Since gunpowder was invented, the world race for the most powerful explosives has not stopped. This is still relevant today, despite the emergence of nuclear weapons.

RDX is an explosive medicine

Back in 1899, for the treatment of inflammation in the urinary tract, the German chemist Hans Genning patented the drug hexogen, an analogue of the well-known urotropin. But soon doctors lost interest in him due to side intoxication. Only thirty years later it turned out that RDX turned out to be the most powerful explosive, moreover, more destructive than TNT. A kilogram of RDX explosives will produce the same destruction as 1.25 kilograms of TNT.

Pyrotechnics specialists mainly characterize explosives as high-explosive and high-explosive. In the first case, one speaks of the volume of gas released during the explosion. Like, the larger it is, the more powerful the explosiveness. Brisance, in turn, depends on the rate of formation of gases and shows how explosives can crush surrounding materials.

An explosion of 10 grams of RDX releases 480 cubic centimeters of gas, while TNT releases 285 cubic centimeters. In other words, hexagen is 1.7 times more powerful than TNT in terms of explosiveness and 1.26 times more dynamic in terms of brisance.

However, the media most often uses a certain average indicator. For example, the atomic charge "Kid", dropped on August 6, 1945, on the Japanese city of Hiroshima, is estimated at 13-18 kilotons of TNT. Meanwhile, this does not characterize the power of the explosion, but speaks of how much TNT is needed to release the same amount of heat as during the indicated nuclear bombardment.

Octogen - half a billion dollars in air

In 1942, the American chemist Bachmann, while conducting experiments with hexogen, accidentally discovered a new substance, HMX, in the form of an impurity. He offered his find to the military, but they refused. Meanwhile, a few years later, after it was possible to stabilize the properties of this chemical compound, the Pentagon nevertheless became interested in HMX. True, it was not widely used in its pure form for military purposes, most often in a molding mixture with TNT. This explosive is called "oktolom". It turned out to be 15% more powerful than RDX. As for its effectiveness, it is believed that one kilogram of HMX will produce as much damage as four kilograms of TNT.

However, in those years, the production of HMX was 10 times more expensive than the manufacture of RDX, which held back its release in the Soviet Union. Our generals calculated that it is better to produce six shells with RDX than one shell with octol. That is why the explosion of an ammunition depot in Vietnamese Cui Ngon in April 1969 cost the Americans so dearly. Then official representative The Pentagon said the guerrilla sabotage caused $ 123 million in damage, or about $ 0.5 billion at current prices.

In the 80s of the last century, after Soviet chemists, including E.Yu. Orlov, developed an effective and inexpensive technology for the synthesis of HMX, and it began to be produced in large volumes in our country.

Astrolite - good, but smells bad

In the early 60s of the last century, the American company EXCOA presented a new explosive based on hydrazine, claiming that it was 20 times more powerful than TNT. The Pentagon generals who arrived for testing were knocked down by the eerie smell of an abandoned public toilet. However, they were ready to tolerate it. However, a series of tests with aerial bombs fueled with astrolite A 1-5 showed that the explosives were only twice as powerful as TNT.

After Pentagon officials rejected this bomb, engineers from EXCOA proposed a new version of this explosive already under the ASTRA-PAK brand, and for digging trenches using a directed explosion. On the commercial the soldier poured a thin stream on the ground, and then detonated the liquid from the shelter. And the human-sized trench was ready. On its own initiative, EXCOA produced 1000 sets of such explosives and sent them to the Vietnamese front.

In reality, it all ended sadly and anecdotally. The resulting trenches exuded such a disgusting smell that American soldiers tried to leave them at any cost, regardless of orders and danger to life. Those who remained fainted. The unused kits were sent back to the EXCOA office at their own expense.

Explosives that kill their own

Along with RDX and HMX, the hard-to-pronounce tetranitropentaerythritol, which is more often called ten, is considered a classic of explosives. However, due to its high sensitivity, it has not received widespread use. The fact is that for military purposes, it is not so much explosives that are more destructive than others that are important, but those that do not explode from any touch, that is, with low sensitivity.

The Americans are especially picky about this issue. It was they who developed the NATO standard STANAG 4439 for the sensitivity of explosives that can be used for military purposes. True, this happened after a series of serious incidents, including: the explosion of a warehouse at the American Bien Ho Air Force base in Vietnam, which cost the lives of 33 technicians; the crash aboard the aircraft carrier Forrestal, which damaged 60 aircraft; detonation in the storage of aircraft missiles on board the aircraft carrier "Oriskani" (1966), also with numerous casualties.

Chinese destroyer

In the 80s of the last century, the substance tricyclic urea was synthesized. It is believed that the first people to receive these explosives were the Chinese. Tests have shown the enormous destructive power of "urea" - one kilogram of it replaced twenty-two kilograms of TNT.

Experts agree with such conclusions, since the "Chinese destroyer" has the highest density of all known explosives, and at the same time has the highest oxygen coefficient. That is, during the explosion, one hundred percent of the material is burned. By the way, for TNT it is 0.74.

In reality, tricyclic urea is not suitable for military operations, primarily due to its poor hydrolytic stability. The very next day, with standard storage, it turns into mucus. However, the Chinese managed to get another "urea" - dinitromourea, which, although worse in explosiveness than the "destroyer", but also belongs to one of the most powerful explosives. Today it is produced by the Americans at their three pilot plants.

A Pyromaniac's Dream - CL-20

Explosive CL-20 today is positioned as one of the most powerful. In particular, the media, including Russian ones, claim that one kg of CL-20 causes destruction, which requires 20 kg of TNT.

It is interesting that the Pentagon allocated money for the development of the СL-20 only after the American press reported that such explosives had already been made in the USSR. In particular, one of the reports on this topic was called: "Perhaps this substance was developed by Russians at the Zelinsky Institute."

In reality, the Americans considered another explosive first obtained in the USSR as a promising explosive, namely diaminoazoxyfurazan. Along with its high power, significantly superior to HMX, it has a low sensitivity. The only thing that hinders its widespread use is the lack of industrial technologies.

Explosives (explosives) are called unstable chemical compounds or mixtures that extremely quickly transform under the influence of a certain impulse into other stable substances with the release of a significant amount of heat and a large volume of gaseous products, which are under very high pressure and, expanding, perform one or another mechanical work.

Modern explosives are or chemical compounds (RDX, TNT, etc..), or mechanical mixtures(ammonium nitrate and nitroglycerin explosives).

Chemical compounds are obtained by treatment with nitric acid (nitration) of various hydrocarbons, that is, by introducing substances such as nitrogen and oxygen into the hydrocarbon molecule.

Mechanical mixtures are made by mixing oxygen-rich substances with carbon-rich substances.

In both cases, oxygen is bound with nitrogen or chlorine (with the exception of oxyliquites where oxygen is in a free unbound state).

Depending on the quantitative oxygen content in the explosive, the oxidation of combustible elements in the process of explosive transformation can be complete or incomplete, and sometimes oxygen may even remain in excess. In accordance with this, explosives are distinguished with an excess (positive), zero and insufficient (negative) oxygen balance.

The most advantageous are explosives with a zero oxygen balance, since carbon is completely oxidized to CO 2, and hydrogen to H 2 O, as a result, the maximum possible amount of heat for a given explosive is released. An example of such an explosive is dinaphthalite, which is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and dinitronaphthalene:

At excessive oxygen balance the remaining unused oxygen combines with nitrogen, forming highly toxic nitrogen oxides, which absorb some of the heat, which reduces the amount of energy released during the explosion. An example of an explosive with excess oxygen balance is nitroglycerine:

On the other hand, for insufficient oxygen balance not all carbon is converted to carbon dioxide; some of it is oxidized only to carbon monoxide. (CO) which is also poisonous, although to a lesser extent than nitrogen oxides. In addition, some of the carbon may remain solid. The remaining solid carbon and its incomplete oxidation only to CO lead to a decrease in the energy released during the explosion.

