A short course of lectures on logistics. Lectures on Commercial Logistics Cluster Logistics Lecture Notes
Logistics
1. The concept of logistics. The history of the emergence and development of logistics in our country and abroad.
2. The essence of logistics and its importance for the organization of entrepreneurial activity.
1: Logistics - the science of planning, controlling and managing transportation, warehousing, and other tangible and intangible operations performed in the process of bringing raw materials and materials to industrial enterprises; internal processing of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products; bringing the finished product to the consumer in accordance with its requirements, as well as the transfer, processing and storage of relevant information.
Logistics (from Greek - the art of reasoning, after - the art of supplying the army and its movement, mathematical logistics).
The concept of Logistics is like mathematical logic; equipment and technology of transport and storage operations in the military and / or civilian field. Logistics is the 4th main element of military science.
In our country, the All-Union Logistics Association was formed in 1991.
The Logistics Development Fund (1993) is engaged in the training and retraining of personnel.
Enterprise logistics
Supply logistics L. Production Logistics sales
Warehousing logistics
Intra-factory transport logistics
The global goal of logistics is to reduce the cycle, reduce stocks.
At the production stage - due to the synchronization of processes; by determining the need for material resources; what is needed? When? How many?; due to self-regulation (production is in accordance with the demand for a particular product).
The ratio of different cycles of creation and production of products.
T tp \u003d 99% SONT T p - production cycle (the time spent by parts in the shops.
T arr \u003d 5% T tp - the cycle of technical preparation of the production (R&D, TTP)
T simple \u003d 95% T arr - processing on machines
T simple - transport, storage, downtime
T about \u003d 15% T about - the time of the main work
T aux - auxiliary time
Tsp \u003d 70-85%
t=t pcs +tn/n - time reduction formula
The main task of logistics is the use of materials, energy, information, personnel and production facilities. To provide the consumer with products at a given time of a given quality in a given place and for a certain price.
Supply logistics - the purchase of a maximum of materials.
Production logistics - find additional storage space.
The goods must be sold as quickly as possible: D-T-D 'or D-T-P-T'-D '(both directly and through an intermediary).
The essence of commodity circulation lies in the combination of physical and economic processes. Physical movement consists in its territorial advancement from one geographical point to another. Movement in the economic space consists in the transfer of goods from one owner to another, i.e. in the change of ownership of the goods.
Logistics - finding such a channel of distribution, which provides the minimum time and minimum costs for the delivery of goods to the consumer. Ensures the continuity of production and reproduction.
Inventory is finished goods that are not sold.
Item Purposes:
Satisfying the needs of the consumer;
Bring profit to the owner;
The sales cycle should be as short as possible. Conditions:
1. Transition from the seller's market to the consumer's market;
2. Production of products in large batches is replaced by small-scale production.
Logistics indicators:
Delivery time;
Accuracy, fidelity, obligatory delivery;
Ready for delivery;
Delivery quality - determined by the proportion of orders completed without defects in accordance with the specification;
Flexibility - readiness of the enterprise to carry out the changes brought by the client;
Information - the ability of the enterprise to issue the information requested by the client at all stages.
The essence of logistics in the complex is to manage the movement of goods at the stages of production, supply and marketing of products.
Logistic aspects of goods distribution:
1. The most rational organization of spatial distribution and material flow.
2. Formation of economic relations (intra- and non-industrial).
The relationship between the supplier and the consumer is formed due to the fact that there is:
Territorial separation - overcome by creating transport links;
Dissociation in time due to the mismatch between the processes of production and consumption - is overcome by creating stocks;
Perceptive disconnection - producers do not know what the consumer needs and vice versa - is eliminated by establishing channels of communication;
Disunity in possession - overcome by acts of sale.
3. Market research and demand forecasting.
4. Determining the needs for material resources (determining the volume and direction of transportation, the required number and types of transport, the number and volume of warehouses, etc.)
5. Selection of suppliers.
6. Establishing the sequence and links in the movement of products through the places of storage.
7. Formation and regulation of reserves.
8. Performing operations immediately preceding and completing the transportation of products.
The principles of logistics.
1. Self-regulation (balance of production).
2. Flexibility (the possibility of making changes to the schedule for the purchase of materials, changes in delivery times).
3. Minimization of inventory volumes.
4. Modeling of goods movement.
5. Computerization (material flow management).
6. Reliability in providing resources.
7. Profitability (reducing the level of product stocks at the consumer to 30-45%, increasing the level of information services, transport)
Conditions for the implementation of logistics:
1. Competition.
2. No shortage.
3: Basic concepts of Logistics
material flow(MP) - a set of resources of the same name, which are in the process of applying various logistics operations to them (warehousing - an elementary MP).
The set of elementary MPs that are formed at the enterprise make up a common mat. the flow that ensures the functioning of the enterprise. The MP has dimensions (volume, time, quantity, mass), the form of existence of the MP can be the turnover of the warehouse or the cargo flow (the number of goods transported by individual modes of transport from the point of departure to the point of destination for a certain period of time).
Information flow(IP) does not always correspond to given. MP, i.e. IP and MP can be synchronous and asynchronous.
Logistic operation - a separate set of actions aimed at transforming IP or IP. A logistics operation can be material (transportation, warehousing, loading) and intangible (collection of data on MP, storage and transmission of data).
Logistic function - an enlarged group of logistics operations aimed at realizing the goals of the logistics system. The main functions are supply, production, sales.
In logistics, I use functions to control flows :
Planning (establishment of the optimal trajectory of movement, development of a schedule or schedule for the flow, calculation of resource requirements for the implementation of the flow).
Operational regulation (tracking each flow object, according to the traffic schedule, development and application of managerial actions).
Accounting, collection, processing, storage and issuance of information about the MP, reporting).
Control (the degree of compliance of the actual flow parameters with the planned ones).
Analysis (reasons for non-compliance with the plan).
Coordination (coordination of procurement, sales processes).
Logistics channel- a partially ordered set, consisting of a supplier, consumer, carriers, intermediaries, insurers, etc.
A consumer or supplier in a market economy has the opportunity to choose according to various criteria using various methods for calculating ratings. After the choice is made, the logistics channel turns into supply chain(a linearly ordered set of individuals and / or legal entities carrying out logistics operations to bring the external material flow from one logistics system to another. The parameters of the logistics chain can be the organizational link coefficient, which shows how many times the product has been resold and the warehouse link coefficient - how many transshipments the products passed on the same path; logistics cycle - the time interval between placing an order for the supply of goods and delivery of products to the consumer's warehouse. The logistics cycle in general includes:
1. time for the formulation of the order and its execution in the prescribed manner.
2. time for delivery or transfer of the order to the supplier.
3. order fulfillment time (waiting time for placing an order for execution, order fulfillment time, downtime, a set of services).
4. delivery time of manufactured products to the customer.
5. time to prepare products for consumption.
p.p. 3, 4 - occupy the largest share.
Production cycle- part of the logistics cycle (from launching an operation to complete production).
Logistic cycle- includes the scope of circulation. Logistics costs - the costs of performing logistics operations (warehousing, saving ...). According to eq. the content of logistics costs are:
Distribution costs and parts of production costs (costs for containers and packaging). On the scale of a single firm, log. costs can be defined as a percentage of the amount of sales, in terms of value per unit mass of raw materials, materials, Goth. products or in % of conventionally pure products.
Logistics system- an adaptive feedback system that performs certain logistical functions or operations, consisting of subsystems, which has developed links with the external environment. Industrial and commercial enterprises, a territorial industrial center, a supply and marketing organization, etc. are considered as logistics systems. The logistics system can be with direct links, i.e. a system in which the material flow is brought to the end consumer without the participation of intermediaries; flexible - bringing mat. The flow to the consumer is carried out both through direct links and with the participation of an intermediary.
Efficiency of the logistics system- an indicator for characterizing the quality of the system under consideration at a given level of logistics costs. 2 indicators: quality of service, price of service.
Material flows of logistics .
Mat. resources:
Basic materials (materials included in the product and forming its basis);
Auxiliary materials (materials in small quantities that are an integral part)
Semi-finished products;
Components (can be purchased from outside or at the enterprise);
Work in progress (objects of labor, unfinished processing in this workshop);
Detail (finished part of the mechanism used in the assembly of finished products);
Knot (assembly unit of 2 or more parts);
Block (enlarged assembly units);
Finished products (corresponding to all requirements of GOST);
System (set of devices).
material flow- the flow of material resources moved throughout the logistics process. Material resources can be a material flow under the following conditions:
What? - it is a specific name.
How many? - clarity in determining the volume of resources.
Who? - the resource provider is specified.
Where? - where the mat was stored. resources to be moved.
Where? - the place where the resources should be delivered.
When? - the term that determines the movement of resources from the storage location at the supplier to the storage location at the consumer.
Mat. flow - material resources of certain types, in certain quantities, moved from a certain supplier to a certain recipient from one specific place to another at a predetermined time.
If mat. resources are collected in a warehouse, they are not mate. flow a mat. reserves.
Characteristics mat. flow.
1st part:
Range
Dimensions
Quality (grade, brand)
2nd part:
The amount of material resources and the intensity of the flow (piece cargo is estimated in pieces; lightweight but voluminous - by volume; heavy and large-sized - by area, by weight).
The starting point of the path is the supplier, the final point is the consumer.
Trajectory
Path length
Movement time.
Varieties of material flows :
By nomenclature (simple or complex, single or multi-assortment);
According to the degree of readiness (planned, formed, disbanded)
At the place in the process of circulation (awaiting shipment, shipped, on the way, arrived, awaiting unloading, accepted at the warehouse).
By continuity (continuous and discrete).
By the frequency of arrival or departure (urgent, long, hourly, daily, etc.).
By differences in mass or volume (mass, large, medium, small)
Mass flows - the movement of which is carried out not in single vehicles, but in a large group of them, large - smaller than mass flows (1-2 wagons, but often).
Small streams - the mass of which is less than the carrying capacity of vehicles.
According to weight differences:
Heavyweight
Lightweight
According to the degree of aggressiveness, flammability, explosiveness:
non-aggressive
Aggressive
Non-flammable
flammable
explosive
explosion-proof
According to the degree of compatibility:
Compatible
Incompatible
According to the method of packing:
Container loads
Sacks and other bulk goods.
Material flows are divided into:
tense
Relaxed
Busy flows include multi-assortment flows, in large volumes, taking into account the complexity of unloading or acceptance.
Unstressed - narrow assortment, single assortment, small volumes. But one-way streams can be stressful.
Material flows according to the degree of certainty are divided into:
deterministic
Stochastic (if some characteristic is missing)
According to the rhythm of sendings:
Rhythmic
non-rhythmic
Rhythmic M, P, - in which the delivery (shipment) dates are synchronized in accordance with a pre-planned schedule.
According to the degree of uniformity:
Uniform
Uneven
Uniform are characterized by the constancy of the speed of movement.
Uneven - variable speed
Material flows are divided into
External
Internal
Externals move outside the logistics system.
Internal - inside it.
According to the place of their receipt, M.P. are:
Input
Weekend
Stable and unstable M.P.
Stationary (for a steady technological process) and non-stationary MP (for newly mastered products).
Procurement logistics
1. Functions of purchasing materials.
2. Varieties of needs and methods for their calculation.
4. Management of the supply process.
5. Features of procurement of materials according to the “Just In Time” system.
1: Administrative-command system.
1. The volume of products to be exchanged is regulated by the state for each supplier and consumer.
2. From above, economic relations for the supply of products were regulated by attaching suppliers to consumers.
3. The exchange of products was carried out according to the state. prices.
4. The choice of supply options was limited.
The method of exchange of goods in a market economy is characterized by the following features:
1. The volume and composition of the commodity mass is determined by supply and demand in the market.
2. The choice of economic relations and partners in exchange is the prerogative of sellers and buyers.
3. The ratio of supply and demand, the conditions of purchase have a direct bearing on the price level.
4. In organizing the exchange, an active role belongs to intermediary links.
Functions logistics purchases:
1. Determining the need for the necessary mat. resources.
2. Receipt and evaluation of proposals.
3. Choice of suppliers.
4. Negotiation of prices and conclusion of contracts.
5. Formation of orders.
6. Control over the quantity and timing of deliveries.
7. Input control and placement of mat. resources in stock.
8. Inventory management and control.
2: Types of needs
The need for the planning period, regardless of whether the stocks are in stock or in the form of production reserves - the gross requirement.
Total Gross Demand - Gross Demand + Add. requirement, which includes conducting experiments, performing samples, increasing the need associated with the repair and maintenance of equipment, a reserve in case of short deliveries.
Net need is net need. It is defined as the difference between gross demand and available availability.
Primary - market need (what you need to sell on the market)
Secondary - raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, components that are necessary for primary needs.
Tertiary - auxiliary materials for other purposes, necessary for primary and secondary needs.
When determining the needs of materials, the following approaches are distinguished:
1. The calculation of the need for materials begins only when it arises.
2. Calculation on the account of the consumer of materials.
Methods for determining the need.
A. Deterministic (based on the use of well-defined initial data, serves to determine secondary and tertiary needs with a known primary). Necessary information - primary need, including data on volumes and terms of production; information about the structure of the product in the form of a specification or instructions on the applicability of certain parts; cost rates for materials and types of products; available availability.
Math calculation. resources are conducted separately for social. needs, main and auxiliary production, economic and mathematical models can also be used here.
Need mat. resources for the main production:
(M is the need for materials; H is the consumption rate of the i-th item for the j type of product; N is the production program for the j type of product; n is the range)
Determining the need for mat. resources for repair and maintenance needs:
(T - annual load of equipment; T 0 - time between failures of equipment of this type; R 0 - given level of reliability; Q j - number of units of equipment of this type; H ij - consumption rate of mat. i-th type per 1 repair).
The need can be determined based on the product hierarchy, taking into account the input of elements:
Detail1 Detail2 Detail3
In a deterministic method, it is important to set the consumption time of the mat. resources. This is where a cycle chart can be helpful.
It fills in from right to left. The cycle is determined by the longest operation.
Based on the cycle schedule, you can determine how many parts to run and when.
In order to meet the order on time, the materials must be available as soon as possible, so that the cycle of their receipt and primary processing does not increase the production cycle of the product.
Parts must be ready on time so that there is time for assembly. Purchased items must be ordered with the expected delivery time in mind.
Stochastic methods for determining the need.
based on forecasting. Forecasts can be medium-term (3-5 years), short-term and long-term. Prediction can be done based on the algorithm:
1. Analysis of time series.
2. Determination of the consumption model.
3. Choice of method.
4. Graphical interpretation of the forecast demand.
Supply chain management.
Supply - sale of products to wholesale buyers:
1. Trade enterprises for subsequent resale (market fund).
2. Industrial enterprises for further processing (industrial processing fund)
3. Organizations and enterprises in the sphere of intangible services (non-market fund).
Transit delivery - when the goods pass the wholesale link.
Warehouse - first goes to the wholesale base.
