living beings (eg., English EWE, Dr. Ind. Avih, Greek O (V) is, lat. OVIS);
e) names of nature phenomena, plants, substances (eg, eng. Night, Rus. Night, Dr. Ind. Nakti, Greek. NYX, it. Nacht);
e) the most common adjectives (eg, Rus. New, DR. Navas, Greek. ne (v) OS, lat. Novus, it. neu);
g) verbs denoting the most common actions and conditions (eg, rus. see, lead, Dr. Ind. Vid "know", Greek. (V) Idein, lat. Vidēre).
2. Operator's words
a) Face names Friend
b) Finger Face Parts
c) poultry and animals HORSE, VERD
d) surrounding phenomena and the world Land, SEA
e) the names of human labor houses HOUSE
e) seasons
g) often consumed verbs, adjectives and adverbs
3) the highest peculiarity is the third group of the original English vocabulary. It belongs to the words that are a purely English combination of various origins of the morpheme. Each of the morpheme in such words has parallels in a number of related languages, but their combination is not found outside of English. The noun Garlic (D.-A. Gar - Leac) has the first morpheme compliance in the Old Arctic (Geirr - Spear), German (GER - dart) and the second morpheme in Icelandic (Laukr - Side), Danish (LOG), Dutch (Look) , German (Lauch). The combination of the specified morpheme does not occur in any of these languages.
! From a morphological point of view, invalid words are single, maximum doubled; with phonetics and graphics - the presence of columns W, WH, TW, SW, Y - Write, Dwell at the beginning of the word, elements DG, TCH, NG, SH, TH, EE, LL, EW; From the point of view of stylistics - all the original are neutral; Most of the original English words are multi-valued, have the ability to form new words in various ways.
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