Indeed, during the formation of one gram-molecule of carbon monoxide, heat is released only 26 kcal / mol, while during the formation of a gram-molecule carbon dioxide 94 kcal / mol.

An example of an explosive with a negative oxygen balance is TNT:

In real conditions, when the explosion products perform mechanical work, additional (secondary) chemical reactions take place and the actual composition of the explosion products differs somewhat from the calculation schemes given, and the amount of poisonous gases in the explosion products changes.

Classification of explosives

Explosives can be in a gaseous, liquid and solid state, or in the form of mixtures of solid or liquid substances with solid or gaseous substances.

At present, when the number of various explosives is very large (thousands of names), their division only according to their physical state is completely insufficient. Such a division does not say anything about the working capacity (power) of explosives, by which one could judge the scope of application of one or another of them, nor about the properties of explosives, by which one could judge the degree of danger in their handling and storage. ... Therefore, three other classifications of explosives are currently adopted.

According to the first classification all explosives are classified according to their power and field of application into:

A) increased power (PETN, RDX, tetryl);

B) normal power (TNT, picric acid, plastites, "tetritol, rocky ammonites, ammonites containing 50-60% TNT, and gelatinous nitroglycerin explosives);

B) low power (ammonium nitrate B B, in addition to those mentioned above, powdered nitroglycerine explosives and chloratites).

3. Propellant explosives(smoky powders and smokeless pyroxylin and nitroglycerin powders).

In this classification, of course, not all the names of explosives are given, but only those of them that are mainly used in blasting operations. In particular, under the general name of ammonium nitrate explosives, there are dozens of different compositions, each with its own name.

Second classification divides the explosive according to their chemical composition:

1. Nitro compounds; substances of this type contain two to four nitro groups (NO 2); these include tetryl, TNT, hexogen, tetritol, picric acid and dinitronaphthalene, which is part of some ammonium nitrate explosives.

2. Nitroesters; substances of this type contain several nitrate groups (ONO 2). These include teng, nitroglycerin explosives and smokeless propellants.

3. Nitric acid salts- substances containing the NO 3 group, the main representative of which is ammonium (ammonium) nitrate NH 4 NO 3, which is part of all ammonium nitrate explosives. This group also includes potassium nitrate KNO 3 - the basis of black powder, and sodium nitrate NaNO 3, which is part of nitroglycerin explosives.

4. Hydrazoic acid salts(HN 3), of which only lead azide is used.

5. Volatile acid salts(HONC), of which only mercury fulminate is used.

6. Chloric acid salts, so-called chloratites and perchloratites, - explosives, in which the main component - the carrier of oxygen is potassium chlorate or perchlorate (KClO 3 and KClO 4); now they are used very rarely. Apart from this classification is an explosive called oxyliquite.

By the chemical structure of the explosive, one can also judge its main properties:

Sensitivity, stability, composition of explosion products, hence, the power of the substance, its interaction with other substances (for example, with the shell material) and a number of other properties.

The nature of the bond of nitro groups with carbon (in nitro compounds and nitroesters) determines the sensitivity of an explosive to external influences and their stability (preservation of explosive properties) under storage conditions. For example, nitro compounds in which nitrogen of the NO 2 group is bound directly to carbon (C-NO 2) are less sensitive and more stable than nitroesters in which nitrogen is bound to carbon through one of the oxygen of the ONO 2 group (C-O-NO 2 ); this bond is less strong and makes explosives more sensitive and less stable.

The number of nitro groups contained in explosives characterizes the power of the latter, as well as the degree of its sensitivity to external influences. The more nitro groups in the explosive molecule, the more powerful and sensitive it is. For example, mononitrotoluene(having only one nitro group) is an oily liquid with no explosive properties; dinitrotoluene containing two nitro groups is already an explosive, but with weak explosive characteristics; and finally trinitrotoluene (TNT), which has three nitro groups, is a quite satisfactory explosive in terms of power.

Dinitro compounds are used to a limited extent; most modern explosives contain three or four nitro groups.

The presence of some other groups in the explosive composition also affects its properties. For example, additional nitrogen (N 3) in RDX increases the sensitivity of the latter. The methyl group (CH 3) in TNT and tetrile contributes to the fact that these explosives do not interact with metals, while the hydroxyl group (OH) in picric acid is the reason for the easy interaction of the substance with metals (except for tin) and the appearance of the so-called picrates of one or more other metal, which are explosives that are very sensitive to impact and friction.

Explosives obtained by replacing hydrogen with a metal in hydrazoic or explosive acid cause the extreme fragility of intramolecular bonds and, consequently, the special sensitivity of these substances to mechanical and thermal external influences.

In blasting operations in everyday life, the third classification of explosives is adopted: - on the admissibility of their use in certain conditions.

According to this classification, the following three main groups are distinguished:

1. Explosives admitted for open work.

2. Explosives approved for underground work in conditions that are safe, if possible, for the explosion of firedamp and coal dust.

3. Explosives approved only for conditions that are potentially dangerous for a gas or dust explosion (safety explosives).

The criterion for assigning an explosive to a particular group is the amount of poisonous (harmful) gases released during an explosion and the temperature of the explosion products. So, TNT due to a large number the poisonous gases formed during its explosion can only be used on open works (construction and quarry mining), while ammonium nitrate explosives are allowed both in open and underground work in conditions that are not hazardous in terms of gas and dust. For underground works, where the presence of explosive gas and dust-air mixtures is possible, only explosives with a low temperature of the explosion products are allowed.

Nitroglycerin, nitroglycols are colorless oily liquids, highly sensitive to mechanical stress, in connection with which the transportation of nitroesters is prohibited, and they are processed at the place of manufacture.

Nitromethane is a colorless mobile liquid, soluble in water, detonates upon impact and from an explosive impulse, the minimum initiating impulse is 3-5 g of TNT, is sensitive to mechanical shock and friction. In terms of energy characteristics, it is equivalent to RDX.

Composition VS-6D is a four-component eutectic composition. In appearance, it is an oily liquid from light yellow to dark yellow in color. Non-hygroscopic, insoluble in water. Soluble in acetone, dichloroethane, ethyl alcohol... Alkali solutions decompose the composition of VS-6D. Has a general toxic effect at the RDX level. It is used in anti-personnel mines for remote mining systems.

The composition of LD-70 is a readily mobile liquid from light yellow to dark yellow. Contains diethylene glycol dinitrate (70%) and triethylene glycol dinitrate (30%). Physical properties and compatibility with construction materials as in VS-6D. It is combined with steel 30, steel 12X18H10T, aluminum A-70m, brass, polyethylene, IRP-1266 rubber.

The industry has developed new powerful and inexpensive liquid explosives called "liquid explosives manufactured at the site of use" (VVZHIMI or Quasar-VV). A class of such explosives was discovered at the end of the 19th century. and received the name panklastites. They possess a set of explosive and operational characteristics that allow them to be classified as powerful blasting explosives with a critical diameter of 0.3 mm, high degree danger to charge static electricity and a low (at the TNT level) value of sensitivity to initial mechanical impulses.