Supply levels:
Interpersonal (between company employees);
Interdepartmental;
The level of enterprises, organizations;
International (government level)
They differ in scale and significance levels.
Supplier - providing goods to another person under certain conditions. The supplier can be a manufacturer and an intermediary.
It is important to reduce the cost of mat. resources to increase profits (with constant overhead costs).
Delivery process.
control specification
Interaction
negotiation source evaluation
The outer circle shows the sequence of events in a typical interaction. The internal one shows 5 purchasing rules that should be reproduced in all phases of the procurement process.
The need for mat. resources can be determined on the basis of requests from various departments. Knowing the production program, describing in detail what we need (whether to produce a set of products or buy on the side - whichever is cheaper).
Identification of the source - selection and identification of the supplier (determine the criteria for evaluating the supplier, then search for it. The supplier can offer himself, can be found in directories, at fairs, exhibitions)
Source valuation - supplier valuation.
Source (supplier) evaluation.
What is an organization in terms of organizational and technical.
The opinion of other people in contact with this organization.
Supplier evaluation criteria:
Acceptable price;
The quality of the supplied products;
Quality of customer service;
Supply flexibility;
Order size limit;
Remoteness of the supplier from the consumer;
Psychological climate in the team;
Creditworthiness and financial position.
Vendor Selection Methods .
1. Scoring method - the most significant criteria for evaluating suppliers is determined. A certain scoring system and the value of the assessment are selected. The significance of the criteria is determined in fractions of a unit.
| Criteria | Suppliers | Significance of criteria | |||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||
S points S points S points S points
Where the score is the highest, that provider is more important than the others.
2. Another approach - the indicator of the ideal supplier is determined, and each of the suppliers is compared with the ideal.
3. Prioritization - according to the results of the work of suppliers, their actual assessment is made. For this:
The most important evaluation criteria are selected;
The method of measuring the activity of the supplier is selected;
The relative importance of each parameter is determined and a method for evaluating the results is adopted.
Example: In evaluating a supplier, product quality is of paramount importance. Quality of service and price are also taken as important. The importance of the 1st parameter is 50%, the others - 25% each. A scoring system is developed to help quantify supplier performance for each dimension. The number of products is taken as 100 points, from which the number of points showing the products that we had to abandon is subtracted. Service - 5 points are deducted for each overdue delivery. Price - the lowest of the assigned prices is selected as a percentage of the price actually paid (95 is the lowest, but 100 was paid). Based on these data:
Quality - 50% (100-12) = 44.0
Service - 25% (100-5*5)=18.75
Price - 25% (95/100)= 23.75
Total 86.5 points
Negotiation. As a result, a gain should be achieved for both the supplier and the buyer. The supplier-consumer relationship is based on partnership.
A good supplier delivers goods on time, ensures reliability and quality, stability, keeps promises, keeps the buyer up to date.
A good consumer - orders on time, ensures constant demand, pays accurately, accurately determines the specification, trusts the supplier and builds his relationship on mutual understanding.
Agreement. As a result, a contract or a supply agreement is signed - an agreement under which one legal entity. the person (supplier) undertakes to transfer within a certain period of time to another legal entity. to a person (consumer) in the ownership of products of a specified assortment and quality in the required quantity, and the consumer - to pay for the products. In case of non-compliance with the terms of the contract, the supplier enterprise must pay a penalty.
Relationship management. Deliveries are controlled. In some cases, in order for deliveries to be made on time, the delivery is forwarded.
The main indicator of supply is the reliability of supply:
P =1-P failure ( P refusal - the probability of refusal to satisfy the application).
Single-channel system (for 1 component - 1 supplier). Supply security:
In other cases, the algorithm for determining the reliability of supply:
1. Comparison of the planned and actual delivery date.
2. Determining the time of delay.
3. The planned and actual delivery volume is compared. Cases of non-delivery of products are identified.
4. The volume of underdelivery of products DQ =Q actual - Q plan is determined.
5. A conditional delay is determined in case of underdelivery t’ op = DQ/q.
(DQ - amount of underdelivery, q - average daily consumption).
6. The total amount of delays is determined T op = t op + t’ op
7. The number of failure cases is determined.
8. The time between failures is determined T o = (T - åT op) / n where T is the total number of days in the period.
9. The failure rate p =1/T op is determined.
10. The supply readiness factor is determined K gp \u003d (T-åT op) / T
11. Reliability of supply P=K gp *e - p t the higher this coefficient, the more reliable the supply.
5: Features of the purchase of materials according to the JIT system (just in time)
The system was developed in Japan. Its features:
Stable output;
Frequent deliveries in small batches;
Deliveries based on long-term orders;
The minimum amount of related documentation;
The volume of information on deliveries is fixed for the entire volume, but may vary from one delivery to another;
Oversupply or undersupply is virtually eliminated;
Suppliers are oriented towards the use of standard containers and packaging;
Suppliers are required to release parts in small batches and define a JIT system for purchasing materials;
The minimum scope of the specification;
Suppliers are provided with assistance in product quality;
The number of suppliers is limited;
Closely located suppliers are selected;
Much attention in this system is paid to the delivery of goods.
System advantages:
Reduced inventory holding costs;
Reduction of marriage;
Reducing the scope of the specification;
Ease of making changes (by phone);
Benefits for the supplier:
Skilled workforce is retained;
Own reserves are preserved through the implementation of the system;
Simplification of the procedure for coordinating deliveries due to the proximity of the supplier.
Formation and regulation of stocks
1. The concept of stock. Reasons for education.
2. Essence and value of a production stock.
3. Calculation of the stock control parameter.
4. Systems of inventory control.
1: stock concept. Types of deficiency:
Natural (lack of certain types of resources);
Technological (formed due to the fact that they did not do what was needed);
Artificial.
When there is a shortage, stocks must be made.
2: Essence and value of a production stock.
Simple stocks - different types of mat. resources intended for industrial consumption.
Reasons for the formation of simple stocks:
Inconsistency of supply volumes with the volume of one-time consumption;
The gap in time between the moments of receipt of materials and its consumption;
Climatic conditions of the area;
Reduced transport costs.
Manufacturing stock includes:
Current stock (required for between 2 regular deliveries);
Preparatory reserve (serves to ensure the uninterrupted operation of the enterprise during the period necessary to prepare the mechanisms for operation);
Insurance or guarantee stock (required in case of interruptions in the supply process).
Commodity stocks (stocks of finished products and stocks in the channels of the sphere of circulation).
Each type of stock can be measured:
a) in physical terms (pieces, m 2) to determine the degree of availability of stocks of a particular type of product;
b) in value terms (you need to know how many resources and at what price) is necessary for the total amount of the stock and comparison with the sale of products, costs and other indicators.
c) in days of supply (the required volume of stocks in kind divided by the average daily consumption).
3: calculation of the optimal size of the batch of deliveries .
The following questions need to be answered:
How much should be kept in stock. resources?
How much can we order at one time?
When should we order?
supplies
insurance T
period between
1st and 2nd deliveries
q current (t) = q max - * t (- average daily consumption).
For the norm of the current stock in physical terms, half of the maximum stock is taken: q cf = (q max + q min) / 2 = q max / 2
The period of time between two deliveries: T= q max / (q max - the size of the batches).
The current stock rate in days of availability is defined as half of the interval between deliveries.
Inventory levels - max, average, min.
PZ max = q max current + q insurance.
PZ average = q current average + q insurance
PZ min = q insurance
Calculation under uncertainty.
The economic lot size is the size of a lot of goods that minimizes the expected total inventory requirement under certain conditions and prices.
The methodology for determining the economic lot size is to compare the advantages and disadvantages of large and small stocks. The following assumptions are used in determining the economic lot size:
The total number of units that make up the annual requirement is known;
The quantity demanded is constant;
Orders are executed immediately;
The cost of placing an order does not depend on the size of the lot;
Prices for materials do not change in the period under review.
We determine the cost of purchasing materials.
C mat \u003d C * q (C - the price of the goods, q - the volume of the lot) C 1 - the costs of fulfilling the purchase order, semi-fixed costs (not dependent on the volume of the lot) for placing an order, drawing up or signing a contract, travel expenses. Administrative expenses (post, telegraph), expenses for acceptance and storage of goods.
(С xp - storage costs, t - delivery period, p - average daily consumption)
C 2 - the cost of storing a unit of goods, q - stored stock, p - average daily consumption.
C total \u003d C * q + C 1 + C xp (total cost per batch)
General dependency on lot size
With Wilson Formula
C xp
(P- daily requirement (unit/day))
Q opt С 1 (A- annual requirement (unit/year)).
Knowing q opt, you can determine the optimal number of deliveries per year = n opt A/ q opt
Optimal interval between deliveries t opt =360/ n opt
| S 1 / S 2 | q opt | S 1 / S 2 | q opt |
| 1 | Ö2q q opt | 20 | 2Ö10q |
| 2 | 2Öq | 40 | 2Ö20q |
| 5 | Ö10q | 80 | 4Ö10q |
| 8 | 4Öq | 90 | 4Ö45q |
C 1 =10-16; C 2 \u003d 0.1-0.5; Lower limit 10/0.5=20; Upper limit 16/0.1=160
C 1 /C 2 \u003d (160 + 20) / 2 \u003d 90, i.e. q opt \u003d 4Ö45q
The costs associated with the maintenance of stocks are 10-40% of the cost of the stocks themselves. C 2 -variable costs include:
Costs associated with heating, lighting;
Salary of employees;
Costs associated with conducting inventories, freezing working capital, damage to goods, natural loss;
Compilation related costs.
Several cases of determining the value of the optimal supply:
A protracted party;
Accelerated use of stocks;
Receipt of goods within a certain period of time when there is a shortage.
Delayed delivery model
q Essence: the period of time is divided into 2 parts.
q max in period t 1: receipt mat. resources and their consumption (b>p,
(b-p)t q-pt b-receipt, production)
Maximum margin q max =(b-p)/t=(b-p)q/b=(1-p/b)/q
q media =(1-p/b)q max /2
C total \u003d C xp + C 1 + C tr \u003d (1-p / b) C 2 q / 2 + C 1 n + C tr (rub / year) C tr - transport. expenses, n-number of batches.
We take the 1st derivative with respect to Ctot and equate to 0:
Accelerated use of inventory: consumption intensity mat. resources is such that there may be a certain shortage of materials. If this deficit is comparable to the cost of maintaining stocks, then the deficit is allowed.
t 1 - the time during which the stock in the warehouse is available.
q n t 2 - the time that the stock is missing.
q n - the initial size of the stock (usually less
q is better than the value of the optimal lot)
Determined C total and current costs:
Average deficit: 
C 3 - costs associated with deficit losses C def \u003d C 3
C total = 
(- deficit adjustment)
Model of goods receipt for a certain period of time when there is a shortage.
q t 1 - the time of receipt with the simultaneous consumption of mat. res.
T 2 - stock consumption period.
t 3 - deficit period.
T 4 - deficit replenishment period.
T 1 t 2 t 3 t 4 t
C 3 includes:
Penalties to consumers for late delivery;
Payment of idle time to workers;
Overtime pay;
Losses associated with an increase in s / s prod.
Losses associated with the supply of the wrong assortment.
Determining the size of the optimal batch under uncertainty.
| demand (newspapers) | frequency (days) | relates. frequency | accumulate frequency |
| 28 | 10 | 0,1 | 1,0 |
| 29 | 20 | 0,2 | 0,9 |
| q opt 30 | 35 | 0,35 | 0,7 |
| 31 | 25 | 0,25 | 0,35 |
| 32 | 10 | 0,1 | 0,1 |
| 100 | 1,0 |
| Order size | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | |
| 28 | 1,4 | 1,4 | 1,4 | 1,4 | 1,4 | 1,4 |
| 29 | 1,3 | 1,45 | 1,45 | 1,45 | 1,45 | 1,435 |
| 30 | 1,2 | 1,2 | 1,35 | 1,5 | 1,5 | 1,44 |
| 31 | 1,1 | 1,25 | 1,4 | 1,55 | 1,53 | 1,392 |
| 32 | 1,0 | 1,15 | 1,3 | 1,45 | 1,6 | 1,307 |
28: 28*0,15=1,4$
30: 28*0,15-30*0,1=1,2
Expected daily profit for each day defined:
P(28)=0.1*1.4+0.2*1.4+0.35*1.4+0.25*1.4+0.1*1.4=1.4$
Limit value method: the analysis begins with the minimum order quantity and determines the probability of selling this volume: P(MRU)(1-P)MCO
P - the probability of selling another 1 unit of production;
MCO - prev. overorder cost
MRU - prev. income from the sale of additional units.
PMCO/(MCO+MRU)=0.1/(0.1+0.05)=0.67
Warranty (insurance) stock .
1 The value of the guaranteed stock is determined by:
According to the interval of backlog of deliveries mat. resources
q str \u003d (t 1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4)
t 1 - the time required by the buyer to order;
t 2 - the time required by the supplier to ship materials;
t 3 - movement time mat. from supplier to customer;
t 4 - time for unloading and storage.
2 - study of actual delays in deliveries and deviations in the volume of deliveries according to the algorithm:
1. Determination of the total scope of supply;
2. Determination of the weighted average delivery interval
3. Determination of the delay interval
t op \u003d t i -t cf. vz
4. Determining the amount of delay (the entire amount of delivery for which there is a delay)
5. Determination of weighted average delay intervals
6. Determination of the average daily consumption;
7. Determining the amount of safety stock
3 Based on the standard deviation of the delivery interval
(t i - intervals, k - number of intervals)
4 Based on the standard deviation in the volume of deliveries:
1. The average value of the supply volume is determined
Determination of the total value of the production stock.
З - stock capacity
PZ \u003d Z * T Z \u003d (S m * t) / (S p * 360)
4: Inventory management systems- a set of measures for the creation and replenishment of stocks, organization, control and planning of supplies.
Reorder point - set min. the level of stock, when reduced to which an order is made for the supply of the next batch of mat. resources.
The order quantity is the quantity of a batch of materials for which an order must be issued for replenishment.
You can adjust the amount of the order:
Change in batch volume;
Change in the interval between deliveries;
Change in volume and delivery interval.
Inventory management system :
With a fixed order frequency;
With a fixed order quantity;
With the established frequency of replenishment of stocks to a constant level;
Min - max
Self-regulating systems
Right on time.
Systems with a fixed order frequency
(at regular intervals)
q max t 1 \u003d t 2 \u003d t 3 - order lead time
Order Point
T 1 tT 2 T 3 T
Used for low value items
When storage costs are low
When the costs are negligible, if the stock has run out
When one of many materials is ordered from one supplier
When discounts significantly determine the batch of ordered goods
With a relatively constant level of demand
Q order \u003d q max - q f + pt + q res
q f - the actual amount; pt - consumption during the execution of the order; q res -reserve
Advantages of the method:
Simplicity
Inventory adjustment is carried out 1 time between order periods
Flaws:
The need to place an order even for a small amount
The danger of a shortage
Fixed order quantity
(implies the receipt of materials equal, in advance
certain batches at different time intervals)
q max Q order = const.
The order is placed at the order point and completed within the time t
Notes:
Used for high value goods and materials
Goods make up only a small fraction of the supplier's output
There is a regular inventory check
The physical presence of the goods is easy to account for
Characteristics:
Materials arrive in equal batches, reducing shipping and inventory costs
Systematic control required (increasing storage costs)
High cost of supplies
High cost of storage
High level of damage
The unpredictable nature of demand
and fixed order frequency
The lower and upper limits of the allowable stock level are set.
The maximum level is determined by the company itself
The minimum is determined by the order point
Q max Adjustable system parameters:
Duration between orders
Positive:
Eliminates some possibility of deficiency
Flaws:
Replenishment to the maximum cannot be carried out regardless of the actual consumption of the stock.
System with two fixed stock levels
without constant order frequency
((s,S) - inventory management strategy; min-max)
2 adjustable parameters:
S - lower critical stock level
S - upper stock level
If x denotes the value of stocks, in order to make a decision on their replenishment,
p - replenishment amount, then Y(x) - stock after replenishment = x+p
Y(x)= x, for x > s
S, for x £ s
If the current stock is >s, no replenishment occurs.
If the stock £ s, then the replenishment occurs up to the level S, while p=S-x
In the warehouse of a car dealership, the s,S strategy is used. at s=50, S=300.
How many p need to replenish the stock, if now there is x:
Self-regulating systems
The systems discussed above assume relative invariability of conditions, in practice there are the following cases:
1. Change in inventory requirement
2. change of terms of delivery
3. breach of contract by the supplier
For this, combined systems with the possibility of self-regulation are created. In each system, a certain objective function is set, which serves as an optimality criterion, within the framework of the economic and mathematical model of inventory management. It contains 3 elements:
1. Costs associated with the organization of the order and its implementation, payment for all services for the delivery of goods to the warehouse. They may depend on the annual volume of activities, the organization of the enterprise, on the size of the order. Ways to reduce costs: change org. structures - by 2%, the use of automated control systems - by 10%
2. Storage costs: fixed costs (rent); variables (depending on the level of stocks) - storage costs, costs of processing inventory, losses from spoilage, etc. When calculating, they use the specific value of storage costs, which is equal to the costs per unit of stored goods per unit of time. It is assumed that the cost of storage for the calendar period is proportional to the size of stocks and the length of the period between orders.
3. Waste due to shortages: occurs when the supply and marketing organization is financially responsible for customer dissatisfaction and lack of order. For example, in case of unsatisfactory demand, a penalty is charged for failure to meet delivery deadlines. Probability of deficiency Р def =N def / N without def.
"Just in time" system
Orders how much you can consume without using the warehouse. Conditions for the system: psychological aspect - willingness to sacrifice for the sake of the enterprise; clear organization.
ABC inventory regulation
Determining the timing and size of purchases is reduced to calculations using any one formula and is considered formal mechanical work.
Principles: it is irrational to give batches that play an insignificant role in production the same attention as materials of paramount importance (Pareto principle); depending on the costs, materials are divided into 3 classes A, B, C. A - a few but important materials that require large investments. B - relatively minor materials requiring less attention than A. C - is a significant part of the nomenclature, inexpensive, they account for the smallest part of the inventory investment.
Stages of the ABC method:
Set the cost of each part
Set demand for every detail
Arrange materials in descending order of price
Summarize Quantity and Material Cost Data
Divide materials into groups depending on the share in total costs
Advantages: allows to classify materials and formally use it for a long time.
Disadvantages: possible reclassification due to changes in demand and price; Need control
Fundamentals of enterprise logistics
New philosophy of production organization: integration of supply chain, marketing, transportation processes and presentation of production as a clearly market-oriented system (just-in-time production system)
In the US, "Just in Time" consists of 4 elements:
- timely assembly of finished products from units
- timely sale of finished products
- timely purchase of material resources
- timely launch of material resources into production
All modern production organizations are divided into 2 types: “Pushing” (pushing) and “Pulling” (pulling)
Characteristic of the traditional (push) approach: production of parts in accordance with the schedule (parts arrive as they are ready from the previous operation to the next one)
The pull system is that the subsequent section orders and withdraws parts, assembly units, etc. from the previous section to the next. The hauling system is conceived to reduce inventory.
Comparison of push and pull systems
| Characteristics | Pulling | pushing |
| 1. Purchasing strategy (supply) | Focused on a small number of suppliers, deliveries are frequent, in small batches, strictly on schedule | Orientation to a significant number of suppliers, deliveries are mostly irregular, in large quantities |
| 2. Production strategy | Orientation of production to changes in demand, orders | Focus on maximum utilization of production capacities. Implementation of the concept of continuous production |
| 3. Production planning | Begins with assembly or distribution | Planning for production capacities |
| 4. Operational production management | Decentralized. Production schedules are drawn up only for the assembly stage. The implementation of the schedules of other stages is monitored by the management of the shops | Centralized. Schedules are compiled for all workshops. Control is carried out by special departments (planning, dispatching bureaus) |
| 5. Inventory management strategy | Stocks in the form of unused capacities (machines) | Stocks in the form of surplus material resources (raw materials) |
| 5.1 Safety stock management | The presence of safety stocks indicates a failure in the production process. storage space is almost non-existent | The safety stock is constantly maintained at a certain level |
| 5.2 Operational stock management (workplace stocks) | Operational reserve is minimal due to the synchronization of production | The operating reserve is not always minimal due to the non-synchronization of related operations, different throughput of equipment, its poor placement, inefficient transport and storage operations |
| 5.3 Finished Goods Inventory Management | Stocks are practically non-existent due to the fast dispatch of finished products to the customer. There are no excess stocks, because the size of the batch of finished products is oriented to the order | Stocks can be large. because of: Late production of products Late delivery of finished products The batch size of finished products is oriented to the annual program without taking into account fluctuations in demand |
| 6. Use of equipment and its placement | Versatile equipment that is placed in a ring or line principle | Specialized equipment located in sections, as well as partially universal equipment located linearly |
| 7. Frames | Highly skilled multi-machine workers (generalists) | Highly specialized workers, but there are also multi-machine workers |
| 8. Quality control | Supply of high-quality material resources, components, products. Complete quality control is carried out by the supplier | Continuous or selective control at all stages of production, which lengthens the production process |
| 9. Distribution strategy | The batch size of finished products is equal to the size of the order. Orientation to a specific consumer. Tailor-made manufacturing After-sales service organization | The size of the batch of finished products corresponds to the planned release. Orientation to the “average consumer”. Organization of after-sales service |
Advantages of the pull system
Rejection of excess inventory, information about the possibility of quickly acquiring materials, or the availability of spare capacity to quickly respond to changes in demand.
Replacing the policy of selling manufactured goods with a policy of producing salable goods.
The task of full capacity utilization is replaced by minimizing the time for products to pass through the technological process.
Reducing the optimal resource batch, reducing the processing batch.
Fulfillment of orders with high quality
Reduction of all types of downtime and irrational in-plant transportation.
Kanban system
Kanban was developed by a group of Japanese managers. Losses in this method are surplus production, early production, marriage, irrational transportation, storage of excess stocks.
Stock location L Stock location M
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Plot A Plot B
1. In the pull system, the movement starts from the area where the part is used (site B). The finished container with TC from the stock storage location L is sent to the processing site. Beforehand, a transport card is removed from it, which is placed in the collector of transport cards.
2. The empty container from site B is sent to the storage location of stock M, where a shipping card is attached to it, and the container with the card is sent to the storage location of stock L, which is located in another area.
3. At stock location L, the transport card from the empty container is removed and attached to a full container, ready to be shipped to stock location M.
4. At the moment of attaching the transport card to the full container, the production card is removed from it, which is placed in the production card collector.
5. The empty container is sent to the processing area and remains there until a signal is received to process the parts with which it is filled.
6. Production cards are sent to processing area A at regular intervals and serve as a signal to start manufacturing and processing parts. An empty container is filled with finished parts and, with a production card attached to it, is sent to the stock storage location L.
7. Parts for each completed order are loaded into an empty container, a production card is attached to it, and the container is sent to stock storage location M.
Efficiency is ensured by compliance with several rules:
1. The next stage pulls the necessary products from the previous stage in the required quantity and at a strictly set time.
2. No part can be manufactured in the manufacturing/processing areas until a production card is received authorizing production
3. The number of kanban cards must strictly match the quantity of the product
4. No part is produced if there is no production card
5. Various parts must be made in the order in which the cards were received.
6. Defective products should not go to the next site
7. The number of cards must be minimal, because it reflects the maximum stock of parts. The right to change the number of cards belongs to the middle management staff.
8. There are 1 transport card and 1 production card per container, the number of containers is calculated by the production manager
9. Only standard containers are used in which a certain number of parts are placed
"Shojinka"
It consists in regulating the number of workers involved in the site with fluctuations in demand for products.
Conditions for implementation:
V-shaped or linear arrangement of equipment (as the process progresses, workers can quickly move to another area)
The presence of well-trained multi-machine workers with different specialties.
Professional rotation system
It involves the training of workers in several specialties in order to turn them into generalists.
General operating system
Aimed at maximum utilization of equipment. Reduces downtime, changeover times, etc. System 4-8-4-8-4 (4 hours of prevention, 8 hours of work)
Autonomous quality control at each workplace.
It took 10 years to implement the system. It aims to produce a variety of products.
Just-in-time production
Allows you to identify problems that are not visible due to excess inventory and excess personnel.
The idea of the system is to produce and deliver finished products just in time for their implementation. Separate details - by the time of assembling the nodes. Units and components - by the time of assembly of the product as a whole.
The system provides for a reduction in the size of batches of machined parts; Reducing the backlog; Minimizing inventories is next to impossible without significantly reducing changeover time.
From storage The Japanese believe that q wholesale can be done 1.
In Japan, changeover time is 10-12 minutes
From changeover for 99% of products, 100 seconds for
The conditions for using the system are a high level of automation, synchronization of production processes, a high level of production culture, high product quality, high productivity, the elimination of storage facilities, and a reduction in cycle time.
Just-in-time system
It assumes the reduction to the possible limits of the difference between the time of receipt of materials at the next stage of production and the time of their consumption. This system bypasses intermediate warehousing (production without stocks, work from wheels). Application of the system requires synchronization mat. flow and those operations.
It is not possible to use the Kanban system without Just-in-Time and Just-In-Time systems.
OPT system
“Optimized Manufacturing Technology” is a production and supply management system developed by Israeli and American specialists in the 80s, “Israeli Kanban”. The goal is to identify bottlenecks in the production or, in the terminology of the creators, “critical resources”, which are raw materials, materials, machines, equipment, those. processes, personnel.
JIT system (JIT)
Minimize downtime while waiting for materials and ensure a complete balance of the processes of transportation, production, installation, and their synchronization.
System options:
Production simultaneously with installation (assembly) - “assembly from wheels”.
Purchase simultaneously with production (sub-suppliers are involved in the organization of production) several independent enterprises participate in the manufacture of products: 1 general contractor, others are sub-suppliers who manufacture and supply individual components of the product to the head enterprise.
System “Seven 0”
Modification of the JIT system. Its features:
0 defects (high quality)
0 downtime (min. setup time when changing product)
0 batch size in the workplace
0 loss of time and transport costs
0 excess products
0 downtime for troubleshooting
0 cycle duration (total of 6 first items)
0 does not mean reduction to absolute zero, but minimization, which is what we are aiming for.
CIM system
Synchronization of the movement of material and information flows, i.e. 2 parallel streams. Allows you to get any information about the location of the mat. flow.
Distribution logistics
The task is to bring the goods to the consumer with minimal costs and in the shortest possible time.
Place of distribution logistics and its
functions in the logistics system
Distribution logistics is associated with the movement of goods in the field of distribution:
Planning and controlling the physical movement of materials and finished products from their places of origin to their places of use.
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1. Purchase
1 enterprise 2. Production
3. Sale (distribution)
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consumers 1. Purchasing
2. Production
3. Sale (distribution)
The distribution of one enterprise is closely related to the purchase at another enterprise.
The differences between distribution logistics and procurement logistics are that the product distribution process and the procurement process take place in different parts of the circulation sphere, proceed differently and have different targets.
In distribution logistics, the contractor is the manufacturer, in purchasing logistics, the buyer. Logistics operations and costs can be multivariate depending on the terms of delivery.
The transition of distribution logistics to purchasing - price tracking.
Distribution logistics:
Ex. concept: price ex-car-station departure. This means that the supplier has fulfilled all the conditions for the transportation and dispatch of the cargo, from the moment it is packed and shipped to the moment when the cargo is loaded onto the wagon.
Purchasing logistics - other operations performed by the buyer.
As a rule, most of the profit falls on the share of the manufacturer (from 3 to 40 and even 50%).
The boundary between distribution and purchasing logistics is fluid, but the rules governing this fluidity are stable and clear.
Distribution logistics functions:
Profitable to distribute
Profitable to implement
Profitable to sell
The goals of distribution logistics (for the manufacturer):
Ensure constant readiness to expand the offer of goods or services
Ensure the competitiveness of goods or services
Constantly search for new sales markets and consolidate position in old markets
Ensure the transport of goods to their destination
Improve delivery terms
Establish sustainable relationships with consumers
Follow up on purchase orders
Create new warehouses in consumer markets
Meet the urgent needs of consumers
Create and maintain the required level of inventory
Provide maximum service
Maintaining large volumes of inventory
Perfect transport system
Availability of multiple warehouses in different markets
Organization of additional points of service and customer consultation
(Service costs are long-term - the effect does not appear immediately)
saturation curve - further investment
have no effect.
Money for the service, spent less than a certain amount, also does not entail the effect of the investment.
Distribution cost minimization:
Cheap transportation system
Maintaining small inventory
Availability of the optimal number of warehouses
Optimal warehouse capacity
Optimal location of warehouses
Some firms store part of their inventories at the enterprise itself or not far from it, the rest - in warehouses in various parts of the country. The firm may have its own leased warehouses, leased locations.
The degree of inventory control is higher in its warehouse, but it is more difficult for the firm to respond flexibly to demand.
Public warehouse - high costs, but additional services are provided - control and protection. The firm can easily move to another market.
Logistic chains(logistics channel, distribution channel)
A supply chain is a linearly ordered set of individuals or legal entities (intermediaries, manufacturers, public warehouses, etc.).
This set carries out logistical operations to bring the external material flow from one enterprise to another and the production, consumption of material resources.
According to the place of formation, logistics channels are divided into external and internal:
External - add up between different enterprises and are formed outside the gates of the enterprise.
Internal - between sections of the enterprise itself, as a rule, cyclical and periodically renewed.
External chains can be of several types: cyclic (in the presence of long-term contracts between enterprises), short-term and long-term.