Table 16

Characteristics of LHV in comparison with known formulations

From the given data in table. 16 it follows that Quasar-BB is superior to TNT in terms of volumetric energy and power release. Nitrogen tetroxide is used as an oxidizing agent, and the well-known hydrocarbon products of oil cracking (kerosene or diesel fuel) are used as fuel. These components mix well. VVZHIMI exists for a short time, usually determined by the preparation time for the explosion, but not more than the guaranteed storage period (one day), and, if necessary, can be easily eliminated by dilution with water or neutralization with soda.

More on the topic Liquid explosives:

1. Violation of safety rules during mining, construction or other work
2. VERMACHT RATE DIRECTIVE OF FEBRUARY 7, 1941 ON THE GRADATION OF THE URGENCY OF THE PRODUCTION PROGRAMS
3. FROM THE REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE WAR ECONOMY AND THE MILITARY INDUSTRY ON THE RESULTS IN THE PRODUCTION OF WEAPONS

The nuclear age did not take away the palm from chemical explosives in terms of frequency of use, breadth of application - from the army to oil production, as well as ease of storage and transportation. They can be transported in plastic bags, hidden in ordinary computers, and even simply buried in the ground without any packaging with the guarantee that detonation will still occur. Unfortunately, until now, most armies on Earth use explosives against humans, and terrorist organizations - to deliver strikes against the state. Nevertheless, the ministries of defense remain the source and customer of chemical developments.

Hexogen

Hexogen is a blasting explosive based on nitramine. Its normal state of aggregation is a fine crystalline substance of white color, tasteless and odorless. It does not dissolve in water, is non-hygroscopic and non-corrosive. RDX does not react chemically with metals and does not compress well. For the explosion of RDX, one strong blow or a bullet shot is enough, in which case it begins to burn with a bright white flame with a characteristic hiss. Combustion turns into detonation. The second name of RDX is RDX, Research Department eXplosive - explosives of the research department.

High explosives- these are substances in which the rate of explosive decomposition is sufficiently high and reaches several thousand meters per second (up to 9 thousand m / s), as a result of which they have crushing-splitting ability. The predominant type of explosive transformations is detonation. They are widely used to equip shells, mines, torpedoes and various subversive weapons.

RDX is produced by nitrolysis of hexamine with nitric acid. In the course of obtaining RDX by the Bachmann method, hexamine reacts with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, glacial acetic acid and acetic anhydride. The raw material consists of hexamine and 98-99 percent nitric acid. However, this complex exothermic reaction is not completely controllable, so the end result is not always predictable.

RDX production peaked in the 1960s, when it was the third largest explosives production in the United States. The average production of RDX from 1969 to 1971 was about 7 tons per month.

Current RDX production in the United States is limited to military use at the Holston Military Ammunition Plant in Kingsport, Tennessee. In 2006, over 3 tonnes of RDX were produced at the Army Ammunition Plant in Holston.

RDX molecule

RDX has both military and civilian applications. As a military explosive, RDX can be used alone as the main charge for detonators or mixed with another explosive such as TNT to form cyclotols, which create an explosive charge for air bombs, mines and torpedoes. Hexogen is one and a half times more powerful than TNT, and it is easy to activate it with mercury fulminate. A common military use of RDX is as an ingredient in plastid-bonded explosives that have been used to fill nearly all types of ammunition.

In the past, by-products of military explosives such as RDX were openly burned in many army munitions factories. There is written evidence that up to 80% of the waste of ammunition and rocket fuel over the past 50 years has been disposed of in this way. The main disadvantage of this method is that explosive pollutants are often released into the air, water and soil. RDX ammunition has also previously been disposed of by dumping into deep sea waters.

Octogen

Octogen- is also a blasting explosive, but it already belongs to the group of explosives of increased power. According to the American nomenclature, it is designated as HMX. There is a lot of speculation as to what the acronym stands for: High Melting eXplosive - high melting explosive, or High-Speed ​​Military eXplosive - high-speed military explosive. But there are no records confirming these guesses. It could have just been a code word.

Initially, in 1941, HMX was just a by-product of the Bachmann method of RDX production. The HMX content in this RDX reaches 10%. Insignificant amounts of HMX are also present in RDX obtained by the oxidative method.

In 1961, the Canadian chemist Jean-Paul Picard method of obtaining HMX directly from hexamethylenetetramine. The new method made it possible to obtain an explosive with a concentration of 85% with a purity of more than 90%. The disadvantage of the Picard method is that it is a multi-step process - it takes quite a long time.

In 1964, Indian chemists developed a one-step process, thereby significantly reducing the cost of HMX.

Octogen, in turn, is more stable than RDX. It ignites at a higher temperature - 335 ° C instead of 260 ° C - and has the chemical stability of TNT or picric acid, plus it has a higher detonation velocity.

The HMX is used where its high power exceeds the cost of purchasing it - about $ 100 per kilogram. For example, in missile warheads, a smaller charge of a more powerful explosive allows the missile to move faster or have a longer range. It is also used in shaped charges to penetrate armor and penetrate obstacles from defensive structures where less powerful explosives may not be able to cope. Octogen as a blasting charge is most widely used in blasting operations in especially deep oil wells, where there are high temperatures and pressures.

Octogen is used as an explosive when drilling especially deep oil wells

In Russia, HMX is used for perforating and blasting operations in deep wells. It is used in the manufacture of heat-resistant gunpowder and in heat-resistant electric detonators TED-200. Octogen is also used to equip the DShT-200 detonating cord.

HMX is transported in waterproof bags (rubber, rubberized or plastic) in the form of a pasty mixture or in briquettes containing at least 10% liquid, consisting of 40% (by weight) isopropyl alcohol and 60% water.

A mixture of HMX with TNT (30 to 70% or 25 to 75%) is called octol. Another mixture, called okfol, which is a homogeneous friable powder from pink to crimson, 95% composed of HMX, desensitized by 5% plasticizer, this affects the fact that the detonation velocity drops to 8 670 m / s.

Solid desensitized explosives moistened with water or alcohols, or diluted with other substances to suppress their explosive properties.

Liquid desensitized explosives are dissolved or suspended in water or other liquid substances to form a homogeneous liquid mixture to suppress their explosive properties.

Hydrazine and Astrolite

Hydrazine and its derivatives are extremely toxic to different types animal and plant organisms. Hydrazine can be obtained by reacting an ammonia solution with sodium hypochlorite. Sodium hypochlorite solution is better known as whiteness. Diluted solutions of hydrazine sulfate have a detrimental effect on seeds, algae, unicellular and protozoan organisms. In mammals, hydrazine causes seizures. Hydrazine and its derivatives can enter the animal body by any means: by inhalation of the product vapors, through the skin and the digestive tract. For humans, the toxicity of hydrazine has not been determined. It is especially dangerous that the characteristic odor of a number of hydrazino derivatives is felt only in the first minutes of contact with them. In the future, due to the adaptation of the olfactory organs, this sensation disappears and a person, without noticing it, can be for a long time in an infected atmosphere containing toxic concentrations of the named substance.

Invented in the 1960s by chemist Gerald Hirst at Atlas Powder, astrolite is a family of liquid explosives that are formed when ammonium nitrate is mixed with anhydrous hydrazine (propellant). Transparent liquid explosive called Astrolith G has a very high detonation velocity - 8,600 m / s, almost double that of TNT. In addition, it remains explosive in almost all weather conditions, as it is well absorbed in the ground. Field tests showed that Astrolith G detonated even after four days in the soil in heavy rain.

Tetranitropentaerythritol

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN, PETN) is a nitrate ester of pentaerythritol used as an energy and filling material for military and civilian purposes. It is produced as a white powder and is often a component of plastic explosives. It is widely used by rebel units and was probably chosen by them because it is very easy to activate.