Classes of complexity of supply chains
1. Simple supply chain
seller buyer
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Simplification of the logistics chain - when a trading and purchasing organization with its own warehouse, transport, and experts acts as an intermediary.
The difference between a supply chain and a distribution chain is the availability of choice.
Location of consumers
Number of consumers
Consumer concentration
The value of the average purchase
Consumer income level
The pattern of consumer behavior when buying
The scope of services that consumers would like to see
Manufacturer's capabilities:
If the firm is small, it is more profitable for it to participate in short distribution systems
Age of the firm (short chains are preferable for a young firm)
Financial opportunities
Market location
Competition Factor
Marketing activity management
Market Coverage
Availability of market information
Enterprise capacity
The strategy or policy followed by the enterprise in the field of distribution (if the policy is passive, the chains are long)
Advantages of short distribution channels:
Direct study of your market
Control over the conduct of trading operations
Savings on intermediaries
Close cooperation with consumers
Opportunity to conduct scientific developments with the participation of consumers
Develop contractual relationships with its direct customers
Form a permanent system of orders
Advantages of using intermediaries:
Helps to keep in touch with multiple outlets
An intermediary can act as a purchasing agent for a retailer and as a distribution agent for a manufacturer
The company may not have its own warehouses, but shift the responsibility of storage to intermediaries
Entering the market through an intermediary with experience delivers goods more efficiently
The cost of delivering goods to the end consumer is reduced, the staff of the sales department is reduced, the cost of org. structure
Distribution logistics indicators
A product is an object or action that has useful consumer properties and is intended for sale.
Merchandising is a combination of economic and physical processes of the transition of goods from the sphere of production to the sphere of circulation.
Link - the number of transitions of goods from one owner to another.
Warehouse links - the number of shipments of goods from one warehouse to another.
Classification of distribution channels
Level 0 channels
Level 1 channels
Relationship between merchandise and turnover
Turnover (TO) - the process of buying and selling, exchanging goods for money. The turnover is measured in value and natural units.
Gross turnover - the sum of all sales of goods on the way from the producer to the consumer.
Net turnover - exempt from re-counting (from resales) = final sale of goods.
Link coefficient Kv = Gross TO / Net TO
Average link (resale) ratio for retail
Kvv \u003d (Gross MOT + stock) / (Net MOT + stock)
Uniformity of delivery - characterizes the receipt of goods in equal parts at equal intervals of time.
Rhythm of delivery - compliance with the terms and sizes of delivery stipulated by the contract, taking into account seasonal and cyclical characteristics of production or consumption.
The degree of delivery rhythm shows compliance with the established delivery dates.
The reciprocal is the number of delivery periods.
Kar= - coefficient of arrhythmia. Pf - actual delivery, Pd - under the contract, the closer this coefficient is to 0, the more rhythmic the delivery.
Supply variability coefficient is an indicator that is inverse to the uniformity coefficient, which is calculated as a % ratio of the standard deviation s supply from the average level of supply.
Level of distribution channels - the number of resellers who take ownership of the product.
Inventory and turnover:
The product has 2 purposes:
Satisfy the needs of the consumer
Bring profit to the manufacturer
Until the item is sold, it is stock. The ultimate goal of a TMZ is to be sold. Therefore, the buyer and the seller strive to ensure that the inventory passes through the channels to the market as quickly as possible.
The stock provides no benefit to the owner other than the cost of storage.
Optimal inventory is strongly linked to market conditions. But there are artificially formed commodity stocks (holding goods, monopoly).
Commodity turnover is a concept that averages the turnover of the mass of commodities, which is a complete process.
The process of involving the goods in the sphere of circulation, the ultimate goal is the transfer of goods to the sphere of consumption.
Product turnover is affected by:
The ratio of supply and demand
Consumer properties of the goods
The complexity of the product range
Organization of the delivery of goods to different points of consumption
Geographic features
Turnover indicators:
The volume of inventory, which is expressed in quantity or value
Reserve inventory
Min inventory level
Max inventory level
Commodity stock structure (determined by receipts from all sources)
Inventory level - average inventory over a period of time
Z month = (Z start + Z end) / 2 - average stock per month
Zquarter \u003d (Z 1 + Z 2 + Z 3) / 3 - average stock for the quarter (for 3 months)
Average chronological stock: stock is recorded on specific days of the month and their average is taken.
Inventory intensity - eliminates the influence of the factors of the dimension of the trading organization and is designed to compare the levels of stocks of different organizations. In this case, the assumption is made that the size of the stock is directly dependent on the turnover.
The security of trade turnover with commodity stock - reflects the number of trading days for which there is enough commodity stock.
Zobes i =Zk i /m i (Zk i - ending inventory, m i - one-day inventory of the i-th product).
Characteristics of the turnover process:
Velocity of circulation (the number of revolutions of the commodity mass per unit of time). The rate depends on the duration of the study period.
Turnaround time. The time of one turnover characterizes the number of days during which the goods are in the form of a stock (which passes from the moment the goods enter the sphere of circulation until they are sold).
Ef \u003d P / C - Efficiency (P - profit, C - number of revolutions).
Optimal stock size. The simplest calculation method is to find the average value.
There are also methods:
Experimental-statistical (based on statistical reporting on the inventory and its further analysis)
The method of expert assessments is based on a subjective assessment of the current moment and development prospects
Settlement and economic method. The essence is that the volume of inventory is divided into component segments and optimization is carried out according to the formula:
N i \u003d a i + b i + 1/2c i + d i
a i - stock for the time of acceptance and pre-sale preparation of the i-th product
b i - working stock of the i-th product
1/2c i - half of the current stock
d i - safety stock of the i-th product
N=SN i - total optimal margin
The most used is the economic-mathematical method of extrapolation, which consists in transferring the rates that have developed in the present and the past to the future.
Wilson formula:
R - the size of consumer demand
From 1 - (determined by the optimal market for the goods), all cost items are considered, except for transport. In retail trade C 1 - costs for storage, sorting, packaging, maintenance of refrigerators,% for a loan, damage to goods, safety stock, etc. For an individual company - everything that is bought but not sold - the entire inventory.
C 2 - all transportation costs
Methods for optimizing the distribution of goods
To solve optimization problems, it is necessary to ensure control over all links of the cargo movement system.
Criteria optimization:
Profit. This criterion gives a quantitative assessment of the company's activities associated with the entire complex of goods distribution operations.
Minimization of distribution and distribution costs.
Possible activities to increase profits are the following activities:
Creation of a unified transport and storage system (fast delivery to the consumer)
Economic association of production and marketing
Development of optimal warehousing and replenishment schemes. A number of problems arise - the company must decide to what extent the costs associated with reducing the time of goods distribution are offset by an increase in revenue from increased sales; whether the enterprise can afford a decrease in the level of customer service while increasing the volume of deliveries; how expedient it is to store goods at the place of production or on the market.
The choice of a merchandising scheme depends on the optimization goals set by the enterprise; min delivery time or max service level, max profits, min costs.
Logistics information system
The goals of creating an information system:
Ensure the viability and viability of the company
Providing employees with a normal labor process
Eliminate confusion in getting information and using it
Expansion of enterprise functions in accordance with market requirements
Consumers of the information system: marketing departments, supply and sales department, warehouse, product and technology developers, management of enterprises.
External consumers and information providers: consumers of products, suppliers of raw materials and components, intermediaries, competing enterprises, investors, advertisers.
Basic principles of building an information system:
Hierarchy (subordination of tasks and use of data sources)
The principle of data aggregation (taking into account requests at different levels)
Redundancy (construction taking into account not only current, but also future tasks)
Confidentiality
Adaptability to changing requests
Consistency and information unity (determined by the development of a system of indicators, which would exclude the possibility of uncoordinated actions and the output of incorrect information)
Openness of the system (for data replenishment)
The system includes experts and computer simulation complexes. The main type of information product is statistical data, as well as facts, knowledge, and skills presented both in primary and processed form. The system operates subject to technical and legal restrictions and can operate in several modes:
Information and reference mode
Sort and group mode
Analytical mode (issuance of analytical information and documents based on the results of processing 2 more characteristics of different affiliation.
Calculation mode (calculations are performed according to pre-formalized models and dependencies)
Advisory mode (several solutions are issued based on formalized and intuitive methods)
Tutorial mode
Optimization
Construction scheme
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DB PsA Subject base
Modeling
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Input Staging
Task data
Classification of the main tasks of production and marketing,
solved with the help of information systems
| Task content | Information Support |
1.1 Collection of evidence, primary analysis of production and consumption 1.2 Analysis of production dynamics |
Statistical data on the actual production and supply of products for a number of periods. Characteristics of enterprises and products |
2.1 Analysis of demand for a given type of product for a given type of enterprise 2.2 FSA of products from the point of view of a given consumer 2.3 Analysis of the elasticity of demand for a given type of product for a given group of consumers, depending on the price |
Statistics of deliveries of the given production at the given enterprise, bid requirement of refusal in delivery. Competitor supply data The functional structure of production at the customer's enterprise. Statistics of deliveries and prices of products and analogues |
| 3.1 Analysis of the possibilities of supplying other types of products to this group of enterprises | Data on the needs of customer enterprises, technological capabilities of the supplier |
| 4.1 Analysis of new markets | Data on the use of products in other enterprises. Competitor production data |
5.1 Analysis and forecast of the functioning of the enterprise. Analysis of sales and technological leaps in production |
Data on technology, objects and means of labor, sales data |
6.1 The general task of forming the optimal nomenclature production program of the enterprise 6.2 Generalized analysis of technological, marketing and raw material production opportunities 6.3 Determination of the enterprise strategy for personnel, production and promotion of products |
Data on technological processes, objects and means of labor, personnel composition, financial condition, data on the possibilities of attracting labor of the required qualification, capital investments. Data on various intermediary organizations |
| 7.1 General analysis and forecast of production and marketing of these products | Production and sales data for all manufacturers and consumers |
Main directions of the work program for implementation
logistics functions in the enterprise
Technical means are selected to complete the program task
Requirements for quality characteristics are established and the amount of necessary financial and labor resources is determined
Determination of basic methods for the formation of program tasks
The choice of the organizational form for the implementation of program tasks
Drawing up a network model for the execution of stages and works
Development of a system of evaluation criteria and motivations for actions
Organization of control, accounting and evaluation of the progress of work
Databases - contain information on various areas of commercial activity: directories of product ranges, directories about consumers, manufacturers, banks, stock exchanges, etc. Data on requests for sales, advertising and purchase of services. Category tables can also be used
Knowledge bases are highly structured data. It is called the extended-declarative-procedural approach to data representation.
The following models are presented in the software system of the information system:
Factor analysis model. It is built on the basis of information about the activities of the objects under study and is designed to quantify the contributions of various factors to the diagnosis of the resulting indicators.
Model of generalization of information. Designed to build integral indicators in accordance with the goals of the analysis.
Forecast model. To determine options for the development of an object that are essential for entrepreneurial activity.
Model of making optimal decisions.
Factor analysis helps to solve the following tasks:
Model of elasticity of demand for price and quality parameters of the product
Model of activity of consumers, suppliers and competitors
Models of generalization of information:
Integral assessment of competitiveness and marketability of goods
Model of risk assessment of planned and economic decisions.
Foreign information systems to solve
tasks of logistics, marketing, production
SSA's "Business planning and controlling system" system is a system for planning and managing an enterprise of any profile. Includes 40 interconnected software products, modules, etc. It considers both continuous and discrete manufacturing processes. For the activities of enterprises consisting of several firms. In 92g. the system was installed at 57 thousand enterprises in 60 countries, in 150 cities. It is used by L'Oreal, Proctor & Gamble, SONY, BASF, Shell.
Firm "Baan International" - system "TRITON" - an integrated open system, based on the operating system UNIX. The "Tools" package contains a database management system, a special programming language. Features of the implementation methodology - the fastest return on investment in the information system - by accelerating the installation time. At the end of 1994, the company had 1800 installations. Users - PHILIPS, Hitachi, ECCO, etc.
System R2 and R3 of the German company SAP AG. As of 1994, 84 out of every hundred industrial enterprises in Germany use this system. Logistics solutions (sales, material flow management, maintenance, flexible production and distribution networks). R3 is partially being implemented at GAZ, used at Boeing.
Warehousing logistics
1. Tasks and functions of warehousing2. Classification of warehouses and form of warehousing Independently according to the book
3. Fundamentals of the commission system
4. Performance indicators of warehouses
5. Development of storage facilities of intermediary organizations
There are 4 groups of indicators:
1. Characterizing the intensity of the warehouse
2. Characterizing the efficiency of space use
3. Characterizing the level of cargo safety and financial performance
4. Characterizing the level of warehouse optimization
Group 1 includes:
Warehouse turnover. It characterizes the complexity of the work and is determined by the number of tons of cargo of various names that have passed through the warehouse for a certain period of time (day, month, year)
Specific freight turnover of the warehouse. It characterizes the amount of cargo per 1 m 2 of the total warehouse area.
Warehouse load unevenness ratio - the ratio of cargo turnover in the most busy months to the average monthly turnover of the warehouse.
Average availability in the warehouse - reflects the connectedness of working capital and the state of the warehouse.
N usr \u003d (N start + N end) / 2
N usr \u003d (N January + N March + N May) / 3
The duration of the warehouse turnover (shelf life) is a purely calculated value, which shows after what period of time the availability in the warehouse will be exhausted. Expressed in days or fractions of a year.
Warehouse turnover - the inverse of the duration of the turnover indicator - how often the contents of the warehouse are completely updated.
Ready for delivery. There are 3 approaches:
a) by the number of completed orders (the ratio of completed orders to the total number)
b) in quantitative terms (in terms of supply, the ratio of the completed volume of deliveries to the total volume)
c) in value terms (the ratio of the cost of completed orders to the total cost)
Deliveries errors - the ratio of incorrect deliveries to the total number of deliveries. Incorrect deliveries: product defects, incorrect products, incomplete deliveries, delays, premature delivery.
2nd group:
Warehouse capacity - characterizes the amount of cargo that the warehouse can accommodate at a time.
Usable area of the warehouse (occupied directly by material and technical resources). The area is divided into cargo (useful), operational (occupied by receiving, sorting and completing areas), as well as passages and driveways. Constructive area - occupied by partitions, columns, vestibules. Service area - occupied by offices and household premises. The sum of all types of areas is the total area of the warehouse (gross area). Area utilization ratio - the ratio of usable area to gross area.
Useful area Spol=Mmax/ (Mf*O), Mf - actual loading of 1m 2 warehouse, O - number of revolutions.
The cost of maintaining 1m 2 S \u003d Srez * S 1 + P k * 365 * S 2 ® min. Sres - reserve area, Pk - probability of failure, S 2 - losses from refusal to accept cargo.
In the sphere of circulation, the usable area is determined on the basis of the forecast Sf*Ito*Ip*K, Ito is the turnover growth index, Ip is the consumer growth index, K is the predicted coefficient of change in throughput, adjusted for the coefficient of influence of the progressiveness of customer service forms.
The load capacity of the warehouse is the allowable load per 1m 2 of area.
The degree of volume utilization.
3rd group:
The number of cases of non-safety of goods arising due to the fault of warehouse workers.
Cost of cargo storage.
The share of costs for warehousing per 1m 2 of the warehouse area (net or gross), per 1m 3.
Use of PDS (handling vehicles).
storage loss.
4th group:
The level of equipment of warehouses with loading and unloading means is determined by the ratio of the total carrying capacity of all means of mechanization to the cargo turnover of the warehouse for the billing period.
The level of equipment of the warehouse with auxiliary means (pallets, containers). The ratio of the volume of transportation with the help of auxiliary means to the total volume of cargo turnover.
The indicator of the use of loading and unloading facilities.
For the purpose of optimization, various economic and mathematical methods are used - the theory of queuing (TMS) to determine the maximum number of PDS in order to minimize downtime of external transport and minimize total costs. TMO can be used to optimize the warehouse space, the number of employees, to select the fleet of lifting and transport vehicles, its loading and structure. Implementation of an automatic cargo addressing system, automated container yards, fully automated warehouses. Implementation of automated control systems, which have subsystems of warehouse and transport facilities.
5. Development of warehouse intermediary organizations.
Intermediary organizations can carry out storage in their own warehouses located both in the places of manufacture of products and in the places of consumer enterprises, in rented warehouses, in public warehouses.
Public warehouses can be:
Warehouses-hotels, the functions of which are: provision on a commercial basis of space, volume, capacity to any client and for any period of time for storing his products, as well as services related to the acceptance, storage, placement, release and dispatch of these products.
Consignment warehouses carry out, on behalf of clients, the delivery of products belonging to them to the warehouse and its sale in strict accordance with the conditions agreed upon by this client.
Border warehouses at customs organizations are used to transport and store the required amount of goods crossing the border.
Public warehouses play an important role - they reduce the need for storage space.
Raising the technical level of warehouses, automation. Advantages - savings by reducing the loss of material resources as a result of better storage conditions and savings by reducing the cost of processing cargo.
Transport logistics
1. Goals and objectives of transport logistics. Self by book
2. Types of vehicles and their classification
3. Factors affecting the choice of vehicles
4. Indicators of transport logistics
3: The choice of vehicles is influenced by:
The nature of the cargo (weight, volume, consistency)
Number of batches sent
Location of the destination, taking into account weather, climate, seasonal characteristics
The distance over which the goods are transported
The value of the cargo
The proximity of the location of the point of delivery of goods to the railway network or highway
Cargo safety
Risk to cargo, non-delivery
Advantages and disadvantages of using different modes of transport
|
transport |
Advantages | Flaws |
| railway | The possibility of transporting bulk consignments of goods, the presence of a network of railway lines connecting different regions of the country | Slow (280 km/day), insufficient efficiency of marshalling yards. transportation only to those areas where there are railway tracks, theft and loss, long downtime |
| motor transport | Operational mode of transportation, the possibility of forwarding | High cost, complexity of significant volumes of transportation, dependence on road conditions, only for short distances, unsuitable for foreign trade transportation (non-compliance with Western standards) |
| air Transport | High speed, indispensable in emergency conditions | High cost, limited lot size, weather dependent |
| water transport | transportation of large quantities, cheap, widely used in international trade | Low speed, dependence on the work of the port, dependence on the season and weather |
Factors to consider when choosing a vehicle:
Characteristics of products (what is transported, in what form)
Distance and route of movement
Production conditions
When choosing a movement in the areas, a transport and technological scheme is developed that takes into account the consistency of vehicles in adjacent areas of production, and the physicochemical properties of the product are taken into account.
L. A. Mishina
The proposed edition provides answers to the examination answers in logistics.
The abstract of lectures was prepared in accordance with the program of the course in the discipline "Logistics". The main concepts of the subject are presented in an accessible way. All questions are systematized and structured, which contributes to easy assimilation of the material. Designed for students of economic specialties.
LECTURE #1. Logistics
1. The concept and essence of logistics
Logistics is the art of reasoning, calculating. In economics, logistics is a scientific and practical activity related to the organization, management and optimization of the movement of material, information and financial flows from the source to the end consumer. At the beginning of the 20th century in Russia, professors of the St. Petersburg Institute of Communications published the work "Transport Logistics", on its basis models of the transportation of troops were built, which received practical application in conducting and planning military operations of the First World War. During the Second World War, logistics was widely used in the logistics of the army. The active use of logistics in the economy dates back to the 60–70s of the last century. Until the middle of the last century, great importance was not attached to the creation of schemes for the supply of goods. This period is characterized by the development of production. However, by the middle of the last century, it became necessary to find ways to create competitive advantages. At this stage, monetary investment in the distribution system affects the position of the supplier in the market more than investment in production. Tracking all stages of the movement of raw materials, parts and final products allows you to see the losses allowed in the usual schemes for managing material flows. In logistically organized chains, the cost of goods at the final point is lower than the cost of the same goods in the absence of a logistics approach. This monitoring shows a clear economic benefit from the use of logistics in the economy. That is why logistics began to be used for more efficient management of material flows. The active use of logistics was helped by scientific and technological progress, which made computer technology and instant communication more accessible. This made it possible to monitor material and information flows, managing them at all stages of movement.
2. Functions and tasks of logistics
There are two types of logistics functions: operational and coordination. Operational functions are associated with the management of the movement of material assets in the field of supply, production and distribution.
In the field of supply, this is the management of the movement of raw materials, materials, stocks of finished products from the supplier to the manufacturing plant, warehouse or retail store.
At the production level, logistics is management, including control of the movement of a semi-finished product through all stages of production, as well as the movement of goods to warehouses and markets.
Distribution management covers the organization of the flow of final products from the producer to the consumer. The functions of logistical coordination include: identifying and analyzing the material needs of various parts of production, analyzing the area of markets in which the organization operates, forecasting the development of potential markets, processing customer needs data. The essence of these functions is to coordinate supply and demand. Based on the relevant information, logistics deals with matching the demand presented by the market situation and the proposal developed by the organization. From the coordination function of logistics, another direction was formed - operational planning. Based on the demand forecast, a transportation schedule and a procedure for managing stocks of finished products are developed, as a result, production planning is determined, and programs for the supply of raw materials and components are developed. From the fundamental positions, the following functions of logistics are distinguished: backbone, integrating, regulating, resulting.
Backbone logistics is a system of effective technologies for providing resource management.
The integrating function is the provision of logistics for the synchronization of the processes of marketing, storage and delivery with reference to the market of means of production and the provision of intermediary services to consumers. The regulatory function is to implement the management of material, information and financial flows to reduce costs.
The resulting function implies the activity of delivering goods in the right quantity at a certain time and place with the required quality at the lowest possible cost. The criterion for determining the effectiveness of the implementation of logical functions is the achievement of the ultimate goal of logistics activities.
The tasks facing logistics can be divided into general, global and private. Achieving maximum effect with minimum costs is the main global task of logistics. Modeling of logistics systems and factors of their functioning is also referred to as global tasks.
General tasks include:
1) creation of a system for regulating material and information flows;
2) forecasting the possible volumes of production, transportation, storage;
3) determination of the inconsistency between the need and the ability to implement it in production;
4) identification of demand for a product developed and promoted within the logistics system;
5) organization of pre-sales and after-sales service.
Based on the solutions to common problems, a network of warehouse systems is created to organize customer service and optimally attach them to production points.
Private tasks have a narrower focus and include:
1) creation of minimum stocks;
2) the maximum reduction in the storage time of finished products;
3) reduction of transportation time.
The basic rules of logistics can be formulated as follows: the right product of the required quality in the right volume is delivered at a certain time and place with minimal cost. The main object of research in logistics is the material flow. The actions attached to the material flow are called logistic operations, or logistic functions. Material resources in a state of movement, work in progress, manufactured products, to which logistics operations or functions are applied, determine the material flow.
A logistics operation is a movement coordinated with the emergence, absorption and transformation of the material and accompanying information, financial and service flow.
The logistics function is an autonomous component of logistics operations aimed at solving the tasks put forward for the logistics system and links. The combination of logistics operations and functions depends on the type of logistics system.
3. Basic concepts of logistics
The concept of a logistics system is central to logistics. A complex organizational system, consisting of fragments of links, combined in one process of managing material and related processes, is a logistical one. The tasks of functioning of the links of the system are united by internal tasks of the business structure or external goals. Certain functional links and relationships are established between the elements-links of the logistics system. Some economic and functionally isolated object is called the logistics link of the system. It fulfills its narrow role, defined by logistics operations and functions. There are several types of links in the logistics system: generating, transforming and absorbing. Often there are mixed links of the logistics system, in which three main types are presented at once, combined in various combinations.
Material flows in the links of the logistics system can converge, split up, branch out, change their content, parameters and intensity. Enterprises-suppliers of material resources, marketing, trade, intermediary organizations of various levels, enterprises of information and trade services and communications can act as elements of the logistics system.
Another concept of logistics is the supply chain. A large number of links in the logistics system represent a logistics chain.
The links in the logistics chain are linearly ordered by material, information, cash flow with the task of analyzing or designing a specific set of logistics functions or costs.
The next concept in logistics is the logistics network. A logistics network is a large number of links in the logistics system that are interconnected by material or related information and cash flows within the boundaries of the logistics system.
The logistics network is a narrower concept in contrast to the logistics system, which is characterized by the presence of a higher logistics management that implements the target function of the system.
The concept of total costs is usually associated with another concept in logistics - the logistics channel. A logistics channel is an ordered set of links in the logistics system, which includes the full volume of logistics chains or their participants, conducting material flows from the supplier of material resources needed for the manufacture of a particular type of product to direct consumers.
The concept of a logistics channel includes external, intra-production and macro-logistics groups within a certain framework of each logistics operation. Therefore, the concept of total logistics costs is fundamentally important.
4. Factors and trends in the development of logistics
In industrialized countries, interest in the development of logistics is associated with economic reasons. The development of logistics was predetermined by the following factors: increased requirements for the quality characteristics of the process, the transition from the seller's market to the buyers' market. This transition was accompanied by significant changes in distribution systems and production strategies. If earlier the sales system was adjusted to production, then in conditions of market oversaturation, production programs are formed depending on the volumes and divisions of market demand. In a highly competitive environment, adapting to the interests of the clientele requires manufacturers to respond to these requests, which leads to an improvement in the quality of service, minimization of order execution time and strict adherence to the agreed delivery schedule. Time factors, together with the price and quality of products, have become decisive for the successful functioning of the enterprise. It should be noted the complication of the implementation problem with a parallel interest in the quality of the distribution sphere. A similar reaction arose from manufacturing firms to their suppliers of resources and materials, as a result, a complex system of relations between various market representatives was formed, which required modification of existing models of organization in the field of supply and marketing. The replacement of traditional conveyors with robots has led to significant savings in human labor. The production of small batches of products has made it cost-effective to create flexible manufacturing systems. Large enterprises were given the opportunity to restructure their activities from mass production to small-scale production at minimal cost. Small firms have been able to increase their flexibility and competitiveness. Work on the principle of "small batches" in the system of organizing the provision of material resources and the sale of finished products led to appropriate changes. Often deliveries in large quantities became not only uneconomical, but in some cases were simply not needed. There was a need to move goods in small batches within tighter deadlines, but there was no need for large storage capacities at enterprises. At the same time, transportation costs were covered by funds released from the reduction in storage space. As directly determining the development of logistics, in addition to the above, it is necessary to note the following factors: the use of systems theory and trade-offs for solving economic problems, the introduction and use of personal computers of the latest generations in the field of commodity circulation and economic practice, as well as the acceleration of scientific and technological progress; in countries that carry out intensive communications among themselves, the standardization of technical means of communication, moving stock and handling facilities, the elimination of various import and export restrictions. The ascent from the lower stage of development of logistics to higher ones, as a rule, is gradual or, when favorable conditions appear, zigzag. Such conditions can be considered the merger of enterprises, a change in the management regime, political initiatives. An analysis of the levels of development of logistics showed that those companies that use a versatile approach to logistics management improve their performance. The development of logistics in advanced economies in recent years is characterized by the transfer of the function of monitoring the distribution of finished material from manufacturing enterprises to specialized firms. As a result, a type of contract logistics has been formed, which involves the involvement of a third party in the form of a wholesaler to perform all or part of the functions of a company in the distribution of products, along with transportation, storage, inventory management, customer service and the creation of logistics information systems.
5. Basic principles of logistics
In order to master logistics and improve it, some firms set up advisory centers. The development of logistics is carried out in conjunction with the development of the concept of logistics and its principles. Of paramount importance in the development and creation of logistics systems are the principles that determine the nature and essence of the entire coordination device in general and its individual aspects in particular. There are several basic principles that reflect a logistical approach to solving a problem in production and economic activities.
1. The principle of synergy. This principle defines an integrated and systematic approach to achieving certain goals. Given the interaction between the mechanism of production and circulation, on the basis of this principle, it is possible to achieve a better result in the whole structure by coordinating actions in all interrelated processes than by improving the functioning of individual elements of the logistics system.
2. The principle of dynamism. Logistic systems should reflect the essence of the processes they cover and should not be frozen organizational and economic formations.
The essence of the logistics process lies in the progressive dynamics, which is determined in the development, striving for improvement. Dynamism determines the supply and marketing operations, means and objects of labor, goals and objectives expressed at the next stage of development.
3. The principle of completeness. This principle means that systems in logistics should be built as a community of several or many elements that are closely interconnected. Within the framework of the logistics system, the permanent autonomous functioning of any individual elements is not allowed. Emergencies and non-standard situations are an exception.
4. The principle of initiative. Logistic systems built on this principle presuppose the manifestation by the formed structures of the ability to determine the reaction to probable events, together with the ability to create and regulate subjective conditions that positively affect the processes of economic activity.
5. The principle of expediency. Focuses on attracting the potential that plays a positive role in achieving the goals. In the choice of organizational, technical and technological structures, selectivity is manifested, expressed by the desire to reduce costs or travel time in the conditions of the possibility of solving certain problems in several ways.
The concentration of interrelated functions in the joint structures for storage and transport facilities under a single management determines, first of all, the implementation of the principles of logistics. The transition to integrated management is carried out with a logistic approach, in contrast to the traditional one, where management is often isolated. The progressiveness of economic systems in terms of logistics is achieved not by increasing the material and technical base, but by improving it. With the logistic approach, all factors that are related to the economic system and that are associated with it are consistent. The most effective indicators in the organization of economic activity are achieved as a result of the parallelism of the mechanism of production, transportation, supply and marketing with the maximum integration of interconnected systems and subsystems on the principles of logistics. A decrease in the volume of stocks, uncoordinated material flows, a reduction in storage costs, the movement of material resources and manufactured products occurs as a result of the implementation of logistics principles.