The appearance of the heating element

TEN retains its properties during storage longer than nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose. At the same time, it easily explodes with a mechanical shock of a certain strength. It was first synthesized as a commercial explosive device after World War I. It has been praised by both military and civilian specialists, primarily for its destructive power and effectiveness. It is embedded in detonators, explosive caps and fuses to propagate a series of detonations from one explosive charge to another. A mixture of roughly equal shares of PETN and trinitrotoluene (TNT) creates a powerful military explosive called pentolite, which is used in grenades, artillery shells, and shaped charge warheads. The first pentolite charges were fired from old bazooka-type anti-tank weapons during World War II.

Pentolite explosion in Bogota

On January 17, 2019, in the capital of Colombia, Bogota, an SUV stuffed with 80 kg of pentolite crashed into one of the buildings of the General Santander Police Cadet School and exploded. The explosion killed 21 people, according to official figures, there were 87. The incident was qualified as a terrorist act, since the car was driven by a former demolitionist of the Colombian rebel army, 56-year-old Jose Aldemar Rojas. The Colombian authorities blamed the bombing in Bogota on a left-wing organization with which they have been unsuccessfully negotiating for the past ten years.

Pentolite explosion in Bogota

The heating element is often used in terrorist attacks because of its explosive power, its ability to be placed in unusual packaging and the difficulty of detection using X-rays and other conventional equipment. The electrically activated percussion detonator can be detected during routine airport security checks if carried on suicide bombers, but it can be effectively hidden in an electronic device in the form of a packet bomb, as was the case with the attempted bombing of a cargo plane in 2010. Then computer printers with cartridges filled with heating elements were intercepted by the security forces only because the special services, thanks to informants, already knew about the bombs.

Plastic explosives- mixtures that are easily deformed even by minor forces and retain their shape for an unlimited time under operating temperatures.

They are actively used in blasting for the manufacture of charges of any given shape directly at the site of blasting operations. Plasticizers are rubbers, mineral and vegetable oils, resins. Explosive components are RDX, HMX, pentaerythritol tetranitrate. The plasticization of an explosive can be carried out by introducing mixtures of cellulose nitrates and substances that plasticize cellulose nitrates into its composition.

Tricyclic urea

In the 80s of the last century, the substance tricyclic urea was synthesized. It is believed that the first people to receive these explosives were the Chinese. Tests have shown the enormous destructive power of urea - one kilogram of it replaced 22 kg of TNT.

Experts agree with such conclusions, since the "Chinese destroyer" has the highest density of all known explosives and at the same time has the highest oxygen coefficient. That is, during the explosion, absolutely all the material is burned. By the way, for TNT it is 0.74.

In reality, tricyclic urea is not suitable for military operations, primarily due to its poor hydrolytic stability. The very next day, with standard storage, it turns into mucus. However, the Chinese managed to get another "urea" - dinitromourea, which, although worse in explosiveness than the "destroyer", but also belongs to one of the most powerful explosives. Today it is produced by the Americans at their three pilot plants.

The ideal explosive is a balance between maximum explosive power and maximum stability during storage and transport. Moreover, the maximum density of chemical energy, low cost in production and, preferably, environmental safety. It is not easy to achieve all this, therefore, for developments in this area, they usually take already proven formulas and try to improve one of the necessary characteristics without prejudice to the rest. Completely new compounds are extremely rare.

- This is power, you know? The power in matter. Matter has tremendous power. I ... I feel to the touch that everything is so teeming in her ... And all this is being held back ... by an incredible effort. It is worth shaking from the inside - and bam! - decay. Everything is an explosion.

Karel Chapek, "Krakatit"

In this epigraph, the half-crazy genius-chemist engineer Prokop gave a very precise, albeit peculiar, definition of explosives. We will talk about these substances, which largely determined the development of human civilization, in this article. Of course, we will not only talk about the military use of explosives - the scope of its application is so wide that it does not fit into some kind of stereotyped "inside and out." You and I have to figure out what an explosion is, get acquainted with the types of explosives, remember the history of their appearance, development and improvement. Will not be left out and funny or just interesting information about everything related to explosions.

For the first time in my author's practice, I am forced to issue a warning - there will be no recipes for the manufacture of explosives, descriptions of technology and layout diagrams of explosive devices in the article. Hope for understanding.

What is an explosion?

- And here is the explosion in Grottup, - said the old man: in the picture - clouds of pink smoke, thrown out by a sulfur-yellow flame high up, to the very edge; torn in the smoke and flames hang terribly human bodies... - More than five thousand people died in this explosion. It was a great misfortune, - the old man sighed. - This is my last picture.

Karel Chapek, "Krakatit"

The answer to this seemingly very simple question is not as simple as it might seem at first glance. The most general and precise definition of an explosion does not exist until today. Academic reference books and encyclopedias give a very vague definition of the type "uncontrollable fast physical and chemical process with the release of significant energy in a small volume." The weakness of this definition is that no quantitative criteria are specified.

International sign “Caution! Explosive". Laconic and very clear.

The volume, the amount of released energy and the flow time - all these values ​​can, of course, be reduced to the concept of "minimum specific power", which will determine the limit above which the process can be considered explosive. But it just so happened that no one really needs such an accuracy of definitions - the military, geologists, pyrotechnics, nuclear physicists, astrophysicists, technologists have their own criteria for an explosion. The artilleryman simply won’t have the question of whether the result of a high-explosive fragmentation projectile is considered an explosion, and an astrophysicist, when asked about a supernova, will generally shrug his shoulders in bewilderment.

Explosions are different physical nature source of energy and the way to release it. To highlight the chemical explosions of interest to us, let's try to figure out what kind of explosions there are.

Thermodynamic explosion- a fairly large category of fast processes with the release of thermal or kinetic energy. For example, if you increase the gas pressure in a sealed vessel, sooner or later the vessel will collapse and an explosion will occur. And if a sealed vessel with a superheated liquid under pressure is quickly opened, then the explosion will occur due to the release of pressure, instant boiling of the liquid and the formation of shock waves.

Kinetic explosion- transformation of the kinetic energy of a moving material body into thermal energy with sudden braking. The fall of a bolide to Earth is a typical example of a kinetic explosion. The impact of a blank of an armor-piercing projectile into the tank's armor could also be considered a kinetic explosion, but here everything is somewhat more complicated - the explosive nature of the interaction is provided not only by the purely thermal effect of the impact. Free electrons in the metal of the projectile, moving at the same speed, with sharp deceleration, continue to move by inertia, forming huge currents in the conductor.

The destruction of the 4th power unit of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is a typical thermodynamic explosion.

Electric explosion- the release of thermal energy during the passage of the so-called "shock" currents in the conductor. Here, the explosive nature of the process is determined by the resistance of the conductor and the magnitude of the passing current. For example, a capacitor with a capacity of 100 μF, charged up to 300 V, accumulates 4.5 J. In this case, the wire, of course, will evaporate - that is, an explosion will occur. A lightning discharge in a thunderstorm can also be considered an electrical explosion.

Nuclear explosion Is the process of releasing the intranuclear energy of atoms during uncontrolled nuclear reactions. Here energy is released not only in the form of heat - the spectrum of radiation in the electromagnetic range during a nuclear explosion is truly colossal. In addition, the energy nuclear explosion carried away by fission fragments or fusion products, fast electrons and neutrons.

The concept of an explosion among astrophysicists is unimaginable from the perspective of terrestrial scales - here we are talking about the release of energy in such quantities that mankind will probably not produce over the entire period of its existence. Thanks to the explosions of supernovae of the first and second generation, which caused the release of heavy elements, appeared solar system, on the third planet of which life was able to originate. And if we recall the theory of the Big Bang, we can say with confidence that not only earthly life, but our entire universe owes its existence to an explosion.

Chemical explosion

Thermochemistry does not exist. Destruction. Destructive chemistry, that's what. This is a tremendous thing, Tomesh, from a purely scientific point of view.

Karel Chapek, "Krakatit"

Well, now we seem to have decided on those types of explosions that we will not consider in the future. Let's move on to the subject of interest to us - the well-known chemical explosions.

A hundred-ton chemical test explosion at the Alamogordo nuclear test site.

Chemical explosion Is the process of converting the internal energy of molecular bonds into thermal energy with a rapid and uncontrollable course of chemical reactions. But in this definition we find the same problem as with the definition of an explosion in general - there is no consensus about which chemical processes can be considered an explosion.

In the opinion of most experts, the most stringent criterion for a chemical explosion is the propagation of the reaction due to the detonation process, and not deflagration.

Detonation Is the supersonic propagation of the compression front with an accompanying exothermic reaction in the substance. The detonation mechanism is that as a result of the onset of a chemical reaction, a large amount of thermal energy and gaseous products are released under high pressure, which forms a shock wave. When its front passes through the substance, a shock wave occurs and the temperature rises sharply (in physics, this phenomenon is described by an adiabatic process), which initiates a further chemical reaction. Thus, detonation is a self-sustaining mechanism for the fastest (avalanche) involvement of a substance in a chemical reaction.

The ignition of a match head occurs thousands of times slower than the slowest explosion.

On a note: detonation speed is one of the most important characteristics of an explosive. For solid explosives, it ranges from 1.2 km / s to 9 km / s. The higher the detonation velocity, the higher the pressure in the seal zone and the efficiency of the explosion.

Deflagration- subsonic redox process, in which the reaction front moves due to heat transfer. That is, we are talking about the well-known process of combustion of a reducing agent in an oxidizing agent. The speed of propagation of the combustion front is determined not only by the calorific value of the reaction and the efficiency of heat transfer in the substance, but also by the mechanism of access of the oxidizer to the reaction zone.

But here, too, not everything is clear. For example, a powerful jet of combustible gas in the atmosphere will burn in a rather complex way - not only over the surface of the gas jet, but also in that part of the volume where air will be sucked in due to the jet effect. In this case, detonation processes are also possible - a kind of "pops" with the breakdown of the flame torch.

It is interesting: the combustion laboratory of the Research Institute of Physics, where I once worked, has been struggling for more than two years on the task of controlled detonation of a hydrogen torch. In those days it was jokingly called "Laboratory of Combustion and, if possible, Explosion".

From all that has been said, one important conclusion should be drawn - there are a variety of combinations of combustion and detonation processes and transitions in one direction or another. For this reason, for simplicity, various fast exothermic processes are usually referred to as chemical explosions without specifying their nature.

Necessary terminology

- What are you, what are the numbers there! The first experience ... fifty percent starch ... and the crusher shattered; one engineer and two laboratory assistants ... also to smithereens. Don't believe me? Experience two: Trauzl's block, ninety percent Vaseline, and - boom! The roof was blown off, one worker was killed; only greaves remained from the block.

Karel Chapek, "Krakatit"

Sapper protective suit. It neutralizes explosive devices of unknown design.

Before we move on to a direct acquaintance with explosives, it is necessary to understand a little about some of the concepts associated with this class of chemical compounds. All of you have probably heard the terms "high-explosive charge" and "blasting explosives". Let's see what they mean.

High explosiveness- the most general characteristics explosive, which determines the measure of its destructive effectiveness. The high-explosiveness directly depends on the amount of gaseous products released during the explosion.

In the numerical assessment of explosiveness, different methods are used, the most famous of which is Trauzl test... The test is carried out by detonating a 10 gram charge placed in a hermetically sealed cylindrical lead container (sometimes called Trauzl's bomb). An explosion inflates the container. The difference between its volumes before and after the explosion, expressed in cubic centimeters, is the measure of the explosiveness. Often they use the so-called comparative explosiveness, expressed as the ratio of the results obtained to the results of detonating 10 grams of crystalline TNT.

On a note: comparative explosiveness should not be confused with TNT equivalent - these are completely different concepts.

Such ruptures of the shell indicate a low brisance of the charge.

Brisance- the ability of explosives to produce, during an explosion, crushing of a solid medium in the immediate vicinity of the charge (several of its radii). This characteristic depends primarily on the physical state of the explosive (density, uniformity, degree of crushing). With an increase in density, brisance increases simultaneously with an increase in detonation velocity.

Brisance can be adjusted within wide limits by mixing an explosive with the so-called phlegmatizers- chemical compounds incapable of explosion.

To measure brisance, in most cases, indirect Hess test, in which a charge weighing 50 grams is installed on a lead cylinder of a certain height and diameter, undermines, and then the height of the cylinder compressed by the explosion is measured. The difference between the heights of the cylinder before and after the explosion, expressed in millimeters, is the measure of brisance.

However, the Hess test is not suitable for testing high blasting explosives - a 50 gram charge simply destroys the lead cylinder to the bottom. For such cases, use brisantometer Casta with a copper cylinder called crusher.

Such an explosion is very effective, but, as a rule, it is ineffective.
veins - too much energy was spent on heating the smoke cloud.

On a note: explosiveness and high explosiveness are values ​​that are not related to each other. Once upon a time, in my early youth, I was fond of the chemistry of explosives. And once I received a few grams of acetone peroxide spontaneously detonated, destroying the earthenware crucible to the state of the smallest dust that covered the table with a thin layer. At that time I was literally a meter away from the explosion, but I was not injured at all. As you can see, acetone peroxide has excellent blasting capacity, but low explosiveness. The same amount of explosive with high explosiveness could lead to barotrauma and even contusion.

Sensitivity - characteristic that determines the likelihood of an explosion with some specific effect on an explosive. Most often, this value is presented in the form of the minimum value of the impact that leads to a guaranteed explosion under some standard conditions.

There are many different methods for determining a particular sensitivity (impact, friction, heating, spark discharge, lumbago, detonation). All these types of sensitivity are extremely important for the organization of the safe production, transportation and use of explosives.

It is interesting: sensitivity records belong to very simple chemical compounds. Nitrogen iodide (aka triiodine nitride) I3N in dry form detonates from a flash of light, from holding it with a feather, from weak pressure or heating, even from loud sound... This is perhaps the only explosive that detonates from alpha radiation. A crystal of xenon trioxide - the most stable of xenon oxides - is capable of detonating from its own weight if its mass exceeds 20 mg.

Explosion welding gives such a weld pattern at the cut. The wave is clearly visible
shaped structure formed by a standing shock wave in detail.

Detonation sensitivity is classified as a special term - susceptibility, that is, the ability of an explosive charge to explode when exposed to the factors of the explosion of another charge. Most often, the susceptibility is expressed in terms of the mass of mercury fulminate required for guaranteed detonation of the charge. For example, for TNT, the susceptibility is 0.15 g.

There is another very important concept associated with explosives - critical diameter... This is the smallest diameter of a cylindrical charge at which the propagation of the detonation process is possible.

If the diameter of the charge is less than the critical one, then the detonation either does not appear at all, or decays as its front moves along the cylinder. It should be noted that the detonation velocity of a certain explosive is far from constant - with an increase in the charge diameter, it increases to a value characteristic of a given explosive and its physical state. The diameter of the charge at which the detonation velocity becomes constant is called limiting diameter.

The critical detonation diameter is usually determined by detonating model charges with a length of at least five charge diameters. For high explosives, it is usually a few millimeters.