The principles of logistics make it possible to improve the methodology and improve the quality of organizational design, to provide a systematic approach to the design of transport and storage, production, communication and information subsystems.
The practical application of logistics tasks and principles depends on the specific situation and is diverse.
6. Information support in logistics
The introduction of information and computer technologies into all business areas determines the current state of logistics. Without the use of high-speed computers, the implementation of most logistics concepts is impossible. Information support of the logistics process is so important that specialists single out information logistics, which has an independent value in business and information flow management.
Information flow is a flow of messages in paper and electronic (documentary), speech and other forms, put forward by the initial material flow in a certain logistics system, between the links of the system or the logistics system and the environment and is intended for the implementation of control functions.
It is possible to single out elementary, key, complex and basic information flows in connection with logistic actions and functions.
Information flows in connection with the logistics system are divided into:
1) passing inside the logistics system or its link, or flow;
2) passing between the logistics system and the external environment.
The most common types of information media are streams on paper and magnetic media.
According to the time of occurrence of information, flows are divided into:
1) regular (stationary);
2) periodic;
3) operational.
Regular correspond to a time-limited data transmission, periodic are strictly limited by the transmission time, and operational provide communication between subscribers in an interactive mode. Depending on the purpose, control, auxiliary information flows, information flows for conducting accounting and analytical activities, for making decisions, flows of regulatory and reference information are determined. In modern logistics, the increasing role of information flows is due to the following main reasons.
A necessary element of the consumer logistics service is information about the status of the order, the availability of goods, the time of delivery, and release documents. The availability of complete and reliable information from the position of supply chain inventory management can reduce the need for labor reserves by minimizing the relativity of the demand line. The flexibility of the logistics system is increased by information in this approach, when resources can be used to achieve specific benefits.
Logistics management has numerous indicators and characteristics of information flows:
1) terminology of transmitted messages, types of data, documents;
2) data volumes;
3) data transfer rate;
4) throughput of information channels;
5) noise immunity.
Between information and material flow there is no unambiguous synchronous correspondence of occurrence in time. The information flow either advances or lags behind the material one. Sometimes the material flow is a consequence of the information flow. Typical is the presence next to the material flow of several informational ones. The information flows accompanying individual logistic functions can be very complex and rich in terms of workflow.
The specific needs of logistics management determine the information flows in the logistics system when developing some of the details of regulatory planning, analysis and accounting. As an example, consider a diagram of sources of information and emerging information movements when predicting the dispersal of stocks of manufactured products in the distribution network. When planning an enterprise's inventory of finished products, consumer requests, sales forecasting, distribution decisions, and inventory management costs are taken into account. Information reflecting the needs of consumers details the classes and groups of consumers in a certain part of the market, the ways of delivering finished products to each group and the formation of a logistics service.
Information flows carry information about product requirements, the cost of finished products, the procedure for ordering and delivering finished products to consumers. To predict sales volume, information sources include information such as:
1) information on previous sales of a specific assortment of the market;
2) the number of sales of competitors' products;
3) the entire volume of sales of this market segment;
4) market demand for finished products;
5) reliability and accuracy of information on previous sales;
6) planned changes in the quality characteristics of finished products;
7) economic directions in changing the structure of consumer demand;
8) short-term forecasts in the finished product distribution system;
9) forecast for the development of new markets.
Information flows characterizing decisions in the distribution system can be divided into those characterizing the temporary causes of operations in the dividing network and reflecting the accuracy and reliability of data. Information that reduces the uncertainty of timing distribution combines order fulfillment data. The time parameters of transportation are associated with the choice of a delivery scheme, route, etc. The cycle of receiving an order, its duration include information about the time of delivery of the goods, the destination, the time of loading and unloading, paperwork. Associated with a decrease in the uncertainty of other parameters, information flows take into account the terms of delivery, the reliability and accuracy of information when managing stocks. The considered information flow for one function of logistics management gives an idea of the complexity and diversity of information flows in the logistics system.
1. Goals, concepts of logistics.
2. Evolution.
3. Basic concepts and definitions .
4. Basic, key and supporting functions of logistics.
5. Logistics operations.
Logistics is the process of planning, managing and controlling the effective (in terms of cost reduction) flow of stocks of raw materials, work in progress, finished products, services and related information from the place of origin of this flow to the place of its consumption (including imports, exports, internal and external movements). ) in order to fully satisfy the needs of consumers
The prerequisites for the development of logistics are:
- rapidly rising shipping costs.
- reaching the limit of production efficiency. The cream has already been skimmed off, and logistics remains an area where there is still potential for cost savings for the firm.
- fundamental changes in the philosophy of stocks.
- creation of productive lines as a direct result of the introduction of the marketing concept (providing each consumer with the products that he needs).
- Computer techologies. Logistics management is associated with the processing of a huge amount of data. The very possibility of management presupposes knowledge: the location of suppliers, each consumer, means of production, warehouses and distribution centers; the size of each order; transportation costs; the modes of transport available and the level of service offered; stock levels in each warehouse. The development of computer technology makes it possible to put into practice the concept of logistics.
- growth in computer use suppliers and consumers. This allows firms to systematically study the quality of service from different providers. The results of the analysis lead many firms to realize the need to modernize their distribution systems. Firms are increasingly using just-in-time resource delivery, which places very high demands on suppliers.
Goals of logistics. Target physical distribution systems is to reduce the costs associated with the movement of finished products from the place of production to the place of consumption and its storage in accordance with the required level of service. aim material resource management , which is designed to serve intra-company material flows, is the effective satisfaction of the company's needs for raw materials, materials, p / f. Logistics goals associated with the coordination of physical distribution and management of material resources to reduce costs or improve customer service. To achieve these goals, the logistics manager uses interrelated concepts (principles) - total costs, avoiding sub-optimization.
The concept of total costs. In this concept, the logistics functions are considered as a whole, and not each separately: transportation of products, warehousing of stocks, optimization of the placement of stocks and suppliers, control of stocks of material resources and finished products, loading and unloading operations, maintenance of information flows, etc. In this concept, all costs are considered as incurred simultaneously to provide the required level of service. When comparing alternative approaches, the costs for some functions will increase, for some they will decrease or remain at the same level. The goal is to find an alternative that has the lowest total cost.
The concept of preventing sub-optimization. Sub-optimization occurs when efforts to improve a particular feature do not lead to optimal results. There is a growing understanding that the effectiveness of a single function, studied in isolation, may differ from the effectiveness of a function as part of the overall logistics process. It is necessary to search for compromise options for the interaction of all functions in order for the system as a whole to achieve the optimal cost / efficiency balance.
concept "logistics" originated from ancient Greece, where it meant "the art of reasoning, calculation". In Rome, logistics was understood as the rules for the distribution of food. In Byzantium, logistics was considered a way of organizing the supply of the army and managing it.
Logistics as a science and as a business tool in the civilian field began to take shape in the early 1950s, primarily in the United States. The evolution of logistics is closely related to the history and evolution of market relations in industrialized countries, and the term "logistics" itself has taken root in business since the late 1970s. The period from the 1920s to the early 1950s is called the period of "fragmentation", when the idea of logistics as an integral tool for reducing overall costs and managing material flows in business was not in demand, although individual logistics functions were important in terms of reducing cost components. During this period, a number of works on marketing were published, in which the nature of physical distribution as an integral part of marketing was revealed, its role in organizing and increasing the efficiency of the sale of goods was indicated. By the early 1950s, the theory of military logistics was basically formed.
The period from the mid-1950s to the 1970s is called by Western specialists period of formation logistics. This period is characterized by the rapid development of the theory and practice of logistics. The philosophy of marketing has spread widely in Western business organizations. At the same time, it became clear that the possibilities of improving distribution (physical distribution) could no longer be neglected, primarily in terms of cost reduction. The rapid development of oligopolistic market structures has forced business organizations to look for new ways to coordinate supply and demand, to better serve consumers. New logistical approaches have emerged to shorten order and production cycles.
In the late 1960s, the West formulated business logistics concept as an integral management tool. The main content of the concept was as follows: "Logistics is the management of all activities that contribute to the movement and coordination of supply and demand for goods in a certain place and at a given time."
By the early 1970s, the fundamental principles of business logistics were formulated, and some Western firms began to successfully apply them in practice. Attempts to introduce logistics coordination in many Western firms encountered opposition from middle and even top management. Managers who have long been accustomed to performing traditional functions, such as purchasing, transportation, cargo handling, often prevented the implementation of organizational changes necessary to implement end-to-end material management based on the concept of reducing total costs. Additional difficulties were created by the accounting systems that existed at that time, which were not adapted for isolating and controlling the components of logistics costs and assessing the financial results of firms' logistics operations. By the end of the 1970s, the so-called "packaging" revolution, which radically changed the warehouse process, its operational composition, organization, technical and technological support. The standardization of containers and packaging also had an effect.
The period from the 1980s to the mid-1990s is characterized by the rapid development of modern marketing and integrated logistics concepts in the industrialized countries of the West. During this period, the theory and practice of logistics in the West have stepped far forward, far surpassing the level achieved in previous decades. The defining idea for the development of logistics at that time was the maximum integration of the logistics functions of the company and its logistics partners into the so-called logistics chains: "purchases - production - distribution - sales" to achieve the ultimate goal of the business at minimal cost. The use of PCs, the creation on their basis of local computer and telecommunication networks, automated workstations (AWP) opened up new horizons for logistics. Modern software has made it possible to use a PC in interactive procedures for integrated logistics management from the purchase of materials to the distribution and sales of finished products. The formation of the global information space went in the direction of creating and developing databases and data banks, systems and standards for electronic transactions and electronic communications. The booming market for electronic communications, such as data networks, facsimile, e-mail, teleconferencing, clearinghouses, open source software, etc., has contributed to the promotion of logistics concepts in business.
The decisive role in the formation and approval of the integral concept of logistics was played by the possibility of constant monitoring of material flows in real time in the remote access mode through information communication systems. In 1985, the LMS (U.S. Board of Logistics Management) clarified the definition of logistics as follows: "Logistics is the process of planning, managing and controlling the efficient (in terms of cost reduction) flow of inventories of raw materials, work in progress, finished products, services and related information from from the point of origin of this flow to the place of its consumption (including imports, exports, internal and external movements) in order to fully satisfy the needs of consumers.
main object research, management and optimization in logistics is material flow . informational, financial, service flows considered in the subordinate plan as generated investigated material flow.
In a broad sense logistics - this is the science of managing and optimizing material flows, service flows and related information and financial flows in a certain micro-, meso-, or macroeconomic system in order to achieve its goals. In a narrow sense logistics - this is an integral management tool that contributes to the achievement of the strategic, tactical or operational goals of the organization through effective (in terms of reducing overall costs and meeting the requirements of end users for the quality of products and services) management of material and (or) service flows, as well as the accompanying information flows and financial resources.
Actions applied to the material (accompanying) flow in such a system are called logistics operations or functions.
material flow can be defined as material resources in a state of movement, work in progress, finished products, to which logistics operations or functions are applied, associated with physical movement in space (loading, unloading, packing, transportation, sorting, consolidation, disaggregation, etc.). Material resources (MR) are objects of labor: raw materials, auxiliary materials, components, fuel, production waste, etc. Work in progress (WP) is a product that is not finished by production within the enterprise. Finished products (FP) are products that have completely passed the production cycle at a given enterprise, completed, passed technical control, delivered to a warehouse or shipped to a consumer.
logistics operation name any action that is not subject to further decomposition (division into component parts) within the framework of the task of research or management, associated with the emergence, transformation or absorption of material and its accompanying flows.logistic function call a separate set of logistics operations aimed at the implementation of the tasks assigned to the logistics system and (or) its links.
Logistics system (LS) - it is an organizationally completed (structured) economic system, consisting of links interconnected in a single process of managing material and related flows. At the same time, the tasks of the functioning of these links are subordinated to the general (general) goal of the organization.
A link in the logistics system (ZLS ) some economically and (or) functionally isolated object is called, which is not subject to further decomposition within the framework of the task of analyzing or building a logistics system, pursuing its local goal, due to specific logistics operations or functions. ZLS can be of three types: generating, converting and absorbing flows. There are mixed units of ZLS, in which the properties of the main types are combined in different combinations. Suppliers, manufacturers of products, marketing, trade, intermediary organizations, etc. can act as APs.
Supply chain (LC) called a set of LS links, linearly ordered by the material (accompanying) flow in order to analyze or design a certain set of functions and (or) costs.
The construction and study of LC by accompanying flows is of great practical importance, since in modern business, there is no synchronism in the movement of material resources, SOEs and the flows of information and money related to them. For example, information that the goods have been shipped and are on the way comes to the buyer much earlier than the goods themselves. In addition to the mismatch in time, the studied flows are broken and separated in space. This greatly complicates the adoption of effective logistics decisions.
Logistics network - an ordered set of LLS interconnected by material and other flows. Logistics channel - part of the logistics network that conducts material flows of a specific type (name) of products, starting from resource suppliers and ending with the end consumer.
Each logistics operation has costs that are borne by specific IPs. If PPPs are not included in the structure of the company producing the goods, then for it the partners' costs act as a payment for their intermediary services (tariffs for transportation, loading and unloading, warehousing, storage, forwarding, etc.).
In the cost structure of Western countries, inventory management costs account for 20-40%, transportation costs 15-35%, administrative and management costs 9-14%. The classification of logistics costs is as follows: into elementary and complex operations; losses from immobilization of funds in stocks; damage from an insufficient level of quality of management and service; for administration.
To basic logistic functions include: supply, production, marketing.
Key logistics functions:
Maintaining customer service standards
Purchasing management,
Transportation,
Inventory Management,
Management of order procedures,
Production procedure management,
Pricing,
physical distribution.
Maintaining customer service standards ensuring a given level of product quality, distribution of goods and after-sales service is the primary task of the logistics management of any Western company. The ideology of total quality management, mandatory certification of goods and services according to the ISO-9000 series require firms to continuously strive to provide higher quality products and services compared to competitors.
Purchasing management includes a set of tasks such as choosing suppliers of material resources, planning needs, determining the timing and volume of supplies, choosing forms of supply and types of transport, taking into account the factors of time, quality of resources, costs and risks.
Transportation management involves the choice of a carrier and a forwarder, a mode of transport for a certain type of cargo, a route.
Inventory Management is the process of creating, controlling and regulating the level of stocks in supply, production and marketing, taking into account the time factor.
Order procedure management determines the order of receipt and processing of orders, the points in time of receipt of SOEs (services), and also initiates the work of the distribution network or intermediaries.
IN production procedures management of great importance are the tasks of space-scheduling, minimizing the level of stocks of resources and work in progress, forecasting the need for resources, and reducing the production cycle.
Pricing strategy related to the marketing and logistics strategies of the firm. The latter sets the level of total costs that form the basis of the price of the GP, and the level of profitability and the final sale price of the GP depend on the marketing strategy.