Volumetric blast ammunition

Humanity became acquainted with the volumetric explosion long before the creation of the first explosive. Flour dust in mills, coal dust in mines, microscopic plant fibers in the air of manufactories are flammable aerosols, capable of detonation under certain conditions. One spark was enough - and huge rooms crumbled like houses of cards from a monstrous explosion of dust almost invisible to the eye.

A volumetric explosion inside a car leads to such consequences.

Such a phenomenon, sooner or later, should have attracted the attention of the military - and, of course, it did. There is a type of ammunition that uses the spraying of a combustible substance in the form of an aerosol and detonation of the resulting gas cloud - volumetric explosion ammunition (sometimes called thermobaric ammunition).

The principle of operation of a space-detonating aerial bomb consists in a two-stage detonation - first, one explosive charge sprays a combustible substance in the air, then the second charge detonates the resulting fuel-air mixture.

The volumetric explosion has an important feature that distinguishes it from the detonation of a concentrated charge - the explosion of a fuel-air mixture has a much greater high-explosive effect than a classical charge of the same mass. Moreover, with an increase in the size of the cloud, the explosiveness increases nonlinearly. Large-caliber volumetric detonating bombs can create an explosion comparable in energy to a low-yield tactical nuclear charge.

The main damaging factor of a volumetric explosion is a shock wave, since the blasting action is indistinguishable from zero here.

Information about thermobaric ammunition, distorted beyond recognition by illiterate journalists, cites knowledgeable person into righteous fury, and the ignorant into panic horror. It is not enough for dreamers from journalism that they called a volumetric detonation bomb with the ridiculous term "vacuum bomb". They follow Joseph Goebbels' directions and heap such wild nonsense that some people believe in it.

Testing a thermobaric explosive device. It seems that it is still very far from the combat model.

“... The principle of operation of this terrible weapon, approaching in power to a nuclear bomb, is based on a kind of explosion in reverse. When this bomb explodes, oxygen is instantly burned, a deep vacuum is formed, deeper than in open space... All surrounding objects, people, cars, animals, trees are instantly drawn into the epicenter of the explosion and, colliding, turn into powder ... "

Agree, "oxygen burning" alone clearly indicates "three classes and two corridors." And the "vacuum, deeper than in open space" unequivocally hints that the author of this scribble is unaware of the presence of 78% nitrogen in the air, which is completely unsuitable for "combustion". Only the unrestrained fantasy pouring people, animals and trees into the epicenter (sic!) Evokes involuntary admiration.

Classification of explosives

“Everything is explosive ... you just have to take it right.

Karel Chapek, "Krakatit"

Yes, these are also explosive substances. But we will not discuss them, but simply admire them.

The chemistry and technology of explosives is still considered to be a field of knowledge with strictly limited access to information. This state of affairs inevitably leads to a multitude of very diverse formulations and definitions. And it is for this reason that the UN special commission adopted in 2003 the "System for the classification and labeling of chemical products", agreed at the global level. Below is the definition of explosives taken from this document.

Explosive(or mixture) - a solid or liquid substance (or a mixture of substances), which in itself is capable of a chemical reaction with the release of gases at such a temperature and such a pressure and at such a rate that it causes damage to surrounding objects. Pyrotechnic substances are included in this category even if they do not emit gases.

Pyrotechnic substance(or mixture) - a substance or a mixture of substances that are intended to produce an effect in the form of heat, fire, sound or smoke or their combination as a result of self-sustaining exothermic chemical reactions that proceed without detonation.

Thus, the category of explosives traditionally includes all kinds of powder compositions capable of burning without air access. Moreover, the same firecrackers belong to the same category, with which the people so love to please themselves on New Year's Eve. But below we will talk about "real" explosives, without which the military, builders and miners cannot imagine their existence.

Explosives are classified according to several principles - composition, physical condition, form of explosion, field of application.

Compound

There are two large classes of explosives - individual and composite.

Individual are chemical compounds capable of intramolecular oxidation. In this case, the molecule should not at all contain oxygen in its composition - it is enough for one part of the molecule to transfer an electron to its other part with a positive thermal yield.

Energetically, the molecule of such an explosive can be imagined as a ball lying in a depression on the top of a mountain. It will lie quietly until a relatively small impulse is transmitted to it, after which it will slide down the mountainside, releasing energy that significantly exceeds the expended energy.

A pound of TNT in its original packaging and an ammonal charge weighing 20 kilograms.

Individual explosives include trinitrotoluene (aka TNT, tol, TNT), RDX, nitroglycerin, mercury fulminate (mercury fulminate), lead azide.

Composite consist of two or more substances that are not chemically related to each other. Sometimes the components of such explosives by themselves are not capable of detonation, but exhibit these properties when reacting with each other (usually we are talking about a mixture of an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent). A typical example of such a two-component composite is oxyliquite (a porous combustible substance impregnated with liquid oxygen).

Composites can also consist of a mixture of individual explosives with additives that regulate sensitivity, explosiveness and blasting. Such additives can both weaken the explosive characteristics of composites (paraffin, ceresin, talc, diphenylamine) and enhance them (powders of various reactive metals - aluminum, magnesium, zirconium). In addition, there are stabilizing additives that increase the shelf life of finished explosive charges, and conditioning additives that bring the explosive to the required physical state.

In connection with the development and spread of world terrorism, the requirements for the control of explosives have become more stringent. The composition of modern explosives without fail includes chemical markers found in explosion products and unambiguously indicating the manufacturer, as well as odorous substances that help in the detection of explosive charges by service dogs and gas chromatography devices.

Physical state

The American BLU-82 / B bomb contains 5700 kg of ammonal. This is one of the most powerful conventional bombs.

This classification is quite extensive. It includes not only three states of matter (gas, liquid, solid), but also all kinds of dispersed systems (gels, suspensions, emulsions). A typical liquid explosive, nitroglycerin, dissolves nitrocellulose into a gel known as explosive jelly, and when this gel is mixed with a solid absorbent, solid dynamite is formed.

The so-called "explosive gases", that is, mixtures of hydrogen with oxygen or chlorine, are practically not used either in industry or in military affairs. They are extremely unstable, extremely sensitive and do not allow precise explosives. There are, however, so-called volumetric blast munitions, in which the military is showing great interest. They do not fall into the category of gaseous explosives, but they are quite close to it.

Most modern industrial formulations are aqueous suspensions of composites consisting of ammonium nitrate and combustible components. Such compositions are very convenient for transportation to the blasting site and for pouring into holes. And the widespread Sprengel formulations are stored separately and prepared directly at the site of use in the required amount.

Military explosives are generally solid. The world famous trinitrotoluene melts without decomposition and therefore allows the creation of monolithic charges. And the equally well-known RDX and PETN decompose during melting (sometimes with an explosion), therefore charges from such explosives are formed by pressing the crystalline mass in a wet state, followed by drying. Ammonites and ammonals used in ammunition filling are usually granulated to facilitate backfilling.

Explosion work shape

Purified explosive mercury is somewhat reminiscent of the March snowdrifts.

To ensure the safety of storage and use, industrial and military charges should be formed from insensitive explosives - the lower their sensitivity, the better. And to detonate these charges, charges are used that are small enough so that their spontaneous detonation during storage does not cause significant damage. Typical example such an approach - an offensive grenade RGD-5 with a fuse UZRGM.

Initiating are called individual or mixed explosives that are highly sensitive to simple effects (impact, friction, heating). Such substances require the release of energy sufficient to trigger the detonation process of high explosives - that is, a high initiating ability. In addition, they must have good flowability and compressibility, chemical resistance, and compatibility with secondary explosives.

Initiating explosives are used in a special design - the so-called detonator caps and igniter caps. They are everywhere where you need to make an explosion. And they cannot be divided into "military" and "civilian" - the method of using high explosives does not play any role here.

It is interesting: tetrazole derivatives are used in automobile airbags as a source of explosive nitrogen gas evolution. As you can see, an explosion can not only kill, but also save lives.

This is how - in flakes - the trinitrotoluene obtained
Heinrich Kast.

Examples of primer explosives include mercury fulminate, lead azide and lead trinitroresorcinate. However, at present, initiating explosives that do not contain heavy metals are being actively sought and introduced. Compositions based on nitrotetrazole in combination with iron are recommended as environmentally friendly ones. And ammonia complexes of cobalt perchlorate with tetrazole derivatives are detonated from a laser beam supplied through an optical fiber. This technology eliminates accidental detonation during the accumulation of static charge and significantly increases the safety of blasting operations.

Blasting explosives, as already mentioned, are of low sensitivity. Various nitro compounds are widely used as individual and mixed compositions. In addition to the usual and well-known TNT, one can recall nitroamines (tetryl, hexogen, octogen), nitric acid esters (nitroglycerin, nitroglycol), cellulose nitrates.

It is interesting: having served with faith and truth to explosives of all stripes for a hundred years, trinitrotoluene is losing ground. In any case, it has not been used in blasting operations in the United States since 1990. The reason lies in all the same environmental considerations - the products of the explosion of TNT are very toxic.

High explosives are used to equip artillery shells, aerial bombs, torpedoes, warheads of missiles of various classes, hand grenades - in a word, their military use is immense.

It should also be remembered about nuclear weapons, where a chemical explosion is used to transfer an assembly to a supercritical state. However, here the word "blasting" should be used with caution - from implosion lenses it is required just a low blasting rate with a high explosiveness, so that the assembly is compressed, and not shattered by an explosion. For this purpose, boratol (a mixture of TNT with barium nitrate) is used - a composition with a large gas release, but a low detonation velocity.

Crazy Horse Memorial,
driven in South Dakota and dedicated to the Indian chief Crazy Horse, hewn out of solid rock
with explosives.

The unofficial name of the air
bombs GBU-43 / B - Mother Of All Bombs. At the time of its creation, it was the largest non-nuclear bomb in the world and contained 8.5 tons of explosives.

It is interesting: The Crazy Horse Memorial, erected in South Dakota in honor of the legendary war chief of the Oglala Indian tribe, is made with explosives.

High explosive charges are used in rocket and space technology to separate the structural elements of launch vehicles and spacecraft, eject and shoot parachutes, emergency shutdown of engines. Aviation automation also did not ignore them - the firing of the canopy of the fighter's cockpit before ejection is carried out with small blasting charges. And in the Mi-28 helicopter, such charges perform three functions at once during an emergency exit from the helicopter - shooting the blades, dropping the cockpit doors and inflating the safety chambers located below the door level.

A significant amount of blasting explosives is consumed in mining (overburden, mining), in construction (preparation of excavations, destruction of rocks and destroyed building structures), in industry (explosion welding, hardening pulse processing of metals, stamping).

Plastite or plastid?

To be honest, both forms of the "popular journalist" name for the plastic explosive compound Composition C-4 evoke in me approximately the same feelings as the "epicenter of the explosion of a vacuum bomb."

However, why exactly C-4? No, plastic is an explosive of monstrous destructive power, traces of which are invariably found in airports, schools and hospitals blown up by terrorists. Not a single self-respecting terrorist will even touch tolu or ammonal with a finger - these are children's toys compared to plastic, one matchbox of which turns a car into a fireball, and a kilogram smashes a multi-storey building into rubbish.

Plugging detonators into soft C-4 briquettes is a simple matter. This is how military explosives should be - simple and reliable.

But what then is "plastid"? And, so this is the name of the same super-powerful explosives of terrorists, but written by a person who wants to show that he is "in the subject." Say, "plasticity" is written by illiterate ignoramuses. And in general, this is some kind of third person verb in the present tense. It is correct to write "plastid".

Well, now that I have poured out the accumulated bile, let's talk seriously. Neither plastid nor plastid exist in the understanding of explosives. Even before World War II, a whole class of plastic explosive compounds appeared - most often based on RDX or HMX. These compositions were created for civilian technical work. Try, for example, attaching a few TNT sticks to a vertical I-beam that needs to be destroyed. And do not forget that they should be undermined synchronously, with an accuracy of fractions of a millisecond. And with plastic compounds, everything is much simpler - I stuck a beam with a substance similar to hard plasticine, stuck a couple of electric detonators into it around the perimeter - and it's in the bag.

Later, when it turned out that plastic explosives were very convenient for placement, the American military became interested in them and created dozens of different compositions... And it just so happened that the most popular of all was the unremarkable Composition C-4, developed in the 1960s for military sabotage needs. But he was never "plastic". And he was never a "plastid" either.

Explosive history

Yes, I will unleash a storm like never before; I will give Krakatite, the liberated element, and the boat of humanity will be shattered ... Thousands of thousands will perish. Nations will be destroyed and cities swept away; there will be no limit to those who have weapons in their hands and death in their hearts.

Karel Chapek, "Krakatit"

For hundreds of years from the moment gunpowder was invented until 1863, mankind had no idea of ​​the power dormant in explosives. All blasting operations were carried out by filling in a certain amount of gunpowder, then ignited with a wick. With a significant high-explosive effect of such an explosion, its brisance was practically zero.

Until the end of the First World War, there is
put in powder bombs
would be loud and ridiculous.

Artillery shells and bombs loaded with gunpowder had a negligible fragmentation effect. With a relatively slow increase in the pressure of the propellant gases, the cast-iron and steel bodies collapsed along two or three lines of least strength, giving a very small number of very large fragments. The probability of hitting enemy personnel with such fragments was so small that powder bombs provided mainly a demoralizing effect.

Grimaces of fate

The discovery of a chemical and the discovery of its explosive properties often took place at different times. As a matter of fact, the history of explosives could begin in 1832, when the French chemist Henri Braconneau received the product of complete nitration of cellulose - pyroxylin. However, no one began to study its properties, and then there were no ways to initiate the detonation of pyroxylin.

If you look even further into the past, you will find that one of the most common explosives - picric acid - was obtained in 1771. But at that time there was not even a theoretical possibility of detonating it - explosive mercury appeared only in 1799, and more than thirty years remained before the first use of explosive mercury in primer-igniters.

Liquid start

The history of modern explosives begins in 1846, when the Italian scientist Ascanio Sobrero first obtained nitroglycerin, an ester of glycerin and nitric acid. Sobrero quickly discovered the explosive properties of a colorless viscous liquid and therefore at first called the resulting compound pyroglycerin.

Alfred Nobel is the man who created dynamite.

Three-dimensional model of the nitroglycerin molecule.

According to modern concepts, nitroglycerin is a very mediocre explosive. In a liquid state, it is too sensitive to shock and heat, and in a solid state (cooled to 13 ° C) - to friction. The high explosiveness and high explosiveness of nitroglycerin strongly depend on the initiation method, and when a weak detonator is used, the explosion power is relatively low. But then it was a breakthrough - the world did not yet know such substances.

The practical use of nitroglycerin began only seventeen years later. In 1863, Swedish engineer Alfred Nobel designs a powder primer igniter that allows nitroglycerin to be used in mining. Two more years later, in 1865, Nobel created the first full-fledged detonator capsule containing mercury fulminate. With the help of such a detonator, you can initiate almost any high explosive and cause a full explosion.

In 1867, the first explosives suitable for safe storage and transportation appeared - dynamite. It took Nobel nine years to bring the technology of dynamite production to perfection - in 1876, a solution of nitrocellulose in nitroglycerin (or "detonating jelly") was patented, which is still considered one of the most powerful explosives of blasting action. It was from this composition that the famous Nobel dynamite was prepared.

The outstanding chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel, who actually changed the face of the world and gave a real impetus to the development of modern military and, indirectly, space technology, died in 1896, having lived for 63 years. Being in poor health, he was so carried away by work that he often forgot to eat. A laboratory was built at each of his factories so that the unexpected owner could continue experiments without the slightest delay. He was the general director of his factories, and the chief accountant, and the chief engineer and technologist, and the secretary. The thirst for knowledge was the main feature of his character: "The things I'm working on are really monstrous, but they are so interesting, so technically perfect, that they become doubly attractive."

Explosive dye

In 1868, the British chemist Frederick-August Abel, after six years of research, managed to obtain pressed pyroxylin. However, with respect to trinitrophenol (picric acid), Abel was assigned the role of "authoritative brake". Since the beginning of the 19th century, the explosive properties of picric acid salts were known, but no one guessed that picric acid itself was capable of explosion until 1873. Picric acid has been used as a colorant for centuries. At the time when the lively testing of the explosive properties of various substances began, Abel several times authoritatively declared that trinitrophenol was absolutely inert.

Three-dimensional model of the trinitrophenol molecule.

Hermann Sprengel was of German descent.
nyu, but lived and worked in the UK. It was he who gave the French
the opportunity to make money on the secret mellite.

In 1873, German Hermann Sprengel, who created a whole class of explosives, convincingly showed the ability of trinitrophenol to detonate, but then another difficulty arose - pressed crystalline trinitrophenol turned out to be very capricious and unpredictable - it did not explode when necessary, then exploded when not necessary.

Picric acid appears before the French Explosives Commission. It was found that it is a powerful blasting agent, second only to nitroglycerin, but the oxygen balance slightly brings it down. It was also found that picric acid itself has a low sensitivity, and its salts formed during long-term storage detonate. These studies marked the beginning of a complete revolution in views on picric acid. Finally, mistrust in the new explosive was dispelled by the works of the Parisian chemist Turpin, who showed that fused picric acid unrecognizably changes its properties in comparison with the pressed crystalline mass and completely loses its dangerous sensitivity.

It is interesting: later it turned out that fusion solved the problems with detonation in an explosive similar to trinitrophenol - trinitrotoluene.

Such studies, of course, were strictly classified. And in the eighties of the XIX century, when the French began to produce a new explosive called "melinite", Russia, Germany, Great Britain and the United States showed great interest in it. After all, the high-explosive effect of ammunition equipped with melinite looks impressive today. Intelligence began to work actively, and after a short time the secret of melinitis became the secret of Punchinelle.

In 1890 D.I.Mendeleev wrote to the naval minister Chikhachev: “As for melinite, the destructive effect of which surpasses all these tests, according to private sources from different sides it is uniformly understood that melinite is nothing but cooled picric acid fused under high pressure”.

Wake up the demon

Ironically, the “relative” of picric acid - trinitrotoluene - had a similar fate. It was first obtained by the German chemist Wilbrand back in 1863, but only at the beginning of the 20th century found application as an explosive, when the German engineer Heinrich Cast undertook its research. First of all, he drew attention to the technology for the synthesis of trinitrotoluene - it did not contain explosion-hazardous stages. That alone was a colossal advantage. The numerous horrific explosions of factories producing nitroglycerin were still fresh in the memory of Europeans.

Three-dimensional model of a trinitrotoluene molecule.

Another important advantage was the chemical inertness of trinitrotoluene - the reactivity and hygroscopicity of picric acid were pretty annoying for the designers of artillery shells.

The yellowish flakes of TNT, received by Cast, displayed a surprisingly peaceful disposition - so peaceful that many doubted its ability to detonate. Strong blows with a hammer flattened the scales, TNT exploded in the fire no better than birch wood, and burned much worse. It got to the point that they tried to shoot from rifles into bags with trinitrotoluene. The result was only clouds of yellow dust.

But a way to wake up the dormant demon was found - for the first time this happened when a melinite block was detonated close to the mass of trinitrotoluene. And then it turned out that if it is fused into a monolithic block, then reliable detonation is provided by a standard Nobel detonator cap # 8. For the rest, fused trinitrotoluene turned out to be the same phlegmatic as before melting. It can be sawed, drilled, pressed, grinded - in short, you can do whatever you like. The melting temperature of 80 ° C is extremely convenient from a technological point of view - it will not flow in the heat, but it does not require special costs for melting. Molten trinitrotoluene is very fluid, it can be easily poured into shells and bombs through the opening of the fuse. In general, a dream come true for the military.

Under Cast's leadership in 1905, Germany received the first hundred tons of new explosives. As in the case of French melinite, it was strictly classified and bore the meaningless name "TNT". But after just a year, through diligence Russian officer V.I. Rdultovsky, the secret of TNT was revealed, and it began to be produced in Russia.

Of air and water

Explosives based on ammonium nitrate were patented in 1867, but due to their high hygroscopicity, they were not used for a long time. Things got off the ground only after the development of the production of mineral fertilizers, when effective ways were found to prevent the caking of nitrate.

A large number of explosives containing nitrogen discovered in the 19th century (melinite, TNT, nitromannite, pentrite, hexogen) required a large amount of nitric acid. This prompted German chemists to develop a technology for binding atmospheric nitrogen, which, in turn, made it possible to obtain explosives without the participation of mineral and fossil raw materials.

Demolition of a dilapidated bridge using blasting charges. Such work is the art of anticipating consequences.

This is how six tons of ammonal explode.

Ammonium nitrate, which serves as the basis for explosive composites, is literally produced from air and water by the Haber method (the same Fritz Haber, who is known as the creator of chemical weapons). Explosives based on ammonium nitrate (ammonites and ammonals) revolutionized industrial explosives. They turned out to be not only very powerful, but also extremely cheap.

Thus, the mining and construction industry received cheap explosives, which, if necessary, can be successfully used in military affairs.

In the middle of the 20th century, composites of ammonium nitrate and diesel fuel spread in the United States, and then water-filled mixtures were obtained, well suited for explosions in deep vertical wells. Currently, the list of individual and composite explosives used in the world includes hundreds of items.

So, let's summarize a short and, perhaps, disappointing for some, summary of our acquaintance with explosives. We got acquainted with the terminology of explosives, learned what explosives are and where they are used, remembered a little history. Yes, we have not improved our education at all in terms of creating explosives and explosive devices. And this, I tell you, is for the best. Be happy at the slightest opportunity.

By the hand of a child

Military engineer John Newton.

A striking example of work that would have been impossible without explosives is the destruction of the rocky Flood Rock reef at Hell's Gate, a narrow section of the East River near New York.

136 tons of explosives were used to produce this explosion. On an area of ​​38,220 square meters, 6.5 kilometers of galleries were laid, in which 13280 charges were placed (an average of 11 kilograms of explosives per charge). The work was carried out under the guidance of a veteran of the Civil War, John Newton.

On October 10, 1885, at 11:13 am, Newton's twelve-year-old daughter applied an electric current to the detonators. The water rose in a boiling mass on an area of ​​100 thousand square meters, there were three consecutive tremors within 45 seconds. The noise from the explosion lasted for about a minute and was heard at a distance of fifteen kilometers. Thanks to this blast, the path to New York from Atlantic Ocean decreased by more than twelve hours.