Physical Distribution - a complex function, an integral part of the distribution (distribution) process, which includes all operations related to the physical movement and storage of GPs in the commodity distribution structures of the manufacturer and intermediaries.
To supporting logistics functions usually include:
Warehousing,
cargo handling,
protective packaging,
Ensuring the return of goods,
Provision of spare parts and service,
collection of returnable waste,
Information and computer support.
Logistics operations are extremely diverse: loading and unloading, packing, freight forwarding, transportation, storage, acceptance and release of goods, reloading, sorting, assembly, consolidation-disaggregation, collection, storage, transfer of information about cargo, settlements with suppliers and buyers, cargo insurance, transfer ownership of goods, customs, etc.
The abstract of lectures complies with the requirements of the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education. Accessibility and brevity of presentation make it possible to quickly and easily obtain basic knowledge of the subject, prepare and successfully pass the test and exam. The basic concepts, functions, tasks of logistics, logistics systems, procurement activities in logistics, as well as warehouse, transport, distribution logistics, inventory logistics, costs and risks in logistics are considered. For students of economic universities and colleges, as well as those who independently study this subject.
L. A. Mishina
The proposed edition provides answers to the examination answers in logistics.
The abstract of lectures was prepared in accordance with the program of the course in the discipline "Logistics". The main concepts of the subject are presented in an accessible way. All questions are systematized and structured, which contributes to easy assimilation of the material. Designed for students of economic specialties.
LECTURE #1. Logistics
1. The concept and essence of logistics
Logistics is the art of reasoning, calculating. In economics, logistics is a scientific and practical activity related to the organization, management and optimization of the movement of material, information and financial flows from the source to the end consumer. At the beginning of the 20th century in Russia, professors of the St. Petersburg Institute of Communications published the work "Transport Logistics", on its basis models of the transportation of troops were built, which received practical application in conducting and planning military operations of the First World War. During the Second World War, logistics was widely used in the logistics of the army. The active use of logistics in the economy dates back to the 60–70s of the last century. Until the middle of the last century, great importance was not attached to the creation of schemes for the supply of goods. This period is characterized by the development of production. However, by the middle of the last century, it became necessary to find ways to create competitive advantages. At this stage, monetary investment in the distribution system affects the position of the supplier in the market more than investment in production. Tracking all stages of the movement of raw materials, parts and final products allows you to see the losses allowed in the usual schemes for managing material flows. In logistically organized chains, the cost of goods at the final point is lower than the cost of the same goods in the absence of a logistics approach. This monitoring shows a clear economic benefit from the use of logistics in the economy. That is why logistics began to be used for more efficient management of material flows. The active use of logistics was helped by scientific and technological progress, which made computer technology and instant communication more accessible. This made it possible to monitor material and information flows, managing them at all stages of movement.
2. Functions and tasks of logistics
There are two types of logistics functions: operational and coordination. Operational functions are associated with the management of the movement of material assets in the field of supply, production and distribution.
In the field of supply, this is the management of the movement of raw materials, materials, stocks of finished products from the supplier to the manufacturing plant, warehouse or retail store.
At the production level, logistics is management, including control of the movement of a semi-finished product through all stages of production, as well as the movement of goods to warehouses and markets.
Distribution management covers the organization of the flow of final products from the producer to the consumer. The functions of logistical coordination include: identifying and analyzing the material needs of various parts of production, analyzing the area of markets in which the organization operates, forecasting the development of potential markets, processing customer needs data. The essence of these functions is to coordinate supply and demand. Based on the relevant information, logistics deals with matching the demand presented by the market situation and the proposal developed by the organization. From the coordination function of logistics, another direction was formed - operational planning. Based on the demand forecast, a transportation schedule and a procedure for managing stocks of finished products are developed, as a result, production planning is determined, and programs for the supply of raw materials and components are developed. From the fundamental positions, the following functions of logistics are distinguished: backbone, integrating, regulating, resulting.
Backbone logistics is a system of effective technologies for providing resource management.
The integrating function is the provision of logistics for the synchronization of the processes of marketing, storage and delivery with reference to the market of means of production and the provision of intermediary services to consumers. The regulatory function is to implement the management of material, information and financial flows to reduce costs.
The resulting function implies the activity of delivering goods in the right quantity at a certain time and place with the required quality at the lowest possible cost. The criterion for determining the effectiveness of the implementation of logical functions is the achievement of the ultimate goal of logistics activities.
The tasks facing logistics can be divided into general, global and private. Achieving maximum effect with minimum costs is the main global task of logistics. Modeling of logistics systems and factors of their functioning is also referred to as global tasks.
General tasks include:
1) creation of a system for regulating material and information flows;
2) forecasting the possible volumes of production, transportation, storage;
3) determination of the inconsistency between the need and the ability to implement it in production;
4) identification of demand for a product developed and promoted within the logistics system;
5) organization of pre-sales and after-sales service.
Based on the solutions to common problems, a network of warehouse systems is created to organize customer service and optimally attach them to production points.
Private tasks have a narrower focus and include:
1) creation of minimum stocks;
2) the maximum reduction in the storage time of finished products;
3) reduction of transportation time.
The basic rules of logistics can be formulated as follows: the right product of the required quality in the right volume is delivered at a certain time and place with minimal cost. The main object of research in logistics is the material flow. The actions attached to the material flow are called logistic operations, or logistic functions. Material resources in a state of movement, work in progress, manufactured products, to which logistics operations or functions are applied, determine the material flow.
A logistics operation is a movement coordinated with the emergence, absorption and transformation of the material and accompanying information, financial and service flow.
The logistics function is an autonomous component of logistics operations aimed at solving the tasks put forward for the logistics system and links. The combination of logistics operations and functions depends on the type of logistics system.
3. Basic concepts of logistics
The concept of a logistics system is central to logistics. A complex organizational system, consisting of fragments of links, combined in one process of managing material and related processes, is a logistical one. The tasks of functioning of the links of the system are united by internal tasks of the business structure or external goals. Certain functional links and relationships are established between the elements-links of the logistics system. Some economic and functionally isolated object is called the logistics link of the system. It fulfills its narrow role, defined by logistics operations and functions. There are several types of links in the logistics system: generating, transforming and absorbing. Often there are mixed links of the logistics system, in which three main types are presented at once, combined in various combinations.
Material flows in the links of the logistics system can converge, split up, branch out, change their content, parameters and intensity. Enterprises-suppliers of material resources, marketing, trade, intermediary organizations of various levels, enterprises of information and trade services and communications can act as elements of the logistics system.
Another concept of logistics is the supply chain. A large number of links in the logistics system represent a logistics chain.
The links in the logistics chain are linearly ordered by material, information, cash flow with the task of analyzing or designing a specific set of logistics functions or costs.
The next concept in logistics is the logistics network. A logistics network is a large number of links in the logistics system that are interconnected by material or related information and cash flows within the boundaries of the logistics system.
The logistics network is a narrower concept in contrast to the logistics system, which is characterized by the presence of a higher logistics management that implements the target function of the system.
The concept of total costs is usually associated with another concept in logistics - the logistics channel. A logistics channel is an ordered set of links in the logistics system, which includes the full volume of logistics chains or their participants, conducting material flows from the supplier of material resources needed for the manufacture of a particular type of product to direct consumers.
The concept of a logistics channel includes external, intra-production and macro-logistics groups within a certain framework of each logistics operation. Therefore, the concept of total logistics costs is fundamentally important.
4. Factors and trends in the development of logistics
In industrialized countries, interest in the development of logistics is associated with economic reasons. The development of logistics was predetermined by the following factors: increased requirements for the quality characteristics of the process, the transition from the seller's market to the buyers' market. This transition was accompanied by significant changes in distribution systems and production strategies. If earlier the sales system was adjusted to production, then in conditions of market oversaturation, production programs are formed depending on the volumes and divisions of market demand. In a highly competitive environment, adapting to the interests of the clientele requires manufacturers to respond to these requests, which leads to an improvement in the quality of service, minimization of order execution time and strict adherence to the agreed delivery schedule. Time factors, together with the price and quality of products, have become decisive for the successful functioning of the enterprise. It should be noted the complication of the implementation problem with a parallel interest in the quality of the distribution sphere. A similar reaction arose from manufacturing firms to their suppliers of resources and materials, as a result, a complex system of relations between various market representatives was formed, which required modification of existing models of organization in the field of supply and marketing. The replacement of traditional conveyors with robots has led to significant savings in human labor. The production of small batches of products has made it cost-effective to create flexible manufacturing systems. Large enterprises were given the opportunity to restructure their activities from mass production to small-scale production at minimal cost. Small firms have been able to increase their flexibility and competitiveness. Work on the principle of "small batches" in the system of organizing the provision of material resources and the sale of finished products led to appropriate changes. Often deliveries in large quantities became not only uneconomical, but in some cases were simply not needed. There was a need to move goods in small batches within tighter deadlines, but there was no need for large storage capacities at enterprises. At the same time, transportation costs were covered by funds released from the reduction in storage space. As directly determining the development of logistics, in addition to the above, it is necessary to note the following factors: the use of systems theory and trade-offs for solving economic problems, the introduction and use of personal computers of the latest generations in the field of commodity circulation and economic practice, as well as the acceleration of scientific and technological progress; in countries that carry out intensive communications among themselves, the standardization of technical means of communication, moving stock and handling facilities, the elimination of various import and export restrictions. The ascent from the lower stage of development of logistics to higher ones, as a rule, is gradual or, when favorable conditions appear, zigzag. Such conditions can be considered the merger of enterprises, a change in the management regime, political initiatives. An analysis of the levels of development of logistics showed that those companies that use a versatile approach to logistics management improve their performance. The development of logistics in advanced economies in recent years is characterized by the transfer of the function of monitoring the distribution of finished material from manufacturing enterprises to specialized firms. As a result, a type of contract logistics has been formed, which involves the involvement of a third party in the form of a wholesaler to perform all or part of the functions of a company in the distribution of products, along with transportation, storage, inventory management, customer service and the creation of logistics information systems.
5. Basic principles of logistics
In order to master logistics and improve it, some firms set up advisory centers. The development of logistics is carried out in conjunction with the development of the concept of logistics and its principles. Of paramount importance in the development and creation of logistics systems are the principles that determine the nature and essence of the entire coordination device in general and its individual aspects in particular. There are several basic principles that reflect a logistical approach to solving a problem in production and economic activities.
1. The principle of synergy. This principle defines an integrated and systematic approach to achieving certain goals. Given the interaction between the mechanism of production and circulation, on the basis of this principle, it is possible to achieve a better result in the whole structure by coordinating actions in all interrelated processes than by improving the functioning of individual elements of the logistics system.
2. The principle of dynamism. Logistic systems should reflect the essence of the processes they cover and should not be frozen organizational and economic formations.
The essence of the logistics process lies in the progressive dynamics, which is determined in the development, striving for improvement. Dynamism determines the supply and marketing operations, means and objects of labor, goals and objectives expressed at the next stage of development.
3. The principle of completeness. This principle means that systems in logistics should be built as a community of several or many elements that are closely interconnected. Within the framework of the logistics system, the permanent autonomous functioning of any individual elements is not allowed. Emergencies and non-standard situations are an exception.
4. The principle of initiative. Logistic systems built on this principle presuppose the manifestation by the formed structures of the ability to determine the reaction to probable events, together with the ability to create and regulate subjective conditions that positively affect the processes of economic activity.
5. The principle of expediency. Focuses on attracting the potential that plays a positive role in achieving the goals. In the choice of organizational, technical and technological structures, selectivity is manifested, expressed by the desire to reduce costs or travel time in the conditions of the possibility of solving certain problems in several ways.
The concentration of interrelated functions in the joint structures for storage and transport facilities under a single management determines, first of all, the implementation of the principles of logistics. The transition to integrated management is carried out with a logistic approach, in contrast to the traditional one, where management is often isolated. The progressiveness of economic systems in terms of logistics is achieved not by increasing the material and technical base, but by improving it. With the logistic approach, all factors that are related to the economic system and that are associated with it are consistent. The most effective indicators in the organization of economic activity are achieved as a result of the parallelism of the mechanism of production, transportation, supply and marketing with the maximum integration of interconnected systems and subsystems on the principles of logistics. A decrease in the volume of stocks, uncoordinated material flows, a reduction in storage costs, the movement of material resources and manufactured products occurs as a result of the implementation of logistics principles.
The principles of logistics make it possible to improve the methodology and improve the quality of organizational design, to provide a systematic approach to the design of transport and storage, production, communication and information subsystems.
The practical application of logistics tasks and principles depends on the specific situation and is diverse.
6. Information support in logistics
The introduction of information and computer technologies into all business areas determines the current state of logistics. Without the use of high-speed computers, the implementation of most logistics concepts is impossible. Information support of the logistics process is so important that specialists single out information logistics, which has an independent value in business and information flow management.
Information flow is a flow of messages in paper and electronic (documentary), speech and other forms, put forward by the initial material flow in a certain logistics system, between the links of the system or the logistics system and the environment and is intended for the implementation of control functions.
It is possible to single out elementary, key, complex and basic information flows in connection with logistic actions and functions.
Information flows in connection with the logistics system are divided into:
1) passing inside the logistics system or its link, or flow;
2) passing between the logistics system and the external environment.
The most common types of information media are streams on paper and magnetic media.
According to the time of occurrence of information, flows are divided into:
1) regular (stationary);
2) periodic;
3) operational.
Regular correspond to a time-limited data transmission, periodic are strictly limited by the transmission time, and operational provide communication between subscribers in an interactive mode. Depending on the purpose, control, auxiliary information flows, information flows for conducting accounting and analytical activities, for making decisions, flows of regulatory and reference information are determined. In modern logistics, the increasing role of information flows is due to the following main reasons.
A necessary element of the consumer logistics service is information about the status of the order, the availability of goods, the time of delivery, and release documents. The availability of complete and reliable information from the position of supply chain inventory management can reduce the need for labor reserves by minimizing the relativity of the demand line. The flexibility of the logistics system is increased by information in this approach, when resources can be used to achieve specific benefits.
Logistics management has numerous indicators and characteristics of information flows:
1) terminology of transmitted messages, types of data, documents;
2) data volumes;
3) data transfer rate;
4) throughput of information channels;
5) noise immunity.
Between information and material flow there is no unambiguous synchronous correspondence of occurrence in time. The information flow either advances or lags behind the material one. Sometimes the material flow is a consequence of the information flow. Typical is the presence next to the material flow of several informational ones. The information flows accompanying individual logistic functions can be very complex and rich in terms of workflow.
The specific needs of logistics management determine the information flows in the logistics system when developing some of the details of regulatory planning, analysis and accounting. As an example, consider a diagram of sources of information and emerging information movements when predicting the dispersal of stocks of manufactured products in the distribution network. When planning an enterprise's inventory of finished products, consumer requests, sales forecasting, distribution decisions, and inventory management costs are taken into account. Information reflecting the needs of consumers details the classes and groups of consumers in a certain part of the market, the ways of delivering finished products to each group and the formation of a logistics service.
Information flows carry information about product requirements, the cost of finished products, the procedure for ordering and delivering finished products to consumers. To predict sales volume, information sources include information such as:
1) information on previous sales of a specific assortment of the market;
2) the number of sales of competitors' products;
3) the entire volume of sales of this market segment;
4) market demand for finished products;
5) reliability and accuracy of information on previous sales;
6) planned changes in the quality characteristics of finished products;
7) economic directions in changing the structure of consumer demand;
8) short-term forecasts in the finished product distribution system;
9) forecast for the development of new markets.
Information flows characterizing decisions in the distribution system can be divided into those characterizing the temporary causes of operations in the dividing network and reflecting the accuracy and reliability of data. Information that reduces the uncertainty of timing distribution combines order fulfillment data. The time parameters of transportation are associated with the choice of a delivery scheme, route, etc. The cycle of receiving an order, its duration include information about the time of delivery of the goods, the destination, the time of loading and unloading, paperwork. Associated with a decrease in the uncertainty of other parameters, information flows take into account the terms of delivery, the reliability and accuracy of information when managing stocks. The considered information flow for one function of logistics management gives an idea of the complexity and diversity of information flows in the logistics system.
7. Control in logistics
To achieve continuous efficiency in any type of production and economic activity, it is necessary to have an appropriate control system. Flow process control is no exception. Without an effective control subsystem, the logistics system cannot be considered fully capable. The absence of this subsystem leads to significant losses. The parallelism and coherence of the mutual processes of all subsystems and subsystems in the logistics system breaks down, the reliability of the cumulative work of various components and individual subjects of activity drops sharply. The time of unrecorded periods of non-use of machinery and equipment is increasing.
The quality of manufactured products, work performed and operations is declining, which adversely affects the level of customer service. Increased risks and significant costs in the course of regulating material, cash and other flows entail the failure to apply the necessary control. Lack of control can be a very dangerous threat, but it is not the only cause of risks. The quality of the developed tactical and strategic decisions plays an important role, because the nature of risks in production and economic activities is diverse.
Making the right tactical decision makes it possible to relatively quickly check ongoing processes and, accordingly, reduce or eliminate potential losses. Risks of a strategic nature, arising on a long-term basis, require complex insurance schemes for feasibility assessments.
8. Types of concepts in logistics, their characteristics
There are several periods of improving the systems for promoting goods and finished products: during the absence of logistics, traditional logistics and the period of new logistics. Each of these periods is characterized by conceptual approaches to the creation of these systems, as well as, respectively, to their management criteria. The management of material distribution was fragmented in the pre-logistic period.
There was a need to control transportation, check cargo accounts, packaging, weighing, and related work. The job of a freight forwarder has become more versatile. This and the above factors formed the basis for the development of logistics. It is not something completely new and unknown to practice. The problem of the rational movement of materials, finished products and raw materials has always been the subject of close attention.
The innovation of logistics consists in changing the criteria for the economic activity of enterprises, where the main role is played by the management of the methods of distribution. Another innovation of logistics lies in the application of a combined approach to the positions of the movement of commodity resources in the process of reproduction. Management of the material flow, consistency of actions with a fragmented method of management is clearly insufficient. With this approach, the necessary sequence is not observed and it is not possible to link the actions of various departments of enterprises.
Based on an integrated approach, logistics involves the consistency of methods that are interconnected with material flows, production and marketing. And along with all of the above, the innovation of logistics is to use the theory of trade-offs in the economic activities of firms. The innovative approach of logistics made it possible to move away from autonomous regulation by various methods of goods movement and to combine them, which made it possible to obtain such a result of activity that exceeded the sum of individual effects. The period of traditional logistics is distinguished by the creation of a logistics system that replaced the process of optimizing transportation in enterprises. This period is determined by the presence of several conceptual approaches to the creation of logistics systems that differ in the scope of application in the harmonization of economic interests, as well as criteria.
Economic interests within the framework of each conceptual approach had an intralogistical functional character. And they did not affect the production activities of firms.
In the first approach, the scope of the harmonization of economic processes was the costs of certain logistics operations of one company with the criterion of minimum total costs for material distribution. This approach has led to certain results. It turned out to be possible to minimize the costs of the entire logistics system by increasing the costs of some operations in order to reduce the costs of other operations. A typical example of this approach is the increase in transportation costs by reducing the cost of managing stocks of warehousing. A positive economic effect while minimizing total costs was given by the orientation towards the use of intra-functional compromises (harmonization of economic interests). The cost criterion limits the financial capabilities of the enterprise, since it does not reflect the impact of demand on the ratio between profit and expenses. As a result, a transition was formed to extracting the maximum profit of the company from the logistics operation, which takes into account both demand and costs. However, the new approach also had a number of limitations.
The allocation of a logistics mechanism within the production infringed upon the interests of enterprises participating in one logistics process. Therefore, at the end of the period of traditional logistics, there were changes in its concept. The maximum profit from logistics operations of all enterprises participating in the process has become a criterion for the formation of an optimal management and distribution system.
The beginning of the 1980s was marked by a new period in the development of logistics - the period of new logistics (neologistics). The need for its implementation was justified by the fact that none of the zones operating within the enterprise, including logistics, as a rule, has the necessary resources and capabilities in order to respond quickly enough to changes in external conditions alone and work effectively autonomously. Joint efforts of all structural parts of the organization were required to optimize the response. The work required specific knowledge and experience of managers who considered the activities of enterprises as a whole. The conceptual approach is called the integrated, or enterprise-wide approach. Within the framework of this approach, the logistics functions are considered as the most important subsystem of the general production system.
What does it mean: logistics systems are created and managed on the basis of a common goal - the achievement of maximum efficiency in the work of the entire enterprise. Attention began to focus on cross-functional trade-offs, not excluding production and other non-logistics departments. Minimizing the costs of the entire enterprise has become a criterion for this approach.
9. Basic concepts of information logistics
Logistics can rightfully be considered an essential factor in the implementation of measures aimed at increasing the economic positiveness of production and marketing. In the matter of rationalizing these structures of activity, great progress can be made in the case of maximum consistency of commodity and information flows when they merge, which is the priority task of logistics. To solve this problem, a large-scale use of the standardization of material and technical relations and the organization of functioning on the basis of fundamental analysis and the use of new technologies that ensure the automation of operations are necessary.
It can be represented in the form of horizontal functional subsystems in the procurement, production and marketing sector as the main links of the logistics system, which are divided into a number of structures. Each of these elements is inevitably present in any production, logistics combines them into a system with specific goals and objectives that relate to the area of minimizing the costs of the entire production, and not this particular element.
Information support of production is a tool for a similar association, starting with purchases and ending with the marketing system. The reason for success or failure in the external sphere of the enterprise's activity in the market may be: obtaining operational information about an event or situation prevailing in the market, refusal or receipt of a request for delivery.
An important role is played by the complex of information support. The connecting threads are the flows of information on which all elements of the logistics system are “put on”. The creation of databases, communication within the enterprise, the presence of a number of decision-making activities involves an information network.
Even in the recent past, the main problems that worried the developers of logistics systems related to the field of physical flows of goods and raw materials.
Accompanying documentation was considered as information support for the process of movement of goods from the supplier to the consumer.
With the development of logistics systems in production, the need began to be felt for the development and implementation of logistics information systems that could combine all logistics subsystems into one.
The successful implementation of this concept into practice was facilitated by the realization that information at the current level of production development is a self-sufficient production factor.
Its potential opens up great prospects for strengthening the competitiveness of enterprises. For the effectiveness of the analysis of the information activity of logistics, it is necessary to take the entire logistics system as a base of functionally limited logistics subsystems, the operation of which as a whole is provided by information logistics to the extent of its own subsystems. Such a division is very conditional.
In practical activities, close interweaving and interaction are the mainstay of the successful work of the entire complex as a whole. One more aspect should be noted.
The main place for planning and managing production is the organic ratio of centralization and decentralization in the work of individual subsystems. As a rule, the well-organized separate work of each subsystem does not lead to the best result in the activity of the entire system. Even in the presence of highly qualified personnel, the functional isolation of individual production units can slow down the increase in the efficiency of the entire system as a whole.
The presence of such a system of information, which would allow to link together all activities and organize its management based on the possibility of a single whole, is the main component of the work of the entire production. To create an information logistics system at the production level, you need to draw up its model.
An information system at the production level is a component that links together and coordinates supply, production and marketing.
The definition of a supply coordination system consists in decomposing physical flows into independent sections of transportation and warehousing, in preparing information about the period and state of the flow on an accurate time scale.
Information logistics goes well with computer technology. The computer system is mutually beneficial.
First, such a system optimizes the management of increasingly complex logistics over time. For compact production with a synchronous type of delivery, such as "just in time", the coordination of the movement of incoming goods becomes more and more important.
Secondly, the optimization of the work of information logistics in the exchange of supply data affects the increase in the level of inventory management.
Distributed to a network of firms, the exchange of supply data allows the manufacturer to reduce the costs associated with supplying the work of a complete supply chain. By optimizing its operation, the manufacturer receives tangible savings. The resulting savings are divided in certain shares between the manufacturer, supplier and transport company, reimbursing the costs invested in the creation and maintenance of up-to-date information systems, and creating additional profit from their use.
Getting the effect of the action of information logistics stimulates all participants in the logistics process to maintain the achieved level of this process, as well as to invest new funds in its optimization. The constantly growing database of the coordination system helps to evaluate the effectiveness of the logistics services.
The analysis of the existing system is one of the approaches to the formation of a scheme of information flows in production. It involves the reduction of certain divisions of production to separate components, combining which, you can get a model for analyzing options for divisions of the enterprise.
The structural model must contain the main elements:
1) production capacities and means of realizing the material flow. Combining these elements, researchers and organizers of the system divide the entire structure of production into buffer and technological. With this approach, all types of activities are considered from the receipt of raw materials to the transfer of finished products to the consumer.
2) instant response to the slightest change in market conditions, which is a vital necessity. This response is possible with the effective functioning of the information flow and all information logistics as a whole.
10. Marketing logistics
In the modern period, the use of marketing in distribution logistics is justified, which can contribute to a more optimal course of improving marketing activities.
From the standpoint of the logistics approach, the concept of marketing is divided as a general business idea, covering the entrepreneurial activities of all services, and as a functional activity of a special service for studying the markets for products, determining prices and compiling price lists, developing promotions, etc. The most important are the following functions marketing:
1) market research;
2) its differentiation in relation to supply and demand;
3) ensuring the advantages of its product in relation to competitors;
4) development of a marketing proposal.
The development of a marketing proposal for options for a particular marketing activity is a central function of marketing.
Firms must carry out extensive research on the product market to determine the marketing proposition.
Market research is one of the defining prerequisites for organizing the promotion of goods. This process was determined in a separate structure of intra-company activity.
In connection with the orientation of enterprises to a particular market of goods, the role of market research has especially increased. Manufacturers are in dire need of detailed information about the market for their products and the transformation in consumer demand.
The information received from the employees of the sales department is sometimes incomplete for making a qualified decision.
11. Financial flows in logistics
In a developing market economy, an increase in the efficiency of promoting commodity flows is achieved by optimizing financial services, which determines the importance of studying logistics cash flows and inventory items. Commodity-material values unite all types of material goods, including real estate, services and intangible assets are classified as commodity-intangible assets.
The least studied area of logistics is currently the mechanism of financial service of commodity flows. In the specialized literature, some of the issues related to its content are not considered at all. There are significantly different points of view on the other part of the issues. Already at definition of essence of financial streams there are certain distinctions.
There are several approaches to determining financial flows. Cash flow refers to any movement in the macro- or microeconomic environment. Financial flow refers to movement only in the logistics system. In any way of organizing business activities, there have always been financial flows in one form or another.
The greatest efficiency of their movement, as practice has shown, is achieved by using the logistical principles of regulation of material and financial resources, which leads to the formation of a new term - the logistical financial flow.
To ensure the efficient movement of commodity flows, financial logistics flows are created and used. The need to service the process of movement in time and space of inventory and intangible assets is the specifics of the logistics financial flow.
Logistic financial flow is a directed movement of financial resources.
The need to ensure the movement of material flow is determined by the direction of the movement of financial resources in logistics.
The movement of financial resources occurs either in the logistics system or between the logistics system and the external environment. In terms of composition, logistical financial flows are heterogeneous in a number of ways (direction of movement, purpose, etc.). The need for their detailed classification necessitates the formation of more positive methods of managing logistical financial flows.
In logistics, certain signs are used to classify financial flows: relation to the logistics system, direction of movement, form of payment, type of economic relations.
Financial flows within the framework of consideration of a certain logistics system are external and internal. Outside the studied logistics system, an external material flow flows in the external environment; inside the logistics system, an internal financial flow passes, which changes when a number of logistics operations are performed.
From the external environment, the incoming financial flow enters the logistics system, starts its movement from the considered logistics system and continues to exist in the external environment, the outgoing financial flow. Logistic financial flows can be divided into groups according to their purpose: financial flows passing in accordance with the process of purchasing goods, for the reproduction of labor, associated with the formation of material costs, investment financial flows.
All financial flows in logistics, depending on the forms of payment used, can be divided into two groups: cash financial flows that determine the movement of cash, and information and financial flows, which are characterized by the movement of non-cash financial resources.
Cash financial flows are divided into cash flows on ruble accounts and on currency settlements. In information and financial flows, there are flows of non-cash financial resources, payment requirements, etc. Along with cash flows, there are information and material and accounting and financial flows.
Logistic accounting and financial flows characterize the movement of financial components within the framework of this process.
According to the types of production relations, financial flows are divided into longitudinal and vertical. Longitudinal reflect financial resources between equal representatives of entrepreneurial activity, vertical financial flows arise between subsidiaries and parent commercial organizations.
In each specific case, it is necessary to establish its own specific composition of the classification features of logistical financial flows.
The main task of the financial service of commodity flows in logistics is to ensure their movement with financial resources in the required volumes, within a certain timeframe and using the most optimal sources of financing.
In the most primitive case, a certain commodity flow corresponds to a financial flow.
The variety of forms and directions of development of the financial market is the specifics of its work under the condition of calm market relations in Russia.
It should be noted that the effective use of the details of the stock market allows you to optimize the work of financial flows and significantly improve business performance.
The analysis of the financial mechanism for servicing commodity flows showed that the existence of a commodity flow is due to the presence of a logistical financial flow.
The volume, source of occurrence and time of the beginning of the movement of the financial flow depend on the form of payment agreed with the supplier and customer of the goods and on the additional conditions prescribed in the contract of sale.
The practice of using various types of securities to optimize mutual settlements, which has become widespread in recent years, has led to a complication of the cash service scheme for commodity flows, but on the other hand, to an increase in efficiency.
In the field of logistics and financial planning, under certain conditions and using a specific financial service mechanism, the use of securities allows you to save money on the delivery of goods.